Play

Definition

Play is the work of children. It consists of those activities performed for self-amusement that have behavioral, social, and psychomotor rewards. It is child-directed, and the rewards come from within the individual child; it is enjoyable and spontaneous.

Description

Play is an important part of the childhood development. Through play children learn about shapes, colors, cause and effect, and themselves. Besides cognitive thinking, play helps the child learn social and psychomotor skills. It is a way of communicating joy, fear , sorrow, and anxiety .

In the early 2000s, children of all ages and from every socioeconomic background often prefer television, computers, and battery-operated toys to self-directed, imaginative, and creative play. This tendency leaves children developmentally deprived, because imaginative and fantasy play allows children to explore their world and express their innermost thoughts and feelings, hopes and fears, likes and dislikes. Through play, decisions are made without penalty or fear of failure. Play allows children to gain control of their thoughts, feelings, actions, and helps them achieve self-confidence.

Play takes different forms for different children, and its definition entails many aspects. Play is the direct opposite of work; it is frivolous. It provides freedom and invites the impulse to engage in foolishness. Yet it provides a means for ego development and a process by which social skills and physical skills develop as well.

Play with imagination and fantasy is the child's natural medium of self-expression and one that gives cues about the child's conscious and unconscious states. In play therapy, clinicians employ various techniques designed to reveal the child's psychological and social development. Clinician-directed play therapy is, therefore, not naturally self-directed play, but play designed by a professional to facilitate understanding of the child and the child's healing process.

Categories of play

Categories of play are not mutually exclusive; different forms or categories of play may overlap. Having choices is important since an action that appeals to one child may be of no interest to another, and the child's interest is likely to change throughout the play period. An understanding of play in many forms can help parents understand its importance for children of all ages. Some specific categories of play are as follows.

• Physical play. When children run, jump, and play games such as chase, hide-and-seek, and tag, they engage in physical play. This play has a social nature because it involves other children. It also provides exercise , which is essential for normal development.
• Expressive play. Certain forms of play give children opportunities to express feelings by engaging with materials. Materials used in expressive play include tempera paints, fingerpaints, watercolors, crayons, colored pencils and markers, and drawing paper; clay, water, and sponges; beanbags, pounding benches, punching bags, and rhythm instruments; and shaving cream, pudding, and gelatin. Parents can take an active role in expressive play by using the materials alongside the child.
• Manipulative play. Children control or master their environment through manipulative play. They manipulate the environment and other people as much as possible. Manipulative play starts in infancy. Infants play with their parents; for example, they drop a toy, wait for the parent to pick it up, clean it, and return it, and then they drop it again. This interaction brings the infant and parent together in a game. Children move objects such as puzzle pieces and gadgets to better understand how they work.
• Symbolic play. Certain games can symbolically express a child's problems. Because there are no rules in symbolic play, the child can use this play to reinforce, learn about, and imaginatively alter painful experiences. The child who is in an abusive family may pretend to be a mother who loves and cuddles her child rather than one who verbally or physically abuses her child. Or in play this same child might act out abusive experience by hitting or screaming at a doll that symbolizes the child. Parents can be surprised by their child's perception of family issues. Children mimic their parents in certain play; in other games they may pretend they are the heroes they read about in books or see on television. At certain developmental stages children believe they can fly or disappear. Symbolic play may be used by children to cope with fear of separation when they go to school or to the hospital.
• Dramatic play. Children act out situations they suspect may happen to them, that they are fearful will happen, or that they have witnessed. Dramatic play can be either spontaneous or guided and may be therapeutic for children in the hospital.
• Familiarization play. Children handle materials and explore experiences in reassuring, enjoyable ways. Familiarization prepares children for potentially fearful and painful experiences, such as surgery or parental separation.
• Games. Some video and card games are played by one child alone. Games with rules are rarely played by children younger than four years of age. Board games, card games, and sports are enjoyed typically by school-age children. In these games children learn to play by the rules and to take turns. Older children enjoy games with specific rules; however, younger children tend to like games that allow them to change the rules.
• Surrogate play. For children who are too ill or incapacitated to play, another child or a parent may serve as surrogate. Watching the surrogate who plays on behalf of the sick child is stimulating to the sick child. When parents engage in expressive art by painting or redecorating a room while the physically challenged child watches, they stimulate the child.

Functions of play

Play reinforces the child's growth and development. Some of the more common functions of play are to facilitate physical, emotional, cognitive, social, and moral development .

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Play aids in developing both fine and gross motor skills . Children repeat certain body movements purely for pleasure, and these movements develop body control. For example, an infant will first hit at a toy, then will try to grasp it, and eventually will be able to pick it up. Next, the infant will shake the rattle or perhaps bring it to the mouth. In these ways, the infant moves from simple to more complex gestures.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Children who are anxious may be helped by role playing. Role playing is a way of coping with emotional conflict. Children may escape through play into a fantasy world in order to make sense out of the real one. Also, a child's self-awareness deepens as he explores an event through role-playing or symbolic play.

When a parent or sibling plays a board game with a child, shares a bike ride, plays baseball, or reads a story, the child learns self-importance. The child's self-esteem gets a boost. Parents send positive messages to their child when they communicate pleasure in providing him or her with daily care. From these early interactions, children develop a vision of the world and gain a sense of their place in it.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Children gain knowledge through their play. They exercise their abilities to think, remember, and solve problems. They develop cognitively as they have a chance to test their beliefs about the world.

Children increase their problem-solving abilities through games and puzzles. Children involved in make-believe play can stimulate several types of learning. Language is strengthened as the children model others and organize their thoughts to communicate. Children playing house create elaborate narratives concerning their roles and the nature of daily living.

Children also increase their understanding of size, shape, and texture through play. They begin to understand relationships as they try to put a square object in a round opening or a large object in a small space. Books, videos, and educational toys that show pictures and matching words also increase a child's vocabulary while increasing the child's concept of the world.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT A newborn cannot distinguish itself from others and is completely self-absorbed. As the infant begins to play with others and with objects, a realization of self as separate from others begins to develop. The infant begins to experience joy from contact with others and engages in behavior that involves others. The infant discovers that when he coos or laughs, mother coos back. The child soon expects this response and repeats it for fun, playing with his mother.

As children grow, they enjoy playful interaction with other children. Children learn about boundaries, taking turns, teamwork, and competition. Children also learn to negotiate with different personalities and the feelings associated with winning and losing. They learn to share, wait, and be patient.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT When children engage in play with their peers and families, they begin to learn some behaviors are acceptable while others are unacceptable. Parents start these lessons early in the child's life by teaching the child to control aggressive behavior . Parents can develop morals while reading to children by stressing the moral implications in stories. Children can identify with the moral fictional characters without assuming their roles. With peers they quickly learn that taking turns is rewarding and cheating is not. Group play helps the child appreciate teamwork and share and respect others' feelings. The child learns how to be kind and charitable to others.

Age-related play

As children develop, their play evolves, too. Certain types of play are associated with, but not restricted to, specific age groups.

• Solitary play is independent. The child plays alone with toys that are different from those chosen by other children in the area. Solitary play begins in infancy and is common in toddlers because of their limited social, cognitive, and physical skills. However, it is important for all age groups to have some time to play by themselves.
• Parallel play is usually associated with toddlers, although it happens in any age group. Children play side by side with similar toys, but there is a lack of group involvement.
• Associative play involves a group of children who have similar goals. Children in associate play do not set rules, and although they all want to be playing with the same types of toys and may even trade toys, there is no formal organization. Associative play begins during toddlerhood and extends though preschool age.
• Cooperative play begins in the late preschool period. The play is organized by group goals. There is at least one leader, and children are definitely in or out of the group.
• Onlooker play is present when the child watches others playing. Although the child may ask questions of the players, there is no effort to join the play. This type of play usually starts during toddler years but can take place at any age.

Common problems

Promoting play for a sick child is a challenge when the child cannot voluntarily engage in play. Parents need to realize the importance of play to the well being of a sick child. Children can bring favorite books, games, and stuffed animals to the hospital. In hospitals young children need toys that they can manipulate independently, so that parents are free sometimes to focus on medical issues and the healthcare team.

Play activities vary depending on cultural and socioeconomic circumstances. When children do not speak the group's language, games such as stacking blocks or building with tinker toys are appealing. Playing tapes of well-loved children's songs can be effective too. The child does not need to be able to understand the words to enjoy the music or clap with the rhythm.

Assessing child health through play

Acutely ill children do not have the strength, the attention span, or the interest in play. They may enjoy being read to and the comfort of holding a favorite stuffed animal. Once the acute phase of an illness is over, the child's interest in playing returns. Spontaneous interest in play is a good index of health. The toys selected for play are good indicators of the child's recovery progress.

Play in a medical setting

When a child goes to see the doctor, the waiting room is likely to have other children in it. The arriving child may hear other children cry as they leave the examining room. The child may dread the examination. Parents should pack a favorite toy or book with which to distract the child. Having a parent sit with them is comforting, and they may venture a few feet away to examine toys in the toy box. Older children who go with the parent and the sick sibling to see the doctor should have toys and games for their entertainment, too, so the parent can focus on the sick child.

Hospitalized children can release fear, anger, or tension through effective play. Children in the hospital for a week or longer may enjoy playing school or socializing in the playroom with other children of their age. However, physical play for sick children must be supervised by a parent or healthcare provider.

Therapeutic play

When a child is ill or traumatized the care plan may include therapeutic play. Unlike normal play in design and intent, therapeutic play is guided by the health professional to meet the physical and psychological needs of the child. Because play is the language of children, children who have difficulty putting their thoughts in words can often speak clearly through play therapy. There are three divisions of therapeutic play, including:

• Energy release. Children release anxiety by pounding, hitting, running, punching, or shouting. Toddlers pound pegs with a plastic hammer or pretend to cut wood with a toy saw. An anxious preschooler pounds a ball of modeling clay flat; a relaxed child may build the clay into shapes. Balloons tied over the bed of a school-age child or adolescent can be punched.
• Dramatic play. Children act out or dramatize real-life situations. They act out anxiety and emotional stress from abuse, neglect, abandonment , and various painful physical experiences. Imaginative preschool children enjoy dramatic play. An abused or wounded child might not communicate the experience verbally but may be able to use an anatomically correct doll to show what happened. Therapeutic play can teach children about medical procedures or help them work through their feelings about what has happened to them in the medical setting.
• Creative play. Some children are too angry or fearful to act out their feelings through dramatic play. However, they may be able to draw a picture that expresses their emotions or communicates what they know. To encourage this expression children can be given blank paper and crayons or markers and asked to draw a picture about how they feel. Some children are so concerned about a particular body part that instead of drawing a self portrait, they will draw only the body part that worries them.

Many children draw pictures that reflect punitive images to explain unhappy experiences. They need reassurance that they are not being punished. Health-care providers need to make sure that these children are not being abused. Other children may draw pictures that are symbolic of death (an airplane crashing, boats sinking, burning buildings, or children in graves). These children need assurances that they are not going to die. Some drawings express the child's fear of abandonment and loss of independence. Pictures may suggest the parent cannot find the little child who is in the hospital. The child needs to be reassured that their parents know where they are. They need to know when the parents will visit and the parents should appear when they say they will be there.

Older school-age children and adolescents may not be interested in drawing, but they can make a list of experiences they like and dislike.

Parental concerns

Parents express interest in age-related play that prepares children for group exercises in preschool. They want to know the right kind of play for an only child or sick child who may not be able to play with other children in their age group. The following age-related play and toys serve as a guide to parents with these concerns.

• Infant. The infant enjoys watching other members of the family; the infant enjoys rocking, strolling, time spent in a swing, supervised time on a blanket on the floor, crawling , walking with help, and being sung and read to. Play is self-absorbed; it is difficult, if not impossible to direct play. Infants are engaged in the vigorous process of self-discovery, learning their world by looking, listening, chewing, smelling, and grasping. Most of their learning comes through play. They need safe toys that appeal to all of their senses and stimulate their interest and curiosity. Infants need toys and play that include oral movements. They like peek-a-boo; playing with the parent's fingers, hair, face, and the infant's own body parts; playing in water. Soft stuffed animals, crib mobiles, squeeze toys rattles, busy boxes, mirrors, and musical toys. Parents can give them water toys for the bath, safe kitchen utensils, and push toys (after they begin to walk), and large print books.
• Toddler. Toddlers fill and empty containers and begin dramatic play. As they increase their motor skills, they enjoy feeling different textures, exploring the home environment, and mimicking others. They like to be read to and to look at books and television. Toddlers enjoy manipulating small objects such as toy people, cars, and animals. Favorite toys are mechanical; objects of different textures such as clay, sand, finger paints, and bubbles; push-pull toys; large balls; sand and water play; blocks; painting or coloring with large crayons; nesting toys; large puzzles; and trucks and dolls. Toddlers explore their bodies and those of others. Therapeutic play can begin at this age.
• Preschooler. Dramatic play is prominent. This age group likes to run, jump, hop, and in general increase motor skills. The children like to build and create whether it is sand castles or mud pies. Play is simple and imaginative. Simple collections begin. Preschoolers enjoy riding toys, building materials such as sand and blocks, dolls, drawing materials, cars, puzzles, books, appropriate television and videos, nonsense rhymes, and singing games. Preschoolers love pretending to be something or somebody and playing dress up They enjoy finger paints, clay, cutting, pasting, and simple board and card games.
• School-age child. Play becomes organized and has a direction. The early school-age child continues dramatic play with increased creativity but loses some spontaneity. The child gains awareness of rules when playing games and begins to compete in sports. Children in this age group enjoy collections (comic books, baseball cards, and stamps), dolls, pets, guessing games, board games, riddles, physical games, competitive play, reading, bike riding, hobbies, sewing, listening to the radio, television, and videos, and cooking.
• Adolescent. Athletic sports are the most common form of play. Strict rules are in place, and competition is important. Adolescents also enjoy movies; telephone conversations and parties; listening to music; and experimenting with makeup, hairstyles, and fashion. They also begin developing an interest in peers of the opposite sex.

Play for the sick child

Children who are confined to a bed need to have play periods built into their day. The length of play and the toys will depend the individual child's age and physical and emotional states. Short-term school projects appeal to school-age children because these activities help the children feel industrious and think about their future wellness. Parents can help children with their baths; encourage them to drink enough fluids; and prompt them to do deep breathing and muscle strengthening exercises.

Safety issues

Toys and games should be screened for safety , especially those used by a sick child. The toys should be washable with no sharp edges and no small parts that could be swallowed or aspirated. Cylinder-shaped toys of 1-inch (2.5-cm) diameter (the size of a regular hot dog) are the most dangerous size because they can occlude the trachea (windpipe) if they are aspirated. As a rule, if a toy can fit through the center of a toilet tissue tube, it is too small.

Parents should be certain that toys do not lead children into danger. Tossing a ball to a toddler on bed rest may be safe, but if a child in a cast leans to catch the ball, he may fall. Chasing a ball may lead to falls and collisions. If children are bored with a toy because it is not stimulating enough or they have played with it too long, they may begin to use the toy in an unsafe way. For example, the child may throw blocks across the room for fun instead of stacking them.

Indoor toys

For home care of the sick child, parents may need to buy new toys suitable for indoor use. The ill child may need soft toys for bed play and sit-down toys such as magic markers, puzzles, books, or board games, for quiet out-of-bed play.

When to call the doctor

Parents and teachers who spend time observing and understanding childhood behaviors may want to report to the child's therapist what they see the child do.

Skin care is essential for children who are bedridden or in a cast or restraints. Children lose interest in playing if they are uncomfortable or in pain . Parents should look for pressure over the buttocks, elbows, heels, and other parts of the child's body. The skin should be inspected often and massaged with a moisturizing lotion to increase circulation. Redness, irritation, and sores should be reported immediately to the healthcare provider.

When children are ill, the rate of bladder and bowel elimination may slow down because of reduced physical action. School-age children and adolescents may hesitate to drink or eat a normal diet because toileting is uncomfortable or performed without privacy. Parents may need to seek medical advice about digestive and elimination aids and about adjusting the child's diet and fluid intake to promote normal elimination.

KEY TERMS

Accommodation —The process in which a schema changes to accomodate new knowledge.

Assimilation —The process of taking in new information by incorporating it into an existing schema.

Associative play —Preschoolers play together in a similar activity with little organization or responsibility.

Cooperative play —School-age children play in an organized structure or compete for goal or outcome.

Experimental play therapy —Play therapy based on the belief that a child has the ability to solve his or her own problems within the context of a warm and caring therapeutic environment.

Observation —Infants and children watch an object, although not actively engaged in it, as in watching a mobile.

Parallel play —Toddlers play side by side but seldom try to interact with each other, playing separately with a similar toy.

Play therapy or therapeutic play —A type of psychotherapy for young children involving the use of toys and games to build a therapeutic relationship and encourage the child's self-expression.

Play-based assessment —A form of developmental assessment that involves observation of how a child plays alone, with peers, or with parents or other familiar caregivers, in free play or in special games.

Resources

BOOKS

Barbour, Ann, et al. Prop Box Play: 50 Themes to Inspire Dramatic Play. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House Inc., 2002.

Cassou, Michelle. Kids' Play—Igniting Children's Creative Passion. East Rutherford, NJ: Penguin Group, 2004.

Drake, Jane. Organizing Play in the Early Years: Practical Ideas for Teachers and Assistants. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis Inc., 2003.

Humphrey, James Harry. Learning the 3 Rs through Active Play. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers Inc., 2001.

Scarlett, W. George. Children's Play. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004.

PERIODICALS

Schulman, Lisa. "Good guys, bad guys: Pretend play." Parents Magazine. (June 2003): 169–70.

WEB SITES

Games Kids Play. Available online at <www.gameskidsplay.net> (accessed October 13, 2004).

Aliene S. Linwood, RN, DPA, FACHE

Play

Play serves different purposes at different ages. Jean Piaget (1962) delineated play into three major periods: (1) imitation and practice play; (2) symbolic play, which is pure assimilation or distortion of reality and implies representation of an absent object; and (3) games with rules, such as board games or marbles.

Imitation and practice, the earliest form of play, occurs in the sensory-motor period from birth to approximately twenty-four months. The infant copies the sounds and actions of the persons or animals in the environment. Practice games leading to mastery are evidenced by the infant or toddler swatting a mobile in the crib to make it move, stacking cubes or blocks, or putting plastic sticks into a jar. Fine motor skills develop as the toddler explores the many objects in the crib or playroom. As the baby gets older, large motor skills are practiced through walking, climbing, and through play with push and pull toys.

Symbolic or pretend play emerges around age two, although researchers such as Greta Fein (1981) have found evidence of pretend play among eighteen-month-old toddlers.

Play is at peak during the preoperational stage, especially from ages three to six. Children move from solitary pretend play to social play, where they interact with other children. In simple solitary pretend play, a child may move a truck along the floor, imitate a cat or dog by crawling along the floor, put a teddy bear to sleep, or rock a doll in a cradle. Two toddlers may even play side by side (parallel play) without playing with each other. They may occasionally exchange a toy or a word, but their major focus is on their own play game.

At about age three, cooperative social pretend play begins and reaches its peak by ages four and five. Carolee Howes (1985) makes a distinction between social play and social pretend play. Social play involves turn-taking and sharing, but may not involve the make-believe elements found in symbolic play episodes.

The use of symbolic play continues even past the preschool years. When first, third, and fifth grade children played with representational objects such as cars and figures compared to children playing with tranformational objects (a vehicle changes into a robot), those children who played with the representational objects displayed more social play and symbolic play (Bagley and Chaille 1996). Low structured toys such as dress-up materials, toy doctor kits, blocks, stuffed animals, and puppets lead to more imaginative play than structured objects such as crayon, chalk, and puzzles that are more conducive to nonpretend play (Singer and Singer 1990, 2001).

Not only the kind of toy, but parental support and encouragement help to promote children's engagement in fantasy, imagination, and pretend play (Taylor and Carlson 2000). It is interesting to note that mood also affects the involvement in symbolic play. For example, researchers found differences between the play of depressed and nondepressed children (Lous et al. 2000). The depressed children played significantly less in general than the nondepressed children, and much less symbolic play was evident.

Games with rules is the last stage in Piaget's theory of play. Around age seven, the stage of concrete operations, children begin to move away from pretend play and involve themselves with board games. As children move from the preoperational stage to the stage of concrete operations, they begin to think more logically and can understand that rules are constant and cannot be modified. Observation of children in this stage, however, reveals that rules are sometimes changed by the leaders in the game to suit themselves. Only later, as children become older and move into Piaget's last developmental stage of formal operations, do children truly abide by rules and see them as inviolate.

Gender Differences in Play

The literature indicates that same-gender children prefer to play with each other during their toddler years. When play interactions between parents and children are studied, differences in styles emerge. Mother-child relationships revolve around social interactions; mothers are generally more responsive and facilitative, especially if there is a secure mother-child relationship. Father-child relationships appear to be at a higher level of play particularly when children are securely attached to their fathers (Kazura 2000).

In an interesting study examining the content and structure of children's play narratives, Kai von Klitzing and colleagues (2000) used a sample of 652 same-sex twins whose parents completed a Child Behavior Checklist when their children were aged five and seven years. Teachers also completed a report when the children were seven years old. Girls told more narratives with less aggression than boys. Aggressive themes, however, were related to behavior problems, and this correlation held for girls but not boys. Gender of the child as well as content and coherence of the story may be useful in identifying children who may be at risk for behavior problems.

Advertisers know that there are differences between boys and girls and the attitudes toward toys. This was borne out in a study of play themes of preschoolers by Dorothy Singer and Jerome Singer (1981). Adventure themes, fantasy characters, superheroes, and spacemen were the favored pretend play of boys. Girls indicated a clear preference for family pretend roles (mother, father, baby), playing "house," and dress-up clothes.

Children as young as eighteen months have shown preference for sex-stereotyped choices (Caldera, Huston, and O'Brien 1989), and as they get older, this preference for same-sex-typed toys continues (Eisenberg, Tryon, and Cameron 1984).

Rena Repetti (1984) found that children aged five and one-half to seven and one-half who chose more traditionally sex-linked toys were more likely to be those whose parents responded to gender-role questionnaires in a traditional way. The labeling of sex-typed toys was significantly related to a child's tendency to stereotype occupations. In an earlier study, Brian Sutton-Smith (1968) asked kindergartners to give alternative uses for male- and female-sex typed toys. The children were familiar with these toys, but their play experiences with them were different. If the toy was same-sex, the child ascribed more unique responses to the toy. It appears that toys manufactured for girls tend to be of a more passive nature—dolls, toy stoves, tea sets, carriages—whereas boys receive the cars, trucks, rocket ships, boats, mechanical sets, miniature tools, and toy weapons.

Cultural Differences in Play

When studying the various aspects of play it is essential to take cultural variations into account. Carolyn Edwards (2000) performed a qualitative and quantitative re-analysis of data derived from the Six Cultures Study of Beatrice Whiting (1963) on children's play that was collected in the 1950s when the sample communities were more isolated from mass markets and the media than they are today. Examination of the play of 140 children aged three to ten years was carried out looking at creative-constructive play, fantasy play, role play, and games with rules. Results indicated that children from Kenya and India were the lowest scoring in overall play. The children from the Philippines and Mexico scored on the intermediate level, whereas those from Japan and the United States scored highest. The cultural norms concerning work versus play, and the notion of freedom for exploration and motivation to practice adult roles through play are factors influencing the scores. In addition, if there are role models and access to materials there will be more creative and constructive play.

In another study comparing four communities in Guatemala, Turkey, India, and the United States, using fourteen children between the ages of twelve to twenty-four months, Artin Goencue, Jayanthi Mistry, and Christine Mosier (2000) found that social play occurred in all four communities, although the frequency and variation was influenced by the culture. In addition there were cultural variations in the numbers of children who engaged in the different kinds of play examined.

Interactions of 341 mothers and fathers in India were examined as they played with their one-yearold infants in their homes. Mothers were more likely to engage in object-mediated play than were fathers. The data do not support the contention that Indian fathers engage in rough play with their infants. The authors also state that parent-infant rough play in nonindustrialized countries may be culture-specific and not related to biological underpinnings (Roopnarine et al. 1992).

When we examine a sample of studies carried out with Asian children it is interesting to look at specific Asian groups. Two studies, for example, comparing thirty Korean-American children and thirty U.S. children (Farver, Kim, and Lee-Shinn 2000; Farver and Lee-Shin 2000 ) suggest that individual factors related to pretend play transcended the culture. However, there were similar patterns for pretend play between the two groups of mothers. In Jo Ann Farver and Yoolim Lee-Shin's study, the acculturation of immigrant Korean mothers played a part in the encouragement and acceptance of creativity and play. As mothers became more assimilated into U.S. culture, their children's play changed and became more creative. Jonathan Tudge, Soeun Lee, and Sarah Putnam (1995) also studied play of two- to four-year-olds using two samples in South Korea and two samples in North Carolina with middle-class and working-class parents represented in the samples. Children of working-class parents in Korea were less likely to initiate play than children in the other three groups. In the United States, middle-class and lower-class children did not differ in their initiation of play, but boys in the United States were more likely to initiate play themselves or in conjunction with another person. In all communities the mother was the single most likely partner in their children's play, particularly in middle-class Korea and in the middle-class U.S. community where the mother was not employed outside of the home. Mothers in Korea engaged more with their children than mothers in the United States, but the engagement was more of a passive nature than as a very active participant in play.

When we turn to play in China, we find that the beliefs of Chinese and U.S. early-childhood teachers relative to curriculum are similar in overall structure and organization (Wang et al. 2001). Teachers in both cultures emphasize child-initiated learning as well as teacher-directed learning. U.S. teachers are more supportive of child-initiated approaches and this may be reflected in their tolerance for play.

Using longitudinal data from five Irish-American families in the United States and nine Chinese families in Taiwan, Wendy Haight and her colleagues (1999) proposed that in studying groups from different cultures, it is important to consider such variables such as partner initiations, objects used in play, the extent of child initiations of pretend play, and the themes used in play.

Linda Sperry and Douglas Sperry (2000) found that among the African-American two-year-olds they studied, both nonverbal and verbal domains are functional during the third year of life. Pretend play objects are not always necessary for mental representations. Rhoda Redleaf and Audrey Robertson (1999) also suggest that children's play is often nonverbal and of a bodily character. These authors state that 70 percent of communicative interactions are nonverbal and that kind of communication is worthy of further sociological and linguistic concern.

Conclusion

Play, especially symbolic or pretend play, may be the training ground for the inventive mind and the attitude toward the possible. Parents or caregivers can foster play through their willingness to give a child space to play in, a few unstructured toys or props to play with, encouragement to use imagination and pretense, and most of all the sanction to enjoy the fantasies and fun of childhood without the threat of shame or embarrassment.

See also:Attachment: Parent-Child Relationships; Childhood; Childhood, Stages of: Infancy; Childhood, Stages of: Preschool; Childhood, Stages of: Toddlerhood; Development: Cognitive; Development: Moral; Gender; Gender Identity; Peer Influence; Television and Family; Time Use

Bibliography

bagley, d. m., and chaille, c. (1996). "transforming play: an analysis of first-, third-, and fifth-graders' play." journal of research in childhood education 10:134–142.

caldera, y.; huston, a.; and o'brien, m. (1989). "social interactions and play patterns of parents and toddlers with feminine, masculine, and neutral toys." child development 60:70–76.

edwards, c. p. (2000). "children's play in cross-cultural perspective: a new look at the six cultures study." cross-cultural research 34:318–338.

eisenberg, n.; tryon, k.; and cameron, e. (1984). "the relation of preschoolers' peer interaction to their sex-typed toy choices." child development 55:1044–1050.

farver, j. m.; kim, y. k.; lee-shin, y. (2000). "within cultural differences: examining individual differences in korean american and european american preschoolers' social pretend play." journal of cross-cultural psychology 31:583–602.

farver, j. m., and lee-shin, y. (2000). "acculturation and korean-american children's social and play behavior." social development 9:316–336.

fein, g. g. (1981). "pretend play in childhood: an integrative review." child development 52:1095–1118.

goencue, a.; mistry, j.; and mosier, c. (2000). "cultural variations in the play of toddlers." international journal of behavioral development 24:321–329.

golomb, c., and kuersten, r. (1996). "on the transition from pretense play to reality: what are the rules of the game?" british journal of developmental psychology 14:203–217.

haight, w. l.; wang, x.; fung, h. h.; williams, k.; and mintz, j. (1999). "universal, developmental, and variable aspects of young children's play: a cross-cultural comparison of pretending at home." child development 70:1477–1488.

howes, c. (1985). "sharing fantasy: social pretend play in toddlers." child development 56:1255–1258.

kazura, k. (2000). "father's qualitative and quantitative involvement: an investigation of attachment, play, and social interactions." journal of men's studies 9:41–57.

lewis, a. (1991). "developing social feelings in the young child through his play life." individual psychology: journal of adlerian theory, research, and practice 47:72–75.

lous, a. m.; de wit, c. a. m.; de bruyn, e. e. j.; riksen- walraven, j. m.; and rost, h. (2000). "depression and play in early childhood: play behavior of depressed and nondepressed 3- to 6-year-olds in various play situations." journal of emotional and behavioral disorders 8:249–260.

piaget, j. (1962). play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. new york: norton.

redleaf, r.; and robertson, a. (1999). learn and play therecycled way: homemade toys that teach. st. paul, mn: redleaf press.

repetti, r. (1984). "determinants of children's sex stereotyping: parental sex-role traits and television viewing." personality and social psychology bulletin 10:457–468.

roopnarine, j. l.; ahmeduzzaman, m.; hossain, z.; and riegraf, n. b. (1992). "parent-infant rough play: its cultural specificity." early education and development 3:298–311.

roskos, k. a., and christie, j. f., eds. (2000). play and literacy in early childhood: research from multiple perspectives. mahwah, nj: erlbaum.

russ, s. w.; robins, a. l.; and christiano, b. a. (1999). "pretend play: longitudinal prediction of creativity and affect in fantasy in children." creativity research journal 12:129–139.

singer, d. g. (1993). playing for their lives: helpingtroubled children through play therapy. new york: free press.

singer, d. g., and singer, j. l. (1990). the house of makebelieve. cambridge, ma: harvard university press.

singer, d. g., and singer, j. l. (2001). make believe:games and activities for imaginative play. washington, dc: magination press.

singer, j. l., and singer, d. g. (1981). television, imagination, and aggression: a study of preschoolers. hillsdale, nj: erlbaum.

sperry, l. l., and sperry, d. e. (2000). "verbal and nonverbal contributions to early representation: evidence from african american toddlers." in communication: an arena of development. advances in applied developmental psychology, ed. n. budwig and i. c. uzgiris. stamford, ct: ablex.

sutton-smith, b. (1968). "novel responses to toys." merrill-palmer quarterly 14:151–158.

taylor, m., and carlson, s. m. (2000). "the influence of religious beliefs on parental attitudes about children's fantasy behavior." in imagining the impossible: magical, scientific, and religious thinking in children, ed. k. s. rosengren and c. n. johnson. new york: cambridge university press.

tudge, j.; lee, s.; and putnam, s. (1995). "young children's play in socio-cultural context: south korea and the united states." paper presented at the biennial meeting of the society for research in child development, indianapolis, in.

van oers, b. (1999). "teaching opportunities in play." in learning activity and development, ed. m. hedegaard and j. lompscher. aarhus, denmark: aarhus university press.

von klitzing, k.; kelsay, k.; emde, r. n.; robinson, j.; and schmitz, s. (2000). "gender-specific characteristics of 5-year olds' play narratives and associations with behavior ratings." journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry 39:1017–1023.

wang, j.; elicker, j.; mcmullen, m.; and mao, s. (2001). "american and chinese teachers' beliefs about early childhood curriculum." poster presented at the biennial meeting of the society for research in child development, minneapolis, mn.

whiting, b. b. (1963). six cultures: studies of child rearing. new york: wiley.

wyver, s. r., and spence, s. h. (1999). "play and divergent problem solving: evidence supporting a reciprocal relationship." early education and development 10:419–444.

dorothy g. singer

play / plā/ • v. 1. [intr.] engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than a serious or practical purpose: the children were playing outside her friends were playing with their dolls. ∎  [tr.] engage in (a game or activity) for enjoyment: I want to play Monopoly. ∎  amuse oneself by engaging in imaginative pretense: the boys were playing cops and robbers. ∎  (play at) engage in without proper seriousness or understanding: you cannot play at being a Christian. ∎  (play with) treat inconsiderately for one's own amusement: she likes to play with people's emotions. ∎  (play with) handle without skill so as to damage or prevent from working: has somebody been playing with the thermostat? 2. [tr.] take part in (a sport) on a regular basis: I play softball and tennis. ∎  participate in (an athletic match or contest): the Red Sox will play two games on Wednesday. ∎  compete against (another player or team) in an athletic match or contest: the team will play France on Wednesday. ∎  [intr.] fig. be cooperative: he needs financial backing, but the bank won't play. ∎  [intr.] be part of a team, esp. in a specified position, in a game: he played shortstop. ∎  strike (a ball) or execute (a stroke) in a game. ∎  assign to take part in an athletic contest, esp. in a specified position: the manager will want to play the right-handed Curtis. ∎  move (a piece) or display (a playing card) in one's turn in a game: he played his queen. ∎  bet or gamble at or on: he didn't play the ponies. 3. [tr.] represent (a character) in a theatrical performance or on film: she played Ophelia. ∎  [intr.] perform in a theatrical production or on film: he was proud to be playing opposite a famous actor. ∎  put on or take part in (a theatrical performance or concert): the show was one of the best we ever played. ∎  give a dramatic performance at (a particular theater or place). ∎  behave as though one were (a specified type of person): the skipper played the innocent, but smuggled goods were found on his vessel. ∎  (play someone for) treat someone as being of (a specified type): don't imagine you can play me for a fool. ∎  (play a trick/joke on) behave in a deceptive or teasing way toward. 4. [tr.] perform on (a musical instrument): we heard someone playing a harmonica | [intr.] a pianist who will play for us. ∎  possess the skill of performing upon (a musical instrument): he taught himself to play the violin. ∎  produce (notes) from a musical instrument; perform (a piece of music): they played a violin sonata. ∎  make (an audiotape, CD, radio, etc.) produce sounds. ∎  [intr.] (of a musical instrument, audiotape, CD, radio, etc.) produce sounds: somewhere within, a harp was playing. ∎  [tr.] accompany (someone) with music as they are moving in a specified direction: the bagpipes played them out of the dining room. 5. [intr.] move lightly and quickly, so as to appear and disappear; flicker: a smile played about her lips. ∎  (of a fountain or similar source of water) emit a stream of gently moving water. 6. [tr.] allow (a fish) to exhaust itself pulling against a line before reeling it in. • n. 1. activity engaged in for enjoyment and recreation, esp. by children: a child at play may use a stick as an airplane. ∎  behavior or speech that is not intended seriously: I flinched, but only in play. ∎  [as adj.] designed to be used in games of pretense; not real: play families are arranged in play houses. 2. the conducting of an athletic match or contest: rain interrupted the second day's play. ∎  the action or manner of engaging in a sport or game: he maintained the same rhythm of play throughout the game. ∎  the status of the ball in a game as being available to be played according to the rules: the ball was put in play. ∎ fig. the state of being active, operative, or effective: luck comes into play. ∎  a move or maneuver in a sport or game: the best play is to lead the 3 of clubs. ∎ archaic gambling. 3. a dramatic work for the stage or to be broadcast: the actors put on a new play. 4. the space in or through which a mechanism can or does move: the steering rack was loose, and there was a little play. ∎ fig. scope or freedom to act or operate: our policy allows the market to have freer play. ∎  light and constantly changing movement: the artist exploits the play of light across the surface. PHRASES: make a play for inf. attempt to attract or attain. make (great) play of (or with) draw attention to in an ostentatious manner, typically to gain prestige or advantage: the company made great play of its recent growth in profits. not playing with a full decksee deck. play ball see ball¹ . play both ends against the middle keep one's options open by supporting or favoring opposing sides. play something by ear perform music without having to read from a score. ∎  (play it by ear) inf. proceed instinctively according to results and circumstances rather than according to rules or a plan. play by the rules follow what is generally held to be the correct line of behavior. play one's cards close to one's chestsee chest. play one's cards right (or well) see card¹ . play ducks and drakes with see ducks and drakes. play fair observe principles of justice; avoid cheating. play someone false prove treacherous or deceitful toward someone. play fast and loose behave irresponsibly or immorally. play favorites show favoritism toward someone or something. play the field see field. play for time use specious excuses or unnecessary maneuvers to gain time. play the game see game¹ . play God see God. play havoc with see havoc. play hell see hell. play hookey see hookey. play a (or one's) hunch make an instinctive choice. play into someone's hands act in such a way as unintentionally to give someone an advantage. play it cool inf. make an effort to be or appear to be calm and unemotional. play the market speculate in stocks. a play on words a pun. play (or play it) safe take precautions; avoid risks. play to the gallery see gallery. play truantsee truant. play with oneself inf. masturbate. play with fire take foolish risks.PHRASAL VERBS: play around (or about) behave in a casual, foolish, or irresponsible way: you shouldn't play around with a child's future. ∎ inf. (of a married person) have a love affair. play along pretend to cooperate: she had to play along and be polite. play someone along inf. deceive or mislead someone over a period of time. play something back play sounds that one has recently recorded, esp. to monitor recording quality. play something down represent something as being less important than it in fact is: he tried to play down the seriousness of his illness. play someone off bring people into conflict or competition for one's own advantage: China can no longer play one superpower off against the other. play off (of two teams or competitors) play an extra game or match to decide a draw or tie. play on exploit (a weak or vulnerable point in someone): he played on his opponent's nerves. play someone out (usu. be played out) drain someone of strength or life. play something out act the whole of a drama; enact a scene or role. play something up emphasize the extent or importance of something: the mystery surrounding his death was played up by the media. play up to humor or flatter, esp. to win favor.DERIVATIVES: play·a·bil·i·ty / ˌplāəˈbilitē/ n. play·a·ble adj.

play2 if you play with fire you'll get burnt proverbial saying, late 19th century, meaning that if you involve yourself with something potentially dangerous you are likely to be hurt. A similar thought is found the mid 17th century, in Henry Vaughan's Silex Scintillans (1655), ‘I played with fire, did counsel spurn…But never thought that fire could burn.’
play both ends against the middle keep one's options open by supporting or favouring opposing sides.
play it again, Sam popular misquotation of Humphrey Bogart's words ‘If she can stand it, I can. Play it!’ in the film Casablanca (1942), subsequently used as the title of a play (1969) and film (1972) by Woody Allen.
play the — card introduce a specified (advantageous) factor; the term derives from a comment made in 1886 by Lord Randolph Churchill on Gladstone's handling of the Irish Home Rule question, that ‘the Orange card would be the one to play’.
play the game behave in a fair or honourable way; abide by the rules or conventions. Recorded from the late 19th century, the phrase is particularly associated with the appeal to public-school values enshrined in Henry Newbolt's poem ‘Vita Lampada’ (1897).
play to the gallery act in an exaggerated or histrionic manner, especially in order to appeal to popular taste; the gallery here is the highest of the galleries in a theatre, containing the cheapest seats.
those who play at bowls must look out for rubbers proverbial saying, mid 18th century, meaning that one must beware of difficulties associated with a particular activity; a rubber here is an alteration of rub, an obstacle or impediment to the course of a bowl. Shakespeare in Richard II (1595) has, ‘Madam, we'll play at bowls.—'Twill make me think the world is full of rubs.’

See also when the cat's away, the mice will play, play chicken, play ducks and drakes, play second fiddle.

Play, any work written to be acted, and entirely or mainly spoken. (Plays written to be read—see CLOSET DRAMA—remain outside the mainstream of the theatre.) A play may require some music (see INCIDENTAL MUSIC), but if music is paramount the work becomes an opera; if dancing is the main attraction the work becomes a ballet, or a mime. A play may be either a tragedy, with subdivisions into epic, historical, or neo-classical, or a comedy, which includes farce. Hybrid forms are ballad opera, burlesque, burletta, harlequinade, musical comedy, and pantomime.

Although a play may be no more than a duologue on a bare platform, in its usual acceptance it covers a text, originally written by the dramatist (or playwright, which reveals his status as one worker among many, as with wheelwright), played in a suitable building by actors, together with scenery and costumes (usually specially designed) which help to interpret its inner meaning. The actors are chosen and controlled by the director, who serves as interpreter between the author and the public. The director may function only as a director or, like such playwrights as Molière and Shakespeare, may experience the advantages and disadvantages of actual daily participation in the life of the theatre company.

play exercise oneself, spec. by way of diversion, engage in (a game); perform on (a musical instrument) OE.; move swiftly, briskly, freely; act the character of XIV. OE. pleg(i)an, plægian = MDu. pleien dance, leap for joy, rejoice; doubtfully rel. to OFris. plega be wont, OS. plegan (Du. plegen), OHG. pflegan (G. pflegen) have charge of, attend to, be in the habit of.
So play sb. OE. plega, plæga rapid movement, exercise, sport OE. (cessation of work, being idle XVII); dramatic performance, drama XIV; action, dealing, as in fair p., foul p. XVI; p. of, on, or upon words, after F. jeu de mots XVIII. playhouse XVI (not continuous with OE. pleghūs ‘theatrum’).

play Voluntary, seemingly paradoxical behaviour (i.e. a goal usually associated with the behaviour is not attained because the activity is not pursued to its conclusion, or because it is misdirected), often occurring in bouts preceded by signals exchanged between participants, during which movements may be performed in apparently random succession, and in which certain sequences may be repeated many times.

play Voluntary, seemingly paradoxical behaviour (i.e. a goal usually associated with the behaviour is not attained because the activity is not pursued to its conclusion, or because it is misdirected), often occurring in bouts preceded by signals exchanged between participants, during which movements may be performed in apparently random succession, and in which certain sequences may be repeated many times.

play1 play within a play a play acted as part of the action of another play; often with reference to Hamlet, in which Hamlet arranges for the Players to perform a play (‘the Mouse-trap’) which shows the circumstances of his father's murder.

See also fair play's a jewel, give and take is fair play, turn about is fair play, all work and no play.

play (play) n. any spontaneous or organized activity that provides enjoyment, entertainment, amusement, or diversion. Play in childhood is essential to enable holistic development.

play The combination of factors that makes possible the accumulation of oil and gas in a particular area.

play •affray, agley, aka, allay, Angers, A-OK, appellation contrôlée, array, assay, astray, au fait, auto-da-fé, away, aweigh, aye, bay, belay, betray, bey, Bombay, Bordet, boulevardier, bouquet, brae, bray, café au lait, Carné, cassoulet, Cathay, chassé, chevet, chez, chiné, clay, convey, Cray, crème brûlée, crudités, cuvée, cy-pres, day, decay, deejay, dégagé, distinguée, downplay, dray, Dufay, Dushanbe, eh, embay, engagé, essay, everyday, faraway, fay, fey, flay, fray, Frey, fromage frais, gainsay, gay, Gaye, Genet, gilet, glissé, gray, grey, halfway, hay, heigh, hey, hooray, Hubei, Hué, hurray, inveigh, jay, jeunesse dorée, José, Kay, Kaye, Klee, Kray, Lae, lay, lei, Littré, Lough Neagh, lwei, Mae, maguey, Malay, Mallarmé, Mandalay, Marseilles, may, midday, midway, mislay, misplay, Monterrey, Na-Dene, nay, né, née, neigh, Ney, noway, obey, O'Dea, okay, olé, outlay, outplay, outstay, outweigh, oyez, part-way, pay, Pei, per se, pince-nez, play, portray, pray, prey, purvey, qua, Quai d'Orsay, Rae, rangé, ray, re, reflet, relevé, roman-à-clef, Santa Fé, say, sei, Shar Pei, shay, slay, sleigh, sley, spae, spay, Spey, splay, spray, stay, straightaway, straightway, strathspey, stray, Sui, survey, sway, Taipei, Tay, they, today, tokay, Torbay, Tournai, trait, tray, trey, two-way, ukiyo-e, underlay, way, waylay, Wei, weigh, wey, Whangarei, whey, yea