SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO [Serbia and Montenegro] , Serbian Srbija i Crna Gora, formerly Yugoslavia , Serbian Jugoslavija, federal republic (2005 est. pop. 10,829,000), 39,439 sq mi (102,173 sq km), SE Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula, a union of the republics of Serbia and the much smaller Montenegro . Serbia and Montenegro is bordered by the Adriatic Sea, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia in the west, Hungary in the north, Romania and Bulgaria in the east, and Macedonia and Albania in the south. Belgrade is the federal capital and by far the largest city.

Land

Inland from the Adriatic coast of Montenegro, where Kotor , the one seaport of the nation, is found, is the barren karst region of Montenegro proper, which lies in the southern end of the Dinaric Alps. Lake Scutari, the nation's largest lake, is at the southern end of the karst and forms part of the Albanian border. The karst region is separated by the Zeta River and its plain from the higher, largely mountainous regions of the rest of the western and southern sections of the country. The northeast, in Serbia, is part of the fertile Danubian plain and is traversed by the Danube and its tributaries—the Drava, the Sava, the Morava, the Timok, and the Tisza (Serbian Tisa ). In addition to the two republics of Serbia and Montenegro, there are two provinces in Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina . The chief cities of Serbia and Montenegro are Belgrade, Novi Sad , Niš , Kragujevac , Priština , Subotica , and Podgorica .

People

In Serbia and Montenegro, Serbs are predominant, but ethnic Albanians form a large minority (largely in Kosovo) and there are smaller groups of Montenegrins (closely related to the Serbs and speaking the same language) and of Hungarians (in Vojvodina). Serbs and Montenegrins are two of the five ethnic groups—Croats, Slovenes, and Macedonians are the others—that with the Bosniaks make up the South Slavs (Yugoslavs). Closely related linguistically, these peoples are separated by historical and cultural factors that ultimately led to the disintegration of Yugoslavia (see below under History ).

The vast majority of inhabitants of Serbia and Montenegro belong to the Orthodox Eastern Church (the Serbian Orthodox Church), but there is a significant Albanian Muslim population in Kosovo and the Sanjak region and some Catholics, particularly among the Hungarian population. The official language is Serbian (the eastern dialect of Serbo-Croatian, written with the Cyrillic alphabet). There are universities in Belgrade, Niš, and Novi Sad.

Economy

The fertile Danubian plains of Vojvodina prov., in N Serbia, are the most productive agricultural areas. Wheat, corn, hemp, sugar beets, and flax are the chief crops. Serbia proper has extensive vineyards and is a major fruit-growing region; plums are an important crop. Sheep and goat raising are important occupations in Montenegro.

Mining and manufacturing are the largest contributors to the economy; manufacturing is largely concentrated in Serbia proper, which is the most industrially developed region. Manufactures include iron, transport vehicles, and plastics. There are significant deposits of iron, bauxite, and petroleum in Montenegro and large coal reserves in Kosovo. The per capita gross national product for the six-republic Yugoslav federation was $5,000 in 1990, but soaring inflation, a staggeringly high foreign debt, rising unemployment, widespread corruption, and the effects of an international economic blockade brought the economies of Serbia and Montenegro to the brink of collapse in the 1990s.

Government

Serbia and Montenegro is a weak federal republic under the constitutional charter that came into effect in 2003. It has a unicameral parliament consisting of 126 members, 91 of whom come from Serbia and 35 from Montenegro. Members are elected for four-year terms. The president is elected by parliament for a four-year term; the office is held alternately by citizens of the two republics.

History

A Sketch of Serbian, Montenegrin, and Yugoslavian History to 1990

Slavs settled (6th-7th cent.) in the Balkans and were Christianized in the 9th cent. A Serbian kingdom emerged (13th cent.) and under Stephen Dušan (r. 1331-55) became the most powerful Balkan state. Defeat (1389) at Kosovo Field (see under Kosovo ) brought Serbia under Turkish domination from the 14th to 19th cent., with Serbia securely in Turkish hands by 1459. At the time of the defeat at Kosovo field the region now constituting Montenegro was the virtually independent principality of Zeta in the Serbian empire. The mountainous principality continued to resist the Turks, but by 1499 most of Montenegro was held by the Turks, while Venice held the port of Kotor and the Montenegrin princes ruled their remnant stronghold from Cetinje. Montenegro's independence was recognized by the Ottoman Empire in 1799, and in 1829 the Turks granted the Serbs autonomy under a hereditary prince. Montenegro and Serbia were formally recognized as independent states by the European powers at the Congress of Berlin (1878). Serbia was proclaimed a kingdom in 1882, and it emerged from the Balkan Wars (1912-13) as a major Balkan power. (See Serbia and Montenegro for greater detail.)

When a Serbian nationalist assassinated (1914) Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand , Austria declared war on Serbia, thus precipitating World War I. Serbia and Montenegro were overrun by the Central Powers, but Serbian troops were evacuated to Allied-held Corfu, Greece, where representatives of the South Slavic peoples proclaimed (July, 1917) their proposed union under Serbian king Peter I . Montenegro's last monarch, Nicholas I , was deposed in 1918, and Montenegro was united with Serbia. In Dec., 1918, the "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes" was formally proclaimed.

The Paris Peace Conference recognized the new state and enlarged its territory (with Bosnia , Croatia , and Slovenia ) at the expense of Austria and Hungary. Its name was changed to Yugoslavia (sometimes spelled Jugoslavia) in 1929. Yugoslavia faced disputes with Italy (over Fiume [see Rijeka ] and Dalmatia ), and was torn internally by Croat and Macedonian nationalist movements. Yugoslavia adhered (Mar., 1941) to the Axis Tripartite Pact, but two days later a coup ousted the regent, and the new government proclaimed its neutrality. The next month Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia and quickly won control, partitioning it among Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Croatian and Serbian puppet states. Two main resistance groups coalesced: the chetniks under Mihajlović and an army under the Communist Tito . In 1943 civil war broke out between the two factions, and Tito, supported by the USSR and Britain, emerged the victor. In 1944 the Germans were driven from Yugoslavia, the Soviet army entered Belgrade, and Tito's national liberation council was merged with the royal government. The next year Tito became premier, the non-Communist members of the government resigned and were arrested, and national elections—from which the opposition abstained—resulted in a Communist victory. The constituent assembly proclaimed Yugoslavia a federal people's republic.

The constitution of 1946 gave wide autonomy to the six newly created republics (Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia ), but actual power remained in the hands of Tito and the Communist party. Under Tito and his "national communism," or "Titoism," Yugoslavs possessed greater freedom than the inhabitants of any other Eastern European country. although intellectual freedom was still restricted. In 1963 the country officially became the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the early 1970s, agitation among the nationalities revived, particularly among the Croats. Although controls over intellectual life were stiffened, the autonomy of the six republics and Serbia's two autonomous provinces increased through the 1970s. With the death of Tito in 1980, an unwieldy collective leadership was established. Ethnic divisions continued to deepen in the 1980s, as did economic problems. (See Yugoslavia for more detail.)

The Disintegration of Yugoslavia

In 1987, Slobodan Milošević became the Serbian Communist party leader. To the alarm of most of the other republics Milošević and his supporters revived the vision of a "Greater Serbia" consisting of Serbia proper, its provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo, the Serb-populated parts of Croatia, large sections of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and possibly Macedonia. In early 1989, Serbia rescinded Kosovo's autonomy and sent in troops to suppress the protests of Kosovo's largely Albanian population, an action that helped Milošević win the Serbian presidency later that year. Slovenia and Croatia elected non-Communist governments in early 1990 and, threatening secession, demanded greater autonomy.

After attempts by Serbia to impose its authority on the rest of the country, Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence on June 25, 1991. Fighting immediately broke out as the largely Serbian federal army moved into Slovenia. By the end of July, 1991, however, all federal forces had left Slovenia, although fighting continued throughout the summer between Croatian forces and the federally backed Serbs from Serb areas of Croatia. In Sept., 1991, Macedonia declared its independence, and the citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for independence that October.

In Jan., 1992, a cease-fire was negotiated in Croatia. The European Community (EC; now the European Union ) recognized Croatia and Slovenia as independent states, and in April the EC and the United States recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina, which descended into a three-way civil war among Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks. In a campaign of "ethnic cleansing" carried out mostly by the Serbs, thousands of Bosniaks were killed, and many more fled Bosnia or were placed in Serb detention camps.

In May, 1992, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Serbia and Montenegro and called for an immediate cease-fire in Bosnia. Serbia and Montenegro declared the establishment of a new Yugoslavian federation (the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) in 1992, but the EC (and later the United Nations) announced that the new government could not claim the international rights and duties of the former Yugoslavia, because those rights and obligations had devolved onto the different republics. Macedonian independence was widely recognized the following year. After Serbia reduced its support for the Bosnian Serbs, the United Nations eased the sanctions against Yugoslavia. In late 1995 Yugoslavia (in the person of President Milošević of Serbia) participated in the talks in Dayton, Ohio, that led to a peace accord among Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia (Yugoslavia). Milošević became president of all Yugoslavia (consisting of Serbia and Montenegro) in 1997.

Serbia and Montenegro since 1997

Tensions increased in Kosovo in 1997 and 1998, as a period of nonviolent civil disobedience against Serbian rule gave way to the rise of a guerrilla army. In Mar., 1999, following mounting repression of ethnic Albanians and the breakdown of negotiations between separatists and the Serbs, NATO began bombing military targets throughout Yugoslavia. Thousands of ethnic Albanians were forcibly deported from Kosovo by Yugoslav troops. In June, Milošević agreed to withdraw from Kosovo, and NATO peacekeepers entered the region. Demonstrations in the latter half of 1999 against Milošević failed to force his resignation. Meanwhile, Montenegro sought increased autonomy within the federation and began making moves toward that goal.

In July, 2000, the national constitution was amended to permit the president to hold office for two terms and to institute direct presidential elections; the changes were designed to permit Milošević to remain in power beyond a single term and reduce Montenegrin influence in the federal government. When elections were held in September, however. Milošević was defeated by Vojislav Koštunica, who was supported by a coalition of 18 opposition parties (Democratic Opposition of Serbia; DOS). The election commission initially refused to certify Koštunica as the outright victor, but Milošević conceded after a general strike was called, demonstrators took over the federal parliament building, and Russia recognized Koštunica.

A coalition consisting of the DOS and Montenegrin Socialists formed a Yugoslav government, and in early elections (Dec., 2000) the DOS won control of the Serbian parliament. Koštunica replaced several top military officers—a move designed in part to placate Montenegro—but he initially refused to hand Milošević over to the international war crimes court in the Hague. In early 2001 Milošević and some of his associates in the former government were arrested on various charges. The former president was turned over to the war crimes tribunal by the Serbian government in June, prompting the Montenegrin Socialists to resign from the federal coalition. Relations between Koštunica and Serbian prime minister Zoran Djindjić became strained, with the former concerned more about preserving the federation with Montenegro and the latter about winning Western foreign aid and reforming the economy.

In Mar., 2002, Serbian and Montenegrin representatives, under pressure from the European Union and other nations opposed to immediate Montenegrin independence (fearing that it could lead to further disintegration and fighting), agreed on a restructured federal union, and a constitutional charter for a "state community" was adopted by the Serbian, Montenegrin, and federal parliaments by Feb., 2003. Following the federal parliament's approval of the charter, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was reconstituted as Serbia and Montenegro. Most governmental power shifted to the two republics. Although the two republics have a common foreign and defense policy, they now have separate currencies and customs regulations, and after three years either republic may vote to leave the union. Svetozar Marović, of Montenegro, was elected president of the union in March. Despite increased autonomy, Montenegrin leaders have generally avoided any moves that would be supportive of the union and have continued to call for Montenegro's independence.

Bibliography

See bibliographies at Serbia and Yugoslavia.

Author not available, SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO., The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2006

Serbia and Montenegro , Serbian Srbija i Crna Gora, former country of SE Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula, a short-lived union (2003-6) of the republics of Serbia and the much smaller Montenegro that was also a successor state to the former Yugoslavia. Belgrade was the federal capital and largest city. See Yugoslavia .

SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO

Major City:
Belgrade

Other Cities:
Bar, Cetinje, Kotor, Nikšié, Niš, Novi Sad, Podgorica, Priština, Subotica

INTRODUCTION

On April 27, 1992, two of the former Yugoslav republics, SERBIA and MONTENEGRO , announced that they had joined together to form a new nation. This new nation, known as the "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia," replaces the old six-member "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" which splintered apart after Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina declared their independence in 1991 and early 1992. The new Yugoslavia, however, has not been formally recognized by the United States, the European Community, or the United Nations.

Serbia and Montenegro became international outcasts for their role in the civil wars that devastated Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serbian nationalist militias and the Serbian-controlled Yugoslav Federal Army were accused of massive atrocities against civilians, creating large prison camps, and forcing many non-Serbs to leave homes and villages in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia through a policy of "ethnic cleansing." The United Nations, the European Community, and the United States considered Serbia and Montenegro as the main aggressors in the conflicts in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and tried to punish Serbia and Montenegro in an attempt to end the fighting. The United Nations imposed sweeping international sanctions against these republics from 1992 until 1995.

On November 21, 1995, the three presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia finally agreed to terms that would end the fighting in Bosnia after four years and an estimated 250,000 casualties. In March 1996 the International War Crimes Tribunal filed its first prosecution charges against Serbian soldiers accused of atrocities.

Editor's Note: Much of the information in this entry reflects conditions in the cities of Serbia and Montenegro prior to the outbreak of hostilities in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and the international sanctions imposed by the world community.

MAJOR CITY

Belgrade

Belgrade, capital of Serbia, is located at the confluence of the Sava and the Danube Rivers. Its altitude varies from 224 to 830 feet above sea level.

Belgrade has had a settlement since the time of the Celts in the fourth century B.C., although little evidence of that culture or of the subsequent Roman civilization remains. Few historical monuments before the late 18th century survive. Minimal evidence exists of the long period of Turkish domination, and only a few baroque buildings mark the pre-World War I Hapsburg influence. Belgrade thus lacks the atmosphere and Old World charm that is characteristic of Eastern European capitals such as Prague (Czech Republic) and Budapest (Hungary). Buildings in the central city are gray and somber, and contrast with a few modern concrete and glass high rises. Parks, tree-lined streets, and numerous sidewalk cafés lend color and charm, particularly in summer.

The fascinating contrast between old and new is evidenced by the young, fashionable Belgraders and the fur-hatted peasant men in Serbian trousers and upturned sandals, with their dirndl-skirted wives in babushkas. They are seen browsing together along the shopping districts in the city's center.

Economic activity centers around government, trade, commerce, industry, and services. Factories within Belgrade produce machine tools, textiles, chemicals, agricultural machinery, building materials, and electrical equipment. The adjacent agricultural area of the Vojvodina is one of Serbia and Montenegro's richest.

The climate in Belgrade is characteristically continental. The mean temperature in winter is 32°F (0°C), and in summer 70°F (21°C), with frequent highs in the 90s. Air pollution is particularly bad in Belgrade during the winter because of the low-grade coal used. Smog is heavy in low-lying areas near the main railway station.

Cultural life is active in this city of about 1.2 million (2000 est.), although less so than in major world capitals. Belgraders have a deep interest in art, and enjoy a long season of opera, ballet, concerts, and drama. The taste for popular music, especially American jazz, is particularly evident among the young. Belgraders are avid movie-goers, and many Western European and American films are shown in the original version with Serbo-Croatian subtitles. Numerous art exhibits of varying quality are presented by contemporary artists.

Education

The International School of Belgrade, a U.S. Government-supported institution, offers kindergarten through grades eight. The school was founded in 1947 and is accredited by both the New England Association of Schools and Colleges and the European Council of International Schools. A board of nine members, three appointed by the U.S. ambassador and six elected by parents from the international community, governs operations.

Located in a suburban area of Belgrade, the International School has 14 classrooms, a science lab, computer lab, and a 8,000-volume library. An American-style curriculum is offered with French taught as a foreign language. Extracurricular activities include field trips, school newspaper, computers, and an after-school activity and enrichment program.

The school year extends from late August to mid-June, with vacations in the fall, at Christmas, in late February, and in April.

The International School is located at Temisvarska 19, in a residential area about two miles from the U.S. Embassy. Information and applications for admission may be obtained by writing to: Director, International School of Belgrade, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520. The Belgrade telephone is (011)651-832.

International Nursery School conducts morning sessions for three-year olds and afternoon sessions for four-year olds. Expatriate children in grades nine through 12 attend boarding schools in Italy, Germany, France, England, and Greece.

Among the special educational opportunities available to Americans in Belgrade are the three-month courses offered by Belgrade's Institute and Center for Foreign Languages. Classes in Serbian are taught daily, and there are semi-weekly classes in French, German, Italian, and Russian. Most foreign residents have found the courses excellent.

Recreation

A number of excursions can be made in the vicinity of Belgrade. About 44 miles (71 kilometers) north of the city is Novi Sad, which has an interesting fortress overlooking the city. Inside the fortress is a hotel and a good restaurant, and a number of artists have workshops there. En route to Novi Sad is the village of Stara Pazova, where Slovak ladies wear colorful dress on Sundays. The wooded hill country known as Fruška Gora, a pleasant picnic area and site of more than a dozen monasteries (including the Hopovo), is also en route.

Avala, a 2,000-foot hill, 12 miles south of Belgrade, offers a good view on a clear day. The ruins of a 15th-century Serbian fort are on the Danube at Smederevo, 25 miles east of Belgrade. En route, it is pleasant to lunch at Grocka, where a good restaurant overlooks the surrounding vineyards.

A hydrofoil makes excursions down the Danube to Kladovo, where a dam was constructed jointly by Romania and Yugoslavia. The boat passes many interesting points, including some remains from Roman times and Smederevo Fort, and crosses the Iron Gate (Djerdap), which resembles an inland fjord.

Serbia also has some interesting monasteries dating from the 13th to 15th centuries. Visits to the monasteries of Manasija, Ravanica, Hopovo, and Krusedol make interesting outings from Belgrade; those in south Serbia, such as Sopoćani, Studenica, Peć, Gračanica, and Dečani can be visited over a long weekend. The frescoes in these monasteries are world famous.

Another fascinating day's outing is a visit to the villages of Serbia's primitive artists. Kovačica and Uzdin may be included on the same drive. Oparić is also a village of artists; they are gracious and hospitable and often invite visitors into their homes. En route to Oparić, at Svetozarevo, is a gallery of primitive art, which has one of the finest collections in the country.

Belgrade has beach areas, but health authorities warn against pollution. Boating is good on the Danube and Sava, although mooring facilities are limited. This area also has rivers suitable for kayaking.

Ice skating rinks are available locally, and skates of good quality can be bought inexpensively.

The hunter will find duck, geese, hare, partridge, pheasant, and fox in the immediate vicinity of Belgrade. Bear, wild boar, roebuck (European stag), wolf, and chamois are also in the area, but unless an invitation is extended for an official hunt, game fees are prohibitively high.

There is fishing in the Danube, Sava, and smaller rivers nearby, but catches appear to be "fisherman's luck." Regular spinning tackle will do, although fly is more useful. Seasonal licenses are inexpensive.

Soccer (European football) is the great spectator sport in Serbia and Montenegro. Belgrade has two large stadiums. Basketball, also popular, is played at several locations in the city. A small track just outside the city has horse and harness racing during summer.

Some joggers have found acceptable routes within Belgrade, but the traffic and pollution, particularly during winter, have led most joggers to drive to Gypsy Island (commonly referred to by its Turkish name, Ada Ciganlija) about three miles away, where there is an excellent flat course relatively free of pollution.

Entertainment

Movies, opera, ballet, concerts, and drama are offered in Belgrade. The opera and ballet seasons run from October through May or June; repertoires include both European and Slavic works. The International Film Festival (Fest) in February, the Belgrade Theater Festival of Avant-garde Drama (Bitef) in September, the Belgrade Music Festival (Bemus) in October, and the Belgrade Jazz Festival in November are outstanding events of the season. Orchestras and chamber music groups are excellent, and frequently present guest conductors and soloists.

Legitimate theater is offered regularly in Belgrade, with a repertoire that includes contemporary plays, classical productions, and musical comedy. These presentations are in Serbo-Croatian, so only those with a knowledge of this language can profitably take advantage of them.

A professional folk song and dance group, the Kolo, performs regularly throughout the year in Belgrade, and other amateur and professional groups give performances frequently in major cities and, during the tourist season, in resort hotels.

Several museums in Belgrade are worth visiting. Among the best are the National Museum, which has a varied collection of French impressionist works; the Fresco Gallery, which contains copies of frescoes found in Serbia's early monasteries; and the Ethnographic Museum, with original examples of peasant costumes, implements, and musical instruments. Several 19th-century houses have been turned into fascinating smaller museums. The Military Museum in Kalemegdan Park is one of the finest in Europe.

The American Club, located in the U.S. Embassy staff housing area, has a restaurant, two-lane bowling alley, lounge bar, the Elbrick Room for parties and videotape shows, and an auditorium for movies and other community events. Special events frequently are scheduled. Membership is open to the staffs of other diplomatic missions and to the American business community in Belgrade. The club shows feature films several evenings a week and holds a Saturday morning screening for children.

Dining out in Belgrade restaurants is a popular social activity. The prices are reasonable and the food good, although variety is limited. Several nightclubs and discotheques are available. A number of casinos are open only during the tourist season.

The American Women's Association (AWA) is an active group open to all American women in Belgrade. It sponsors programs of interest to the membership, and organizes children's parties and fund-raising activities for charity.

OTHER CITIES

The city of BAR is one of Montenegro's major ports. Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Bar is linked by rail with Belgrade and serves as a transport source for Serbian imports and exports. The city offers a ferry service across the Adriatic Sea to Bari, Italy. Bar has a population over 33,000.

The Montenegrin city of CETINJE is situated at the foot of Mt. Lovćen. During Montenegro's brief period as an independent nation (1878-1918), Cetinje served as the capital city. The city has several attractions that are of interest to visitors. These attractions include a 16th-century monastery and a museum which houses the literary works and art collection of famous Montenegrin poet Petrović Njegoš. The city has several small industries which produce household appliances and foot-wear. Cetinje has a population over 20,000.

KOTOR is situated on Montenegro's Adriatic Sea coast. The city, founded by the ancient Romans, has been occupied at various periods in history by Venetians, Hungarians, Turks, French, and Austrians. It is the oldest city in Montenegro. Kotor has many historic treasures, the most impressive of which is the Cathedral of St. Tryphon. This cathedral, along with most buildings in Kotor, was heavily damaged by a severe earthquake in 1979. Some repairs have been made, although the cathedral has not been completely restored. Kotor has an excellent Maritime Museum which contains excellent exhibits of arms collections, uniforms, navigational charts and instruments, as well as models of famous ships. The city's population is over 21,000.

The city of NIKŠIÉ , also located in Montenegro, was settled by the ancient Romans. For over 400 years, from 1455 to 1877, Nikšiéwas controlled by the Turks. Today, it is an industrial center which produces iron, steel, distilled beverages, and wood products. One of Europe's largest bauxite mines is located near Nikšié. Following the end of World War II in 1945, Nikšié under-went massive renovations. Modern buildings, parks, and public works projects were constructed. The city is quite large and had a population of approximately 61,000 in 2002.

NIŠ has long been a geographically significant city. Situated on the Nišava River in Serbia, about 125 miles southeast of Belgrade, it is a road junction and industrial area. Because it lies at the convergence of several river systems, Niš is considered in a vital position between Central Europe and the Aegean Sea. The second-century Greek mathematician Ptolemy noted the importance of this area in his Guide to Geography. Constantine the Great (ca. 280-337) was born here. Niš withstood occupations by Bulgarians, Hungarians, and, especially, Turks. The Soviets assumed control in 1944. Despite its antiquity, this community has a modern look. Badly damaged in World War II, Niš underwent post-war construction. Most of the Turko-Byzantine style is gone; a fifth-century Byzantine crypt is among the landmarks. Activity here includes commerce, a university, and a spa just east of town for cardiovascular disease victims. Niš has a number of industrial enterprises which produce beer, household appliances, electronic materials, tobacco products, and textiles. The 2000 population of Niš was approximately 175,000. Near Niš is the thermal resort of Niska Banja. Brzi Brod has remains of a Roman town.

NOVI SAD , the chief town of the Serbian autonomous province of Vojvodina, lies on the Danube in northern Serbia. It was founded in the 17th century, and became a royal free city of Austria-Hungary. It was here, early in the 19th century, that a vigorous Serbian literary revival was established. After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1918, the transfer of Novi Sad to Yugoslavia was confirmed, under Hungarian protest, by the Treaty of Trainon. Novi Sad is a busy commercial city, making electrical equipment, porcelain, soap, and processed food, among other products. The Gallery of Matica Srpska contains 2,500 Serbian paintings. Nearby Fruska Gora is known for its wines. The city had a population of 180,000 in 2000. Current population figures are unavailable.

The city of PODGORICA is the capital of Montenegro and the republic's largest city. In 1946, the city's name was changed to Titograd in honor of the late Communist leader of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito. In March 1992, city residents voted to change the city's name back to Podgorica. Podgorica was founded in 1326 and has been occupied at various periods in history by Turks, Austrians, Italians, and Germans. The city was almost completely destroyed during World War II, but has been rebuilt into a modern city with parks, museums, and theaters. Podgorica had an estimated population of 118,000 in 2000.

PRIŠTINA is a market center located 150 miles southeast of Belgrade. Capital of the Kosovo autonomous region in Serbia, it also has local textile, pharmaceutical, and food processing industries, and nearby mining. Priština served as capital of Serbia until the Turk conquest of 1389. Extensive building after World War II has altered the city's oriental look. The Museum of Kosovo-Metohija contains an archaeology collection and ethnography division. Priština's Albanian population is served by its own college (Priština Fakultet), and some Albanian-language newspapers and radio shows. A main tourist attraction is the Gračanica Monastery, southeast of the city proper. This structure was built by King Milutin in 1321 and is today regarded as an excellent example of Serbian architecture. A highlight of a visit to the monastery is the array of superb frescoes. In 2002, Priština had a population of approximately 194,000.

The city of SUBOTICA , located less than 10 miles south of the Hungarian border, is the major city along the Serbian frontier. Situated nearly 100 miles north of Belgrade, Subotica seems as much Hungarian as Serbian. Many of its citizens are of Hungarian descent. The city is the market center for the Bačka, an important agricultural district specializing in paprika. Its position on the Belgrade-Budapest railroad accounts for much of its strong industrial base of fertilizer production, furniture manufacturing, and power generation. There are a number of educational institutions here, including advanced vocational schools. The area's history dates to at least 1381. Subotica became a part of the former Yugoslavia in 1918 and was occupied by the Hungarians in World War II. The city had a population of 100,000 in 2000.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Serbia and Montenegro have a combined area of 51,955 square miles (134,563 square kilometers), which is slightly larger than Alaska. The two combined republics are bordered by Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina on the west, Hungary on the north, Romania and Bulgaria on the east, and Greece, Albania, and Macedonia on the south.

Serbia consists of rather mountainous terrain, particularly in northern regions of the republic. The northern autonomous province of Vojvodina, however, consists of rich fertile plains and is Serbia's major agricultural region. Southeastern Serbia is composed of mountains and hills. Limestone ranges and basins characterize the terrain of eastern Serbia. Serbia's northern region is watered by several rivers, including the Danube, Tisa, Sava, Drava, and Morava Rivers. The climate of Serbia is characterized by hot, humid summers and cold winters.

The topography of Montenegro is mountainous and extremely rugged. Some fertile valleys and coastal lowlands exist in southern Montenegro. Montenegro is the home of Lake Scutari, the largest lake in the former Yugoslavia. Montenegro's coastal region has an Adriatic climate with hot, dry summers and autumns. Further inland, Montenegro has relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall.

Population

The combined population of Serbia and Montenegro was estimated at 10,677,000 in 2001. Ethnic Serbs and ethnic Montenegrins are the dominant groups in their respective republics. Serbs make up 63 percent of Serbia's population. Fourteen percent of the people are of Albanian origin. Most Albanians are concentrated in Serbia's Kosovo region. Hungarians comprise four percent of Serbia's population and are centered in the northern region of Vojvodina. Serbo-Croatian and Albanian are the most common languages used in Serbia. Serbian Orthodox is the predominant religion, although Roman Catholics and several Protestant denominations are represented. Muslims are one of Serbia's largest minorities and are concentrated in southern Serbia.

In Montenegro, 62 percent of the population is Montenegrin. Muslim Slavs and ethnic Albanians make up roughly 25 percent of Montenegro's population. Most Montenegrins speak Serbo-Croatian, although Albanian is also spoken. Serbian Orthodox is Montenegro's dominant religion. However, Muslims and Roman Catholics are well-represented.

In 1997, Serbians had a life expectancy at birth of 69 years for males and 75 years for females. Montenegrins had a life expectancy at birth of 71 years for males and 79 years for females.

Government

The Constitution of Serbia and Montenegro, adopted on April 27, 1992, calls for the creation of a bicameral Federal Assembly or Parliament (Savezna Skupština). The Chamber of Citizens (Vece Gradana) has 138 members, 60 members elected for a four year term in single seat-constituencies and 78 members by proportional representation. In the Chamber of Citizens 108 members are elected from Serbs and 30 members elected from Montenegro. The Council of the Republics (Vece Republika) has 40 popularly elected members, 20 from Serbia and 10 from Montenegro. Members of the Federal Assembly are responsible for electing a federal president. The federal president then chooses a prime minister who cannot be from the same republic as himself. The Federal Assembly must approve the president's choice for prime minister.

In March 2002, Serbia and Montenegro signed the agreement that established the loose federation between the two autonomous entities. The presidency, defense and foreign affairs will remain as a federal concerns, however, each region will retain separate currencies and customs.

There are over 20 different political parties in Serbia and Montenegro, but the top two are Demokratska Stranka Srbije (The Democratic Party of Serbia-moderate nationalist) and Socialisticka Partija Srbije (The Serb Socialist Party-authoritarian).

The flag of Serbia and Montenegro consists of three horizontal bands of blue, white, and red.

Commerce and Industry

On May 27, 1992, the European Community (EC) imposed a trade embargo on Serbia and Montenegro as punishment for the country's role in the ethnic conflicts in neighboring Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. All imports and exports were halted between EC member nations and Serbia and Montenegro. This embargo was particularly painful because over one-half of Serbia and Montenegro's commerce was with EC members. The United Nations launched its own trade embargo on May 30, 1992. The UN ban included the freezing of all of Serbia and Montenegro's foreign assets, an international embargo on all exports to Serbia and Montenegro except for food and medical supplies, a ban on imported goods made in Serbia and Montenegro, and a suspension of all foreign investment and commercial contact with Serbia and Montenegro. On November 16, the United Nations authorized a naval blockade of Serbia and Montenegro in an effort to prevent any violations of the trade embargo imposed on May 30. When peace returned to the region, the sanctions were lifted in 1995.

The economic sanctions by the European Community and the United Nations had a devastating effect on the economy of Serbia and Montenegro. The lack of imported raw materials and the loss of markets for exported goods forced many industries to shut down, causing massive unemployment for hundreds of thousands of workers. Medical supplies are also in short supply despite the embargo's exemption of these items. Hyperinflation caused the prices of most goods and services to soar in 1994, and formal economic activity came to a virtual halt.

Serbia's economy is heavily dependent on both agricultural and industrial production. The fertile plains of Vojvodina produce 80 percent of the cereal production of the former Yugoslavia and most of the cotton, oilseeds, and chicory. Vojvodina also produces fodder crops to support intensive beef and dairy production. Serbia proper, although hilly, has a long growing season and produces fruit, grapes, and cereals. Kosovo province produces fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and a small amount of cereals. The mountainous pastures of Kosovo support goat and sheep husbandry.

Serbia has a well-developed industrial base, with most heavy industry concentrated in and around Belgrade. Serbian industries produce wood products, steel, textiles, and cement. Serbia is rich in copper, chrome, antimony, coal, lead, and silver. However, Serbia's mining industry is underdeveloped. Montenegro is a very poor, underdeveloped republic. Most of the economy is dependent upon the raising of goats, pigs, and sheep. Montenegro has only a small agriculture sector, mostly near the coast, where olives, citrus fruits, grapes, and rice are grown. Montenegro had a burgeoning tourism industry, but it was halted due to the conflicts in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Transportation

Serbia and Montenegro have a total roadway network of 28,583 miles (46,019 kilometers). Of this total, 16,739 miles (26,949 kilometers) are paved. Highways connect Belgrade with Ljubljana (Slovenia), Zagreb (Croatia), Skopje (Macedonia), and the Serbian city of Niš, and Serbia's southern neighbor, Greece.

Belgrade's international airport is located 11 miles (19 kilometers) west of the city. Serbia and Montenegro's official airline, JAT, has been prohibited from landing in the United States and many international cities due to the United Nations sanctions.

Serbia and Montenegro has railway links with many cities in Europe and the former Yugoslav republics. Rail lines connect Belgrade with the cities of Vienna, Munich, London, Athens, Paris, Thessaloniki, and Zürich. Zagreb (Croatia), Sarajevo (Bosnia-Herzegovina), Skopje (Macedonia), and Ljubljana (Slovenia) have rail transportation links with Belgrade. One rail line offers a scenic trip through Montenegro. Most train transportation from Serbia and Montenegro has been suspended due to hostilities in the region.

Communications

Serbia and Montenegro has an adequate telecommunications system. Long-distance and international calls can be placed at hotels, railway stations, post offices, and airports.

Only one English-language newspaper, Newsday, is published in Belgrade. All other newspapers and periodicals are published in Serbo-Croatian or Albanian.

Several radio and television broadcasting services are located in Serbia. Radiotelevizija Beograd serves Belgrade and the surrounding area. Programs are broadcast in Serbo-Croatian. The northern province of Vojvodina is served by Radiotelevizija Novi Sad, which broadcasts programming in Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Romanian, Hungarian, and Ruthenian. The city of Priština, located in Kosovo province, is the home of Radiotelevizija Priština. Radiotelevizija Priština broadcasts in Albanian, Serbo-Croatian, Romany, and Turkish. Montenegro has its own radio and television broadcasting network, Radiotelevizija Crne Gore. All programming on Radiotelevizija Crne Gore is broadcast in Serbo-Croatian.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

The Department of State warns U.S. citizens against travel to the Serbia and Kosovo regions of Serbia-Montenegro. Since the U.S. Embassy in Belgrade suspended operations as of March 23, 1999, U.S. citizens who plan on travelling to Serbia-Montenegro despite this Travel Warning are encouraged to register at the U.S. Embassy in Budapest, Hungary, which is located at Szabadsag Ter 12, Budapest 1054; telephone [36] (1) 475-4400. U.S. citizens who plan on travelling to Kosovo should register at the U.S. office in Pristina by telephone (873-762-029-525). However, the U.S. office in Pristina cannot provide general consular services such as passport and visa issuance. Visas are not required for entry into Kosovo.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 &2… New Year's Day

Jan. 7… Christmas (Orthodox)

March 28…State Day (Observed in Serbia only)

Apr/May…Easter^*

Apr/May…Easter Monday^*

Apr. 27…Constitution Day

May 1 & 2… May Day

July 7…Serbian Uprising Day (Serbia only)

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Boehm, Christopher. Blood Revenge: The Enactment & Management of Conflict in Montenegro & Other Tribal Societies. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.

Browning, C.R. Fateful Months. rev. ed. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1991.

Dragnich, Alex N., and Slavko Todorovich. The Saga of Kosovo: Focus on Serbian-Albanian Relationships. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn College Press, 1985.

Laffan, R.G. The Serbs: Guardians of the Gate. New York: Dorset Press, 1990.

Treadway, John D. The Falcon & the Eagle: Montenegro & Austria-Hungary, 1908-1914. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1983.