Somalia , country (2005 est. pop. 8,591,000), 246,200 sq mi (637,657 sq km), extreme E Africa. It is directly south of the Arabian peninsula across the Gulf of Aden. Somalia comprises almost the entire African coast of the Gulf of Aden and a longer stretch on the Indian Ocean. It is bounded on the NW by Djibouti, on the W by Ethiopia, on the SW by Kenya, and on the S and E by the Indian Ocean. Mogadishu is the capital.

Land and People

Arid, semidesert conditions make the country relatively unproductive. In most areas, barren coastal lowland (widest in the south) is abruptly succeeded by a rise to the interior plateau, which is generally c.3,000 ft (910 m) high and stretches toward the northern and western highlands. The Jubba and the Webe Shebele are the only important rivers. In addition to Mogadishu, other important cities are Hargeisa , Berbera (the main northern port), and Kismayo (the principal port of the south).

The vast majority of the republic's population is Somali; they speak a Cushitic language and are Sunni Muslims. They are divided into five principal clans and many subclans. Islam is the state religion. Although Somali is the national tongue, Arabic, Italian, and English are used officially. There are Bantu-speaking ethnic groups in the southwest and numerous Arabs in the coastal towns.

Economy

Pastoralism is the dominant mode of life; both nomadic and sedentary herding of cattle, sheep, goats, and camels are carried on. The major cash crops are bananas, mangoes, and sugarcane. Other important crops include sorghum, corn, coconuts, rice, sesame seeds, and beans. There is a small fishing industry. Somalia's most valuable mineral resource is uranium. Iron ore and many other minerals are largely unexploited. Petroleum deposits have been found, and a refinery was built in 1979. However, much industry has been shut down due to civil strife. Agricultural processing constitutes the bulk of Somalian industry, which includes sugar refining, meat and fish (notably tuna) canning, oilseed processing, and leather tanning. Textiles are manufactured. There are no railroads. Remittances from Somalis living abroad are important to the economy. Livestock, bananas, hides and skins, fish, charcoal, and scrap metal are exported. Imports include manufactured goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs, construction materials, and khat. The chief trading partners are the United Arab Emirates, Djibouti, Yemen, and Oman.

Government

Since the fall of Mohammed Siad Barre in 1991, Somalia has no permanent national government. A Transitional Federal Government, was formed in 2004 with a five-year mandate. The 275-seat Transitional Federal Assembly, whose members are chosen from the various clans, elected a interim president in 2004. Administratively, the country is divided into 18 regions.

History

Early and Colonial Periods

Between the 7th and 10th cent., immigrant Muslim Arabs and Persians established trading posts along Somalia's Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean coasts; Mogadishu began its existence as a trading station. During the 15th and 16th cent., Somali warriors regularly joined the armies of the Muslim sultanates in their battles with Christian Ethiopia.

British, French, and Italian imperialism all played an active role in the region in the 19th cent. Great Britain's concern with the area was largely to safeguard trade links with its Aden colony (founded 1839), which depended especially on mutton from Somalia. The British opportunity came when Egyptian forces, having occupied much of the region in the 1870s, withdrew in 1884 to fight the Mahdi in Sudan. British penetration led to a series of agreements (1884-86) with local tribal leaders and, in 1887, to the establishment of a protectorate. France first acquired a foothold in the area in the 1860s. An Anglo-French agreement of 1888 defined the boundary between the Somalian possessions of the two countries.

Italy first asserted its authority in the area in 1889 by creating a small protectorate in the central zone, to which other concessions were later added in the south (territory ceded by the sultan of Zanzibar) and north. In 1925, Jubaland, or the Trans-Juba (east of the Juba [now Jubba] River), was detached from Kenya to become the westernmost part of the Italian colony. In 1936, Italian Somaliland was combined with Somali-speaking districts of Ethiopia to form a province of the newly formed Italian East Africa . During World War II, Italian forces invaded British Somaliland; but the British, operating from Kenya, retook the region in 1941 and went on to conquer Italian Somaliland. Britain ruled the combined regions until 1950, when Italian Somaliland became a UN trust territory under Italian control.

Independence and Its Aftermath

In accordance with UN decisions, Italian Somaliland, renamed Somalia, was granted internal autonomy in 1956 and independence in 1960. Britain proclaimed the end of its protectorate in June, 1960, and on July 1 the legislatures of the two new states created the United Republic of Somalia. In the early years of independence the government was faced with a severely underdeveloped economy and with a vocal movement that favored the creation of a "Greater Somalia" encompassing the Somali-dominated areas of Kenya, French Somaliland (now Djibouti), and Ethiopia. The nomadic existence of many Somali herders and the ill-defined frontiers worsened the problem. Hostilities between Somalia and Ethiopia erupted in 1964, and Kenya became involved in the conflict as well, which continued until peace was restored in 1967. The inhabitants of French Somaliland, meanwhile, voted to continue their association with France.

In 1969, President Abd-i-rashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated. The new rulers, led by Maj. Gen. Mohammed Siad Barre, dissolved the national assembly, banned political parties, and established a supreme revolutionary council with the power to rule by decree pending adoption of a new constitution. The country's name was changed to the Somali Democratic Republic.

Under Barre's leadership Somalia joined the Arab League (1974) and developed strong ties with the Soviet Union and other Communist-bloc nations. In the late 1970s, however, after Somalia began supporting ethnic Somali rebels seeking independence for the disputed Ogaden region of Ethiopia, the Soviet Union sided with Ethiopia, and Somalia won backing from the United States and Saudi Arabia. Somalia invaded the disputed territory in 1977 but was driven out by Ethiopian forces in 1978. Guerrilla warfare in the Ogaden continued until 1988, when Ethiopia and Somalia reached a peace accord.

Warfare among rival factions within Somalia intensified, and in 1991 Barre was ousted from his power center in the capital by nationalist guerrillas. Soon afterward, an insurgent group in N Somalia (the former British Somaliland) that had begun its rebellion in the 1980s announced it had seceded from the country and proclaimed itself the Somaliland Republic. In Mogadishu, Mohammed Ali Mahdi was proclaimed president by one group and Mohammed Farah Aidid by another, as fighting between rival factions continued. Civil war and the worst African drought of the century created a devastating famine in 1992, resulting in a loss of some 300,000 lives.

A UN-brokered truce was declared and UN peacekeepers and food supplies arrived, but the truce was observed only sporadically. Late in 1992, troops from the United States and other nations attempted to restore political stability and establish free and open food-aid routes by protecting ports, airports, and roads. However, there was widespread looting of food-distribution sites and hostility toward the relief effort by heavily armed militant factions.

Efforts to reestablish a central government were unsuccessful, and international troops became enmeshed in the tribal conflicts that had undone the nation. Failed attempts in 1993 by U.S. forces to capture Aidid, in reaction to an ambush by Somalis in which 23 Pakistani peacekeepers were killed, produced further casualties. Clan-based fighting increased in 1994 as the United States and other nations withdrew their forces; the last UN peacekeepers left the following year. Aidid died in 1996 from wounds suffered in battle.

The country was devastated by floods in 1997 and in the late 1990s was still without any organized government. Mogadishu and most of the south were ruled by violence. The breakaway Somaliland Republic, although not recognized internationally, continued to maintain a stable existence, with Mohammed Ibrahim Egal (1993-2002) and Dahir Riyale Kahin (2002-) as presidents. It had a growing economy and in the late 1990s began receiving aid from the European Union. The northeast (Puntland) section of the country also had stablilized, with local clan leadership providing some basic services and foreign trade being carried on through its port on the Gulf of Aden. Both Puntland and Jubaland (in S Somalia) declared their independence in 1998. UN agencies and other humanitarian organizations also continued to deliver food aid in some areas of the country.

In 2000 a five-month conference of mainly southern Somalis that had convened in Djibouti under the sponsorship of that nation's president established a national charter (interim constitution) and elected a national assembly and a president, Abdikassim Salad Hassan, who had been an official in Barre's regime. The new president flew to Mogadishu in August. A number of militias refused to recognize the new government, and officials and forces of the government were attacked several times by militia forces, and the government exercised minimal authority in the capital and little influence outside it. The establishment (Mar., 2001) of the Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council by opposition warlords supported by Ethiopia, an overwhelming vote (June, 2001) in the Somaliland region in favor of remaining independent, and a declaration of independence (Apr., 2002) by Southwestern Somaliland, the fourth such regional state to be proclaimed, were further obstacles to the new government's acceptance.

In Oct., 2002, a cease-fire accord that also aimed at establishing a federal constitution was signed in Kenya by all the important factions except the Somaliland region. Fighting, however, continued in parts of the country. The sometimes stormy talks that followed the cease-fire were slow to produce concrete results, but a transitional charter was signed in Jan., 2004. Meanwhile, the mandate of the essentially symbolic interim government expired in Aug., 2003, but the president withdrew from talks, refused to resign, and had the prime minister (who remained involved in the talks) removed from office. In Sept., 2004, after many delays, a 275-member parliament was convened (in Kenya) under the new charter, and a new president, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, was elected in October. Yusuf, a former general who had served as president of Puntland, and the parliament are to serve for five years. Somaliland remained a nonparticipant in the transitional government (and held elections for its own parliament later, in Oct., 2005). Coastal areas of Somalia, particularly in Puntland, suffered damage and the loss of several hundred lives as a result of the Dec., 2004, Indian Ocean tsunami.

The new government was slow to move to Somalia, delayed by disputes over who would be in the cabinet, whether nations neighboring Somalia would contribute troops to African Union peacekeeping forces, and whether the government would be initially established in the capital or outside it. The disputes in Kenya boiled over into fighting in Somalia in March and May, 2005, where the forces of two warlords battled for control of Baidoa, one of the proposed temporary capitals. Some government members, allied with the speaker of the parliament, meanwhile relocated to Mogadishu.

In June the president returned to his home region of Puntland, and in July he announced plans to move south to Jowhar, the other proposed temporary capital. A coalition of Mogadishu warlords announced that they would attack Jowhar if the president attempted to establish a temporary capital there, but the president nonetheless did so. The year also saw a dramatic increase in piracy and ship hijackings off the Somalia coast, including the hijacking of a UN aid ship and an attack on a cruise ship, and in subsequent years pirate attacks off the coast were a significant problem.

In Jan., 2006, the disputing Somali factions agreed to convene the parliament at Baidoa, Somalia, and the following month it met there. There were outbreaks of fighting in Mogadishu in Feb.-Mar., 2006, between militia forces aligned with unofficial Islamic courts and militias loyal to several warlords. In April, Baidoa was officially established as Somalia's temporary capital. Fighting re-erupted in Mogadishu in April and by July the Islamist militias had won control of Mogadishu and, through alliances, much of S Somalia, except for the Baidoa region. A truce in June between the government and the Islamist was not generally honored.

The Islamists, who were split between moderates and hardliners, established the Union of Islamic Courts (UIC) and imposed Islamic law on the area under their control. In some areas their rule recalled that of the Taliban in Afghanistan. They were accused of having ties to Al Qaeda, which they denied, but there was apparent evidence of non-Somali fighters in the militia. Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys, a hardliner who became leader of the UIC shura [council], had led an Islamist group ousted from Puntland by President Yusuf, and was regarded as a threat by Ethiopia for having accused that nation of "occupying" the Ogaden.

As the UIC solidified its hold over S Somalia, taking control of the port of Kismayo in September, hundreds of Somalis fled to NE Kenya. Also in September there was an attempt to assassinate President Yusuf. There were increased tensions between the UIC and Ethiopia over the presence of Ethiopian troops in Somalia in support of the interim government, a situation that Ethiopia denied until October, when it said they were there to train government forces. Eritrea was accussed of supplying arms to the UIC, raising the specter of a wider war involving Ethiopia and Eritrea.

In Oct., 2006, government and UIC forces clashed several times over Bur Hakaba, a town outside Baidoa on the road to Mogadishu. A number of attempts over the summer to restart talks between the government and the UIC stalled over various issues. The interim government was split between those who favored negotiations with UIC and the prime minister, who strongly objected to any negotiations. In addition, the government objected to the Islamists' seizure of additional territory since the June truce, and the UIC objected to the presence of Ethiopian forces in Somalia.

After increasing tension and clashes between the two sides in November, the UIC demanded that Ethiopian troops leave or face attack. Major fighting erupted late in December, and Somali government forces supported by Ethiopian forces soon routed the Islamists, who abandoned Mogadishu and then Kismayo, their last stronghold, by Jan. 1, 2007. Fighting continued into early 2007 in extreme S Somalia. The United States launched air strikes (using carrier aircraft offshore) against suspected Al Qaeda allies of the UIC, and U.S. special forces also conducted some operations in S Somalia. The government assumed control over the capital, declared a state of emergency, and called for the surrender of private weapons. Several warlords surrendered arms and merged their militias into the army, but concern over the warlords' forces remained.

Ethiopian and government forces soon found themselves fighting militias opposed to disarmament and motivated also by interclan distrust and anti-Ethiopian sentiment and Islamist guerrillas. Fierce battles in March and April in the capital caused hundreds of thousands to flee, and hundreds died. The presence of peacekeepers, who began arriving in March, did little initially to alter the situation, but the situation quieted after the government largely established control in late April. Sporadic antigovernment attacks continued, however, occasionally erupting into more intense fighting. Also in April, some prominent members and former members of the government formed an anti-Ethiopian alliance with members of the UIC; the alliance subsequently included Ethiopian rebel groups as well.

A national reconciliation conference in July-Aug., 2007, was boycotted by Islamists and some clans. Divisions in the government between the president and Prime Minister Ali Mohamed Gedi over their respective powers led to Gedi's resignation in October. That same month, tension and clashes between Somaliland and Puntland over the disputed border town of Los Anod erupted into significant fighting. In November, Nur Hassan Hussein, the head of the Somali Red Crescent, was named prime minister. By the end of 2007, some 600,000 had fled the capital due to the fighting there.

In Jan., 2008, the government officially returned to Mogadishu, but the ability of the Islamists during the year to seize and towns in S and central Somalia, including the ports of Kismayo in August and Merka (55 mi/90 km S of Mogadishu) in November, and the continuing fighting in the capital belied the government's gesture toward establishing its authority. A peace agreement was negotiated between the government and more moderate Islamist insurgents in June, 2008; in August both sides agreed to a joint police force and a phased Ethiopia pullback. More militant Islamists, however rejected the agreements, which did not diminish violence in Somalia.

Bibliography

See R. L. Hess, Italian Colonialism in Somalia (1966); D. D. Laitin and S. S. Samatar, Somalia (1985); I. M. Lewis, A Modern History of Somalia (1988); A. I. Samatar, The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia (1989).

Somalia səˈmälēə; sōˈmälyə a country in the Horn of Africa; capital, Mogadishu. Civil war broke out in Somalia in 1988 and led to the overthrow of the government in 1991; the United States intervened militarily 1992–94. In 1991 northern Somalia declared itself independent as the Somaliland Republic.

SOMALIA

Republic of Somalia

Major City:
Mogadishu

Other Cities:
Berbera, Hargeisa, Kismayu, Marka

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report for Somalia. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

Editors Note: From 1989 to press time a brutal civil war rages in Somalia leaving the country with no national government. The capital city of Mogadishu is badly damaged. Since 1992, the U.S. State Department has considered the situation in Somalia to be extremely dangerous. Rival factions continue to fight for control of the country, causing widespread destruction, famine, and death. On December 9, 1992, former President George Bush announced that U.S. troops would be sent to Somalia as part of Operation Restore Hope, an international effort designed to insure that food supplies would be able to reach Somalia's starving population. US forces were reduced in May 1993 and reconstruction work was assumed by the United Nations. UN-sponsored peace talks failed to stop the warring factions. In 1994 the UN redefined its role in Somalia to be less assertive. The United Nations completed its troop withdrawal in March 1995. With the departure of the UN, the country split into zones controlled by the various warlord factions. Most sections of this entry reflect the conditions in Somalia prior to the outbreak of hostilities.

Once known as the Land of Punt, SOMALIA has a rich and ancient history. Famed for its frankincense and myrrh (which it still exports), Somalia today is better known for its pastoral economy, its nomadic population, and its important place in the strategic Horn of Africa.

Somalia possesses beautiful white sand beaches bathed by the waters of the Indian Ocean. Traveling along the coast, one is struck by the stark beauty of the countryside, and the harsh but picturesque desert landscapes.

The coastal cities, in particular, reveal a long contact with foreign influences. Travelers from the Arabian Peninsula, Pakistan, India, and even China, called at the capital city hundreds of years before the Portuguese arrived early in the 16th century. Many old mosques, houses, and intricately carved doors and windows reflect the various cultures which have touched this country.

Before the outbreak of hostilities a favorable social climate existed toward Americans. It was possible to meet and socialize with Somalis and to travel, within limits, within the country.

MAJOR CITY

Mogadishu

Mogadishu is Somalia's capital and largest city. It lies on the Indian Ocean about two degrees north of the equator. It extends approximately four miles along the sea and a mile inland on a line of dunes 100 to 200 feet high. Beyond the city limits, the countryside is flat and barren, with vegetation consisting of bushes and thorn trees, and occasional seasonal grassy areas. The prevailing tone of the countryside is a desert gray much of the year, but it turns green during the two to five months of the rainy season.

Mogadishu's rapidly expanding population is estimated to be about 1.2 million. This figure includes a large Yemeni community, and smaller groups of Italians, Indians, and Pakistanis. The largest diplomatic missions in the city are those of Italy, the U.S., and the People's Republic of China. There is also a large United Nations Development Program (UNDP) mission in the city, in addition to several volunteer agencies working under the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Among other foreign agencies engaged in developmental work or assistance in Mogadishu are Africare, OXFAM (Oxford Committee for Famine Relief), Finnish Medical Aid, and the University of Saskatchewan.

New visitors to the city can visit a camel's milk market or the Lido Market where meerschaum craftsmen and straw weavers ply their trades. Hamarweyn is the core of the old city and the location of the Bendair weavers. The National Museum displays past and present items of Somali folk culture.

From the time of its founding by Arab colonists in the eighth century, Mogadishu was an independent town until its occupation in 1871 by the Sultan of Zanzibar. Italy leased its port late in that century, and in 1905, purchased the town and made it the capital of what was then Italian Somaliland. The influence of the Italians remains to this day, and is noticed especially in the use of that language in all walks of official, business, and domestic life.

Education

The American School of Mogadishu was organized as a cooperative venture in 1959, and has a student body in kindergarten through grade eight. The campus is located on the western edge of the city on Afgoi Road, and the buildings include classroom wings, a gymnasium, a 6,000-volume library, and offices. Extensive playing fields surround the school and often are used by community organizations as well as by the students. The present building was started in 1965, and was completed with the help of Agency for International Development (AID) and U.S. State Department grants.

American School offers a fine opportunity to study with an international student body in small and personalized classes; average class size is 20 for grades one through four, and 15 for grades five through eight. Subjects are departmentalized in grades seven and eight. American textbooks and materials are used, and the curriculum is comparable to that offered by schools in the U.S. The school's sports program includes swimming instruction for about eight weeks a year at the nearby International Golf and Tennis Club. Information on the academic program can be obtained by writing to the American Embassy in Mogadishu.

The director and deputy director, both with teaching spouses, are recruited from the U.S., as are two other teaching couples. Other teachers are recruited locally. Most of the present staff is American. The school has been able to provide qualified teachers in every grade and academic standards are high. Students with special learning needs are not accepted due to the lack of trained staff. Accreditation was granted by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools in March 1985.

Emphasis is placed on training the staff in U.S. educational methods and practices. Grades one through eight meet from 7:30 a.m. to 1 p.m., five days a week, Sunday through Thursday. Kindergarten and pre-school hours are 7:30 to 11:30 a.m.

Kindergarten pupils must be four years and nine months old by September, while preschoolers must be three years and nine months old by September of the year of admission. A record of immunization and a birth certificate are required for admission to all grades.

There is no provision for students at the secondary level, and they must attend boarding schools in Europe or the U.S., although limited possibilities for high school exist in Kenya.

Recreation

The principal outdoor activities in Somalia are swimming, sunbathing, snorkeling, jogging, fishing, tennis, golf, volleyball, badminton, softball, boating, and camping. Spectator sports include soccer and basketball. The Mogadishu Hash House Harriers hold a cross-country run every Sunday afternoon. The Golf and Tennis Club, located in the American Embassy compound and managed by the Recreation and Welfare Association, has a nine-hole sand golf course, four cement-sur-face tennis courts, a large swimming pool with adjacent children's wading pool, and a snack bar.

Mogadishu has good beaches and an abundance of sunshine. Lido, the main city beach, is not used by Americans for swimming because of the shark hazard; The beaches south of town are used mainly for picnics and camping. During much of the year, snorkeling and spearfishing are popular activities. The best snorkeling is at Gezira, a beach area about 10 miles southwest of Mogadishu. A few small sailboats and windsurfers are seen there inside the reef during the quiet season.

The Anglo-American Beach Club and the U.N. Beach Club at Lido Beach are open to the international community. Each clubhouse contains a social room, bar, restaurant, changing and shower rooms, and a sun deck. Circolo Italiano, also at Lido, is a private club offering recreational and cultural activities to its members, mainly from the Italian community.

Besides Lido and Gezira beaches, many other beaches and coves are found up and down the coast. These areas are pleasant for picnicking and camping, but are accessible only by four-wheel-drive vehicles.

Although an environmental or climatic change in or near Mogadishu is impossible, short and interesting side trips may be taken to the sugar plantation and refinery at Johar; the ancient port of Marka; the nearby beaches at Gezira, Warsheikh, and Shark's Bay; the birding area beyond Balad; and the hippo pools between Shalambod and Janale. The nearest place offering a change is Nairobi (Kenya) and its surrounding countryside. There, all the amenities of a modern city can be found, and the environs offer a lush countryside and exciting game reserves.

Outside of Mogadishu, Kismayu, Shalambod, and Hargeisa, few hotels and restaurants exist. When traveling to outlying towns and villages, it is necessary to take food, water, and camping equipment, unless arrangements can be made to stay with someone. Travel overland is restricted during the rainy season, as roads become impassable even for four-wheel-drive vehicles.

Somalia has a wealth of big game and smaller wild animals, although numbers and ranges have been greatly reduced in the last 50 years. Monkeys, hippopotami, elephants, giraffes, rhinoceri, buffaloes, and zebras are found in the southwestern part of the country. Hippos and crocodiles can be found along the Juba and Shabelli Rivers. Antelope, gazelle, kudu, and oryx range throughout the country. Dik-dik and waterbuck are limited to the southwest, and the hartebeest inhabits the Haud in the northeast. Warthogs, dik-dik, monkeys, hippos, and Speakes gazelles (limited to Somalia) can be seen near Mogadishu.

Bird life is profuse and spectacular throughout the country. Waterbirds, including ducks, geese, pelicans, flamingos, cormorants, storks, and osprey, are particularly numerous. Migratory birds from Asia Minor, Europe, and the eastern Mediterranean have winter quarters in Somalia. The ostrich is common in the open plain.

Entertainment

Theater, concerts, opera, and television are not a part of life in Mogadishu. Several local outdoor movie houses show dated films in Italian, Hindi, or Arabic, but most Americans do not frequent these theaters. The French and Italian cultural centers offer regular programs of their films, often with English subtitles.

Social activities among Americans and other expatriates in Mogadishu are relaxed and informal. The American School, its Parent-Teacher Association, the Recreation and Welfare Club, and various other clubs make important contributions to the community's social life. Governed by elected boards, each of these organizations welcomes willing workers and leadership. An amateur dramatics society meets regularly to read plays and give productions. Opportunities for volunteer work are few, but do exist. A sewing group meets weekly to make clothing for a local orphanage. Girl Guide and Boy Scout troops have been formed.

OTHER CITIES

Rich in history, BERBERA was once the Muslim settlement of the state of Adal. Later it was ruled by the Portuguese in 1518, the sharifs of Mocha in the 17th century, and the Egyptians from 1875 until the British took control in 1884. It was the British Somaliland capital until 1941. Due to improved ports, Berbera now exports sheep, hides and skins, gum arabic, myrrh, and frankincense. Some of its 213,000 residents migrate during the hot season to the Ogo Highlands. Berbera is the site of a naval and missile base that was built by the former Soviet Union. The city is situated in northwestern Somalia on the Gulf of Aden.

HARGEISA , with a population of about 231,000 (2002 est.), is a major watering and trading center for nomadic stock herders. The city exports skins, meat, and livestock via Berbera. There is an international airport and a public library in Hargeisa. Hargeisa sustained heavy damage during the civil war. Most of the town was reduced to rubble, and most of the population fled.

Located in southern Somalia near the mouth of the Juba River, KISMAYU is an important seaport. The city was founded in 1872 by the sultan of Zanzibar and taken over by the British in 1887. The city has a large meat-processing plant. Kismayu's estimated population in 2002 was 201,000.

MARKA (also spelled Merca and Merka) is located in southern Somalia on the Indian Ocean. It is nearly 50 miles southwest of Mogadishu. The city was founded by either Arab or Persian traders in the 10th century. The major export is bananas; during the 17th century, trade included slaves, cattle, and ivory. The population is estimated at 173,000.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Republic of Somalia comprises the perimeter of the Horn of Africa, the easternmost point of the continent. It is bounded on the north by the Republic of Djibouti and the Gulf of Aden; on the east and southeast by the Indian Ocean; on the south and southwest by Kenya; and on the west by Ethiopia. The country extends about 1,000 miles along the Indian Ocean, 600 miles along the Gulf of Aden, and about 200 miles inland. The total area is about 246,300 square miles—roughly the size of Texas. It is generally flat country in the south, with few areas rising over 1,000 feet. Much of the northern region is plateau, with altitudes reaching 3,000 to 4,000 feet, and occasionally rising to peaks of almost 8,000 feet. Southern Somalia is traversed by two rivers which flow toward the sea from Ethiopia. The Juba flows into the Indian Ocean near the port of Kismayu, and the Shebelli disappears into a marshland near the sea about 200 miles southwest of Mogadishu.

Located two degrees north of the equator, Somalia's climate is tropical, but arid. The year is divided into four seasons: two wet and two dry. The major rainy season, called the Gu, is from late April to late June. It is followed by a dry season, the Haggai, which lasts until late August or early September. The minor rainy season, the Der, generally begins at that time and continues until early December. It is followed by the major dry season, the Jilal, which lasts until the onset of the major rains. Annual rainfall in Mogadishu averages 15 inches. Shade temperatures in Mogadishu seldom exceed 90°F, and generally drop to the mid-70s at night throughout the year. Alternating northwest and southwest monsoon winds blow for most of the year, creating a moderating effect. From mid-December to mid-February, strong wind blows the fine sands about freely. Humidity in Mogadishu averages 80 percent year round. In the interior, the winds are warmer, temperatures higher, and humidity lower. Daylight is usually from about 6 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. throughout the year.

Population

Somalia's population was estimated at 7.5 million (2001). In addition, hundreds of thousands of ethnic Somalis live outside the country, mainly in the Ogaden and Hararghe areas of Ethiopia, but also in the Republic of Djibouti, and in northeastern Kenya. Somalia's annual growth rate is 3.48 percent (2001 est.).

The origin of the Somalis is unknown, but some ethnologists have speculated that they are a mixture of Arabic and African peoples. Their language, which is Cushitic, belongs to the large African-Asian group which includes the Hamitic and Semitic languages. The Somalis settled in what is now Somalia in the relatively recent past, having replaced the Oromo, who had driven out the Bantu peoples. Vestiges of the Oromo and Bantu can still be found in the country. Somalia is a rarity in the African continent, with its common ethnic heritage, culture, religion, and language.

The Somali are generally classified in six major-clan families: the Dir, Hawiya, Darod, Digil, Issak, and Rahanwein. The Digil and Rahanwein are usually found only between the Juba and Shebelli Rivers; those of the other major groups live throughout the country, and in Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Kenya.

Somalis are generally tall and slender, with fine features. They are known for their intense pride, quick minds, and good sense of humor. The men usually wear either Western dress or the colorful sarong-type garment called a ma'awis. The women, who have considerably more freedom than those in many other Muslim countries, wear long, colorful dresses; sometimes young teenagers in town wear slacks. The nomadic Somali wears a two-piece cloth garment that resembles a toga.

The Muslim faith is the state religion, and most Somalis (99 percent) are members of the Sunni sect of Islam.

Traditionally, the majority of Somalis (70 percent or higher) are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists. About 30 percent are settled agriculturalists. There are very few skilled laborers in a work force that numbers nearly 3.7 million.

Government

Until January 1991, Somalia was ruled by Mohammed Siad Barre. Barre, who seized control of Somalia after a 1969 military coup, ruled the country as a dictator. All political parties, except Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) were banned, political opponents was arrested, and the press tightly controlled. According to several international human-rights organizations, the Barre dictatorship was one of the cruelest regimes on the African continent.

In 1989, a rebel group known as the Somali National Movement (SNM) launched an offensive against government forces in northwestern areas of the country. At roughly the same time two other rebel groups, the United Somali Congress (USC) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) launched attacks against Barre's troops in central and southern parts of the country respectively. Fighting between the rebel groups and government forces continued throughout Somalia, with the rebels steadily gaining the upper hand. By late December 1990, the rebel groups had completely surrounded Mogadishu. Barre, however, refused to give up his hold on power. In early January 1991, the rebel groups entered Mogadishu. For nearly four weeks, the rebel forces and troops loyal to Barre waged a vicious battle for control of the capital. Much of the city sustained very heavy damage and thousands of civilians were killed. On January 27, Barre fled the city in a tank convoy. The next day a member of the United Somali Congress (USC), Ali Mahdi Mohammed, was named interim president. Mahdi quickly promised that a democratic system of government would be formed and multi-party elections held at a later date.

Despite the removal of Siad Barre, peace did not return to Somalia. The two rebel groups who had fought alongside the USC, the Somali National Movement and Somali Patriotic Movement, refused to accept Mahdi's authority. Both groups were angry that the USC would form an interim government without first consulting them. Bloody battles quickly erupted between the three rebel groups in Mogadishu. The violence between these rival factions soon spread to other parts of Somalia.

Somalia has virtually no working government, police force, or army that can restore order and control the countries warring factions. Mogadishu, the scene of bloody clan fighting, was divided between two rival warlords. Northern portions of Mogadishu were controlled by force loyal to Ali Mahdi. Mogadishu's southern regions were in the hands of supporters of Gen. Mohammed Aidid. Several United Nations-brokered cease-fire attempts in 1992 failed to hold. The break down in law and order and the wealth of available weapons led to a proliferation of heavily armed groups of bandits. These gangs roamed Mogadishu and the country at will, robbing and killing innocent people and ambushing convoys of international food relief destined for Somalia's starving people. As a result, the number of Somalians dying from hunger and disease increased dramatically.

On December 9, 1992, former President George Bush announced that American troops would join an international relief effort to feed Somalia's people. The American troops arrived in Somalia and were warmly received by the Somalis. The troops provided protection for convoys of food and medical relief and established law and order in Mogadishu and several other cities. Food relief convoys were soon able to reach famine relief centers set up by international relief organizations. The number of Somalis dying from hunger and disease decreased after the arrival of American and international troops. American and international troops also captured large amounts of weaponry and disarmed many bandits.

In early 1993, representatives from all of Somalia's warring factions met in Ethiopia. After much discussion, a cease-fire agreement was signed. However, 23 Pakistani soldiers were killed in an ambush in June 1993 and 18 US Army Rangers were killed in October 1993. Subsequent UN-sponsored peace talks failed. In 1994 the UN redefined its role in Somalia to be less assertive. The United Nations completed its troop withdrawal in March 1995. With the departure of the UN, the country split into zones controlled by the various warlord factions.

A transitional government was established in October 2000. Abdiqasim Salad Hassan was appointed president by the interim parliament. A new constitution is to be created and elections are to be held before 2004.

The Somali flag is light blue, with a five-pointed white star in the center.

Arts, Science, Education

A rich oral literature and poetry has traditionally been the most important means of artistic expression among the Somalis. A Latin script adopted for the language in 1972 has made it possible for much of this literature to be preserved, and has encouraged new forms of literary expression. Unfortunately, few new literary works are being published in Somalia.

All private schools were nationalized in 1972 and education is now tuition-free. Formal education is being geared to the country's technical and economic needs. Plans are underway to create comprehensive training centers in 10 regions for nomads. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is assisting with the development of a national library system.

Local handicrafts are limited, although wood, ivory, and meerschaum carvings, attractive basketry, and a great variety of beautiful shells are available. Tie-dyed cotton cloth is locally made, inexpensive, and useful. Handmade gold and silver jewelry is also for sale, but is not the bargain it once was.

Somalia has an ancient weaving tradition, Some 450 weavers in five major communities along the Benadir coast from Hamarweyn to Brava still produce intricate patterns in narrow cotton fabric. At one time, the coast supported as many as 2,000 weavers who carried on a lively barter trade up and down the east coast of Africa and inland as far as Sudan. The industry was dealt a severe blow in the mid-1800s by the arrival of cheaply produced cloth from America.

In 1972, Somali became the country's sole official language. Nevertheless, English is used predominantly in diplomatic circles and, in Mogadishu, Italian is still the second language. Often, the Italian spelling of the city's name, Mogadiscio, is seen. Arabic, the second official language, is spoken by many Somalis and is taught in the schools from early grades through high school.

In 1990, an estimated 24 percent (male 36%, female 14%) of Somalis age 15 and over could read and write.

Commerce and Industry

Somalia is one of the world's poorest and least-developed countries. Since 1990, the economy has been in shambles, the consequence of drought and protracted civil war. Continued fighting and lack of central authority prevent significant improvements in economic conditions. The country's economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for roughly 65 percent of export earnings. Subsistence agriculture predominates in Somalia, with corn, sorghum, and sugarcane grown for domestic consumption. Bananas are the primary export crop. Livestock such as camels, cattle, sheep, and goats are an important economic commodity. Most of the livestock is raised by nomads or semi-nomads, which comprise more than half of the population. The major agricultural region is in the south, particularly in the area between the Juba and Shebelli Rivers. A considerable amount of irrigation occurs along the two rivers, although the Shebelli dries up during the longer of two dry seasons.

Somalia's industrial sector is extremely small and contributes less than 10 percent of GDP most industries are involved in meat and fish processing, sugar refining, textiles and leather goods, and fruit and vegetable canning. Many factories have closed down due to the ongoing civil strife.

Gypsum, feldspar, columbite, iron, sepiolite, and salt deposits exist. Except for salt and gypsum, much of Somalia's mineral resources remain unexploited. Potential oil and gas reserves have been located in northern parts of the country and near Mogadishu. However, these sources are currently untapped.

Livestock, hides and skins, bananas, and fish are Somalia's primary export products. Most of these products are imported by Saudi Arabia, Italy, and Yemen. Somalia imports large quantities of textiles, petroleum products, foodstuffs, transport equipment, and construction materials. Major suppliers of these products are Saudi Arabia, Italy, the United States, Germany, France, and Great Britain.

Somalia's economy is devastated as a result of the 1991 civil war. As of July 1992, the situation in the country was extremely bleak. Because of drought and widespread destruction in agricultural areas, millions of Somalis face starvation. International relief efforts have been severely hampered by continued fighting among various armed factions and banditry.

The Chamber of Commerce in Somalia is at P.O. Box 27, Mogadishu.

Transportation

All travelers to Somalia arrive by air; the most commonly used routes are the two flights a week via Frankfurt and two via Nairobi. Somali Airlines flies to Rome, Frankfurt, Nairobi, Cairo, Jeddah, Abu Dhabi, Doha, Djibouti, and Moroni. Saudi Airlines flies to Jeddah; Kenya flies to Nairobi; Djibouti Airlines flies to Djibouti. The most reliable connecting flights to major European cities are available through Nairobi or Frankfurt. Flight schedules are subject to immediate changes.

No regularly scheduled passenger ship service is available to Mogadishu. Hard-surfaced roads within the country are limited to a major north-south system, and a few others to larger towns.

The capital city swarms with red and yellow Fiat taxis, which have neither meters nor fixed rates. Bargaining for a rate must be done at the outset. Mogadishu's public bus system is unsatisfactory for regular use.

Most persons find a car essential. Only occasionally can a good used car be found for purchase from another American, or from a member of the international community. A small European vehicle is the most practical for city use, but for driving outside of Mogadishu other than on main roads or to the beaches south and north of town, a four-wheel-drive is preferable. Service is spotty, and parts are in short supply for almost any vehicle, American or foreign, so it is necessary to assemble a supply of spare parts before moving to Somalia.

No unleaded gasoline is available and the overall quality of gasoline is poor. Due to the poor condition of roads and the presence of potholes, a car with a heavy duty suspension system is essential. The main streets in Mogadishu itself are paved, but side streets are a combination of loose sand and rock.

A valid U.S. or international driver's license is needed to obtain a Somali license. Only those 18 and older are eligible under Somali law.

Communications

Mogadishu has an automatic, but capricious, telephone system. Service is generally limited to the city proper. Long-distance calls may be placed at any time to Europe or the U.S. by booking them at the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. These calls are much more expensive than if booked in the reverse direction. Since all existing internal lines are in use, obtaining a residential telephone is nearly impossible.

The Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs also provides a wireless telegraph service daily to Europe and the U.S., via Rome, from 7 p.m. to 11 a.m. Telex service is available in Mogadishu at the Croce del Sud Hotel and at the American Embassy.

International postal service is limited. Airmail to or from the U.S. takes a minimum of 10 days to two weeks.

Somalia has two radio stations, Radio Mogadishu and Radio Hargeisa, both run by the Ministry of Information and National Guidance. Radio Mogadishu broadcasts 18 hours daily in Somali and Arabic. Thirty-minute foreign-language broadcasts, on the 49 SW band, include English, French, Swahili, Italian, Amharic, Afar, and Oromo. English broadcasts can be heard from 3 to 3:30 p.m. Somali TV, inaugurated in 1983, transmits daily in Somali and Arabic from 8 to 10 p.m., using the European PAL signal. Shortwave radio reception ranges from poor to good. Voice of America (VOA) and British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) are usually strong during early morning and evening. A good shortwave radio is the best source of current news.

The principal locally printed news source for expatriates is the Somali National News Agency (SONNA) bulletin, which offers local and international news summaries in English. Time and Newsweek, a few other English-language periodicals, and a variety of Italian publications are usually available about five to seven days late. Newsstand prices are high, however. Several expatriates subscribe to the International Herald Tribune, which arrives anywhere from two to 20 days late. Only a few local bookstores, which sell mostly used books, operate in Mogadishu.

Health

For illnesses requiring hospitalization, surgery, complicated diagnostic facilities, or drugs, most Westerners go to Nairobi; serious cases are sent to Europe.

Dental care is virtually nonexistent. All dental programs should be taken care of before leaving home.

As a general rule, local pharmacies cannot be depended on to provide adequate service. Patent medicines and current prescriptions should be kept in three-month supply. A copy of one's eyeglass prescription is a must, since replacing glasses in Somalia is difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. Glasses can be made in Nairobi at a price and quality comparable to those in the U.S.

Generally, most Westerners staying in Mogadishu enjoy good health. However, many diseases affect the local population, and the incidence of tuberculosis, syphilis, bilharzia, dengue fever, measles, polio, and malaria is high. With proper health precautions, few resident foreigners are affected by serious diseases; intestinal upsets (diarrhea, amoebic dysentery, or other parasitic infections) are the greatest risk. Fungus and skin infections, including boils and prickly heat, are quite common, particularly during the hot seasons. High humidity also can cause discomfort to those susceptible to sinus ailments or to neuromuscular complaints, such as rheumatism and neuralgia.

Public sanitation practices are not up to U.S. standards, but the hazards are lessened to some degree by the hot African sun and the porous desert sand. Since no sewage disposal system exists, septic tanks are used in most Western-style homes. Flies, ants, mosquitoes, and cockroaches are numerous, especially during the rainy season. While the great numbers of lizards in all households may help to reduce the insect population, householders still need an ample supply of bug sprays in Somalia. In public eating places, food handling and serving standards are poor, and dishes and utensils are usually washed in cold water.

The required immunizations for Americans are those for yellow fever and cholera. Tetanus, polio, and typhoid immunizations should be up-to-date; gamma globulin is recommended every four months. Although Mogadishu is generally malaria free, some nearby areas have malaria cases. Therefore, it is necessary to take suppressants at least one to two weeks before arriving in Mogadishu, during the entire stay, and for at least six weeks after leaving.

Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) is an endemic disease contracted from fresh water where disease-carrying snails breed. Swimming in rivers or lakes is not safe.

The almost constant wind and fine-blowing sand may cause some difficulty for contact lens wearers.

Clothing and Services

Wash-and-wear fabrics are popular among Westerners because of the ease of care, but many are now finding that pure cotton is more comfortable in the heat and humidity. A good supply of all clothing should be included in one's initial wardrobe, since frequent laundering and drying in the sun causes garments to wear out quickly. Sandals are practical for everyday wear, and thong-type sandals manufactured locally are attractive and inexpensive. Some warmer clothing may be needed for trips to Kenya, northern Somalia, or (in the case of a long business assignment in the country) to Europe.

Summer clothing is suitable year round. Standard dress for the office (for men) is lightweight slacks with open-neck, short-sleeved shirts or bush shirts. Sport shirts are worn for most informal evening gatherings; lightweight suits are needed occasionally for special functions. Dinner jackets or tuxedos are never required. Shorts are not worn as street attire, but may be worn jogging, on the beach or tennis courts, or at home.

Women wear dresses of lightweight fabrics, either sleeveless or with short sleeves, for business or other daytime activities. In the evening, either long or short dresses are acceptable. Shorts are not worn as street attire, but are suitable for the beach or tennis courts. Bare sun-dresses often are worn to functions where Somalis are not present. A hat is never needed, except for protection from the sun; scarves are useful in the strong wind. Sometimes the evenings are cool enough for a sweater or a stole. Most women find slacks and hosiery too warm for the climate.

Children spend much of their time outdoors. Their play clothes should be of lightweight material, and they will need several extra bathing suits and beach towels. Sneakers or sandals are usually worn. Jeans, of course, are a favorite with older children.

A variety of local food is available, although with seasonal limitations. Local meats include fair-to-good quality beef, camel, goat, and lamb. Local chickens and small birds are little and tough, but, properly cooked, can be tasty. Pork products are unavailable locally. A variety of fish is sold throughout the year at reasonable prices. Many local species are delicious. Lobster is a seasonal delicacy, obtainable according to biological cycles and the weather, but it can be frozen and is one of the pleasures of life in Mogadishu. Good smoked fish is also available seasonally.

Bananas, limes, grapefruit, and papayas are excellent and sold year round. Good mangos and water-melon are available seasonally. Locally grown vegetables include tomatoes, spinach, lettuce, radishes, potatoes, green beans, peppers, eggplant, zucchini, and parsley. Some are seasonal.

Some pasta is produced locally, but most other foods on the local market, including rice, cheese, processed meats, and canned foods, are imported at high prices from Italy, Kenya, China, and Eastern Europe. Mogadishu has a local dairy, but health standards are questionable, and all fresh milk must be boiled. Powdered whole milk for infants is sold in local shops, but is expensive and may have spent considerable time on the shelf.

Mogadishu has shoe repair shops, a dry cleaner/laundry, and radio and auto repair shops. The quality of dry cleaning is mediocre and prices are high. Washable clothing is more practical, since laundry usually is done by household servants. Appliance repairs and service on American cars are often unsatisfactory. Adequate automobile service facilities (and authorized dealers for American vehicle parts) do not exist. Fiat, Toyota, and Land Rover parts are sometimes available, and always expensive.

Tailoring services are mediocre because tailors lack quality material; most men use tailors only for alterations, but one or two tailors in Mogadishu do adequate work on women's clothing. Some can make copies of dresses in simple patterns. Fabrics, designs, and cuts do not compare with American ready-to-wear clothing. Tailors can also make simple drapes and slip-covers, but notions (drapery hooks, curtain rings, and bindings) are usually not available and, if available, are expensive.

Beauty and barber services are found in town.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

As of January 1991, the Department of State was advising all U.S. citizens to avoid all travel to Somalia indefinitely. Hostilities can break out at any time. All U.S. government employees and dependents were evacuated from Somalia and our Embassy there was closed on January 5, 1991. Under the circumstances, the United States Government is unable to offer American citizens in Somalia any type of assistance and protection.

Authorized air routes from the U.S. are London/Nairobi/Mogadishu, Frankfurt/Mogadishu, Rome/Mogadishu, and Frankfurt/Nairobi/Mogadishu. Somali and Kenya Airways each fly from Nairobi to Mogadishu once a week.

A visa, valid passport, and a record of inoculations against cholera and yellow fever are required to enter Somalia. If a visa has not been obtained beforehand in the U.S., it can be applied for at the Somali Embassy either in Rome or Nairobi. The Kenyans also issue visas at Nairobi Airport for incoming tourists. At least 24 photos are needed for the various local forms and visa applications.

Household pets may be imported to Somalia but, because of cargo limitations, it is better to take the animal as accompanied baggage. Dogs and cats must have rabies inoculation certificates signed by a licensed veterinarian, and stamped by the municipality or state, confirming that the animal is free from infectious disease, and that the area of origin has been rabies-free for at least six months. Satisfactory kenneling is available at Nairobi for transiting animals. Mogadishu is a reasonably healthy place for pets; however, during certain seasons, ticks and fleas are endemic. Owners are advised to have an ample supply of appropriate medications, as veterinary service and supplies are limited.

Special note: Muslim doctrine prohibits contact with dogs, and Somalis are generally unfriendly to them. Dogs must be restrained in public places, or when Somali guests are present. Servants working in the American community usually tolerate dogs, although they do not particularly like them.

As a general rule, no weapons should be taken to Somalia. Rare exceptions are made.

Mogadishu has Roman Catholic churches but, except for two English-language masses a week, all masses are in Italian. A service is held on Saturday at 6:15 p.m. at the Sacred Heart Church (at Fiat Circle) and on Sunday at 5:15 p.m. at the Cathedral. An interdenominational Protestant service is held once a week on Saturday evening in one of the Catholic churches.

The time in Somalia is Greenwich Mean Time plus three.

The currency is the Somali shilling, written So. Shs. The units are shillings and centesimi : 100 centesimi equal one shilling. All banks in the country are nationalized. The Somali Commercial and Savings Bank currently has five branches in Mogadishu, one in Hargeisa, and others in smaller cities; these branches, however, do not accept personal dollar checks unless an account is maintained with the bank.

Somalia uses the metric system of weights and measures.

The U.S. Embassy in Somalia is located on Corso Primo Luglio, Mogadishu. Note: The American Embassy in Somalia was closed on January 5, 1991, due to deteriorating conditions in the country. The embassy has not been reopened.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

May 1 … Labor Day

June 26… Independence Day (Northern Region)

July 1 … Independence Day (Southern Region)

Oct. 21 … Revolution Day

… Ramadan^*

… Id al-Fitr^*

… Id al-Adah^*

… Mawlid an Nabi^*

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Baez, Joan, Sr. One Bowl of Porridge: Memoirs of Somalia. Santa Barbara. CA: J Daniel, 1986.

Beachey, R.W. The Warrior Mullah. London: Bellew Publications, 1990.

Burton, Sir R.F. First Footsteps in East Africa. New York: Dover Publications, 1987.

——. Sir Richard Burton's Travels in Arabia and Africa. San Marino, CA: Huntington Library Publications, 1990.

DeLancey et al. Somalia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1988.

Godbeer, D. Let's Visit Somalia. New York: Macmillan, 1988.

——. Somalia. New York: Chelsea House, 1988.

Latin, D.D. Somalia. Boulder, CO:Westview Press, 1987.

Lefebvre, J.A. Arms for the Horn. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991.

Lewis, Ioan M. A Modern History of Somalia: Nation & State in the Horn of Africa. Rev. ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988.

Luling, Virginia. Somali-English Dictionary. Wheaton, MD: Dun-woody Press, 1988.

Massey, G. Subsistence and Change. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987.