NAMIBIA

Republic of Namibia

CAPITAL: Windhoek

FLAG: Top left triangle is blue, center diagonal band is red, and the bottom right triangle is green. Colors are separated by narrow white bands. On the blue triangle is a golden sun with twelve triangular rays.

ANTHEM: Namibia Land of the Brave, music and words by Axali Doeseb.

MONETARY UNIT: The Namibian dollar (n$) of 100 cents is in use; n$1 = $0.15748 (or $1 = n$6.35) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is in use.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 21 March; Workers' Day, 1 May; Casinga Day, 4 May; Ascension Day, 12 May; Africa Day, 25 May; Heroes' Day, 26 August; Day of Goodwill, 7 October; Human Rights Day, 10 December; Christmas, 25–26 December. Movable religious holidays include Easter and Easter Monday.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

A vast land of desert and semidesert along the southwestern coast of Africa, Namibia covers 825,418 sq km (318,696 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Namibia is slightly more than half the size of the state of Alaska. It extends 1,498 km (931 mi) sse-nnw and 880 km (547 mi) ene-wsw (excluding the Caprivi Strip). Namibia is bordered by Angola and Zambia in the n, by Botswana in the e, by South Africa in these and s, and by the Atlantic Ocean to the w, with a total land boundary length of 3,936 km (2,446 mi) and a coastline of 1,572 km (977 mi).

The enclave of Walvis Bay (1,124 sq km/434 sq mi) was administered from 1977 to 1994 as part of South Africa's Cape Province, as were 13 offshore islands. Walvis Bay was reincorporated into Namibia on 1 March 1994. Namibia's capital city, Windhoek, is in the center of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Namibia is largely an elevated, waterless plateau partly suitable for arid grazing. The average altitude is 1,080 m (3,543 ft) above sea level; the high point, near the coast, is Konigstein, at 2,606 m (8,550 ft). Along almost the entire range of the coast there are sandy wastes and high, reddish sand dunes. The coastal strip comprises the Namib Desert, and the eastern region is part of the Kalahari Desert. All four permanent rivers form borders: the Kunene and Okavango in the north, the Zambezi in the northeast, and the Orange (Oranje) in the south.

CLIMATE

Namibia's climate is the driest in Africa, with sunny, warm days and cooler nights, especially during the winter months. The average temperature along the coast is the summer is 23°c (73°f); in winter, the average temperature is 13°c (55°f). The fertile northern strip is always warmer, having a climate similar to that of southern Angola.

Much of Namibia is a land of perennial drought. The annual rainfall, which is concentrated in the November–March period, generally averages more than 70 cm (28 in) in the far north, 2.5–15 cm (1–6 in) in the south, and 35 cm (14 in) in the central plateau. But the rains often fail: some regions have gone nearly a century without a drop of rain.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Namibia is the home of a great variety of large fauna and avifauna. In the game parks and the neighboring grazing areas, there are the tallest elephants in the world, along with rhinoceroses; an abundance of lions, cheetahs, and leopards; ostriches; and a profusion of ungulates, including the giraffe, zebra, kudu, eland, blackfaced impala, hartebeest, springbok, gemsbok, and wildebeest. Namibia is one of two countries in the world (with Mali) where there are elephants living in desert conditions. Desert elephants tend to have smaller bodies and larger feet than other elephants. Birds of prey are numerous, as are the Kori bustard and the Karroo korhaan. Among the unique flora are the desert welwitschia and many varieties of aloe. As of 2002, there were at least 250 species of mammals, 201 species of birds, and over 3,100 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Namibia's environmental concerns include water pollution and insufficient water for its population. The nation has 6 cu km of renewable water resources. About 68% of the annual withdrawal is used in farming and 3% for industrial purposes. Only about 72% of the people living in rural areas have access to improved water sources. Nearly all of the urban population has safe water. Deforestation and soil erosion also threaten the nation's land. Agricultural chemicals, such as DDT, pose a threat to the environment due to excessive usage.

The Namibian Wildlife Trust, organized in 1982, works closely with the Department of Nature Conservation to maintain the habitat and to prevent poaching of threatened fauna and avifauna. In 2003, 13.6% of Namibia's total land area was protected. Twelve nature conservation areas cover 99,616 sq km (38,462 sq mi). Among these are the 22,270-sq-km (8,603-sq-mi) Etosha National Park, one of Africa's best-run and least-visited animal preserves; a smaller game park near Windhoek; and the Namib Desert Park (23,401 sq km/9,035 sq mi), east of Swakopmund. There is a seal reserve at Cape Cross, north of Swakopmund. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 10 types of mammals, 18 species of birds, 4 types of reptiles, 1 species of amphibian, 11 species of fish, 1 type of mollusk, and 24 species of plants. Threatened species include the black rhino, cave catfish, and the wild dog. Burchell's zebra has become extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Namibia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 2,031,000, which placed it at number 140 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 4% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 40% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 98 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 1.1%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The projected population for the year 2025 was 2,061,000. The overall population density was 2 per sq km (6 per sq mi), with the far north the most densely populated region of the country.

The UN estimated that 33% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.54%. The capital city, Windhoek, had a population of 237,000 in that year. Other important areas (and their estimated populations) include Ondangwa (50,000) and Oshakati (40,000).

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Namibia. The UN estimated that 22.2% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

MIGRATION

Namibia's migrant labor force exceeds 100,000. Ovambo from northern Namibia have moved south since the 1920s to work in the diamond mines near the mouth of the Orange River, in the port of Walvis Bay, and in the cities and towns of the interior. Ovambo formerly migrated by the thousands to work in the gold mines of South Africa, but that traffic has diminished. Only 14,817 blacks of Namibian birth were resident in South Africa in 1991. Some Ovambo have gravitated from neighboring Angola into northern Namibia. The resurgence of war in Angola in mid-1998 drove thousands of refugees into Namibia.

In 2000 there were 143,000 migrants residing in Namibia. Remittances in 2002 were us$783 million. In 2004, there were 14,773 refugees, primarily from Angola, and 2,155 asylum seekers. Of the refugees, 8,490 were detained in a camp at Osire. The net migration rate in 2005 was an estimated 0.52 per 1,000 population. The government views the immigration level as too high, but the emigration level as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

About 87.5% of the population is black; 6% is white; and 6.5% is mixed. Approximately 50% of total population belong to the Ovambo tribe, the largest group, who live mainly in the well-watered north. The second-largest group, constituting 9% of the population, is the Kavango, who reside along the Okavango River. The Damara, accounting for 7% of the populace, live east of the arid coast and to the south of the Ovambo, and the Herero, a herding people who range north of Windhoek, account for another 7%. The Nama, herders in the deep south, make up 5% of the population; the Caprivian, living in the easternmost portion of the strip, total 4%; the San (Bushmen) 3%; the Basters of Rehoboth, a farming community of mixed origin, 2%; and the Tswana 0.5%. The white population lives predominantly in central and southern Namibia. The Coloureds (peoples of mixed descent) live largely in Windhoek and other cities.

LANGUAGES

The official language of Namibia is English; however, it is only used by about 7% of the population. Afrikaans is the common language used by most people, including about 60% of the white population. Approximately 32% speak German. Ovambo, in any of several dialects, is widely used throughout the country, and Herero is widely spoken in Windhoek. Other indigenous languages are also used by the various tribes.

RELIGIONS

The first missionaries to proselytize in Namibia were British Congregationalists and Methodists; German and Finnish Lutherans; and German-speaking Roman Catholics. As a result, between 80–90% of Namibians are Christians, with the largest denominations being Lutheran and Roman Catholic. Other principal denominations, include Baptists, Methodists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. There are also a number of Zionist churches that blend traditional African beliefs with Pentecostal Christianity. Nearly 10% of the population practices indigenous religions, primarily among the ethnic tribes. One notable custom is the ritual fire, which some tribes keep burning continuously to ensure life, fertility, prosperity, and the happiness of ancestors. There are small numbers of Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, and Baha'is in the country.

The constitution provides for religious freedom and this right is generally respected in practice. Though there is no state religion, the government seems to favor the Anglican, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic churches. Certain Christian holidays are celebrated as national holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2004, Namibia was traversed by 2,382 km (1,481 mi) of narrow gauge railway. The system consisted of a main line from South Africa connecting east of Karasburg and continuing to Keetmanshoop (with a side branch to Lüderitz), Mariental, and Windhoek before heading eastward to the ranching area of Gobabis and north to the copper-mining area of Tsumeb. Westward from Windhoek and also southwestward from Tsumeb, the main rail lines link the interior with Swakopmund and Walvis Bay. Of Namibia's 42,237 km (26,271 mi) of roadway, a total of 5,406 km (3,363 mi) were paved in 2002. The Trans-Kalahari Highway links Namibia and Gauteng Province in South Africa. The Trans-Caprivi Highway links Namibia to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and northern Botswana. As of 2003, there were a total of 154,850 vehicles in Namibia, of which 73,550 were passenger vehicles and 81,300 were commercial vehicles.

Walvis Bay, a South African enclave from 1977 to 1994, has been the main handler of Namibia's imports and exports and the home of the territory's once-vital fishing fleet since the 1920s. About 95% of all Namibian seaborne trade is transshipped there. Lüderitz, the site of the first German entry in 1883, has lost its status as a port because of harbor silting and poor transport links. However, it remains a center of the territory's crayfish industry. In 2005, Namibia had one merchant vessel, a cargo ship, of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 2,265 GRT.

In 2004, there were an estimated 136 airports, 21 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Namibia's international airport (Windhoek International) is near Windhoek, with other modern facilities at Rundu, Grootfontein, Walvis Bay, Lüderitz, Keetmanshoop, and Oranjemund. Other towns have dirt airstrips, and many white Namibians fly their own aircraft from their farms to the urban centers. Air Namibia flew 214,000 international and domestic passengers in 1997. South African Airways links Windhoek to Europe and to the principal cities in South Africa. In 2003, about 266,000 passengers were carried by domestic and international airlines.

HISTORY

Paintings of animal figures on rock slabs in Namibia testify to at least 25,000 years of human habitation there. The San (Bushmen) may have been Namibia's earliest inhabitants. The Damara also claim to be the true indigenous Namibians, who were compelled to welcome waves of Herero and Ovambo from the north. By the 19th century, the Damara, Ovambo, and Herero were the largest indigenous ethnic groups. The Kavango and the Caprivians were settled in the areas where they now reside. There was competition for land, mostly between the Ovambo and the Herero. But then the invaders arrived. First came the Hottentots (now called Nama), brown-skinned peoples of mixed parentage from South Africa. They had guns and conquered a large swath of southern and central Namibia from the Herero and the Damara. The Germans came in 1883, initially as commercial colonizers and missionaries and then as soldiers. With military might, the Germans in the 1890s moved inland across the desert from Walvis Bay (which had been annexed by the British in 1878 and incorporated into Cape Colony in 1884) to Windhoek, establishing forts and subjugating the Herero and Damara. The Germans forcibly took land and cattle from the Herero, whose revolt was suppressed by the Germans at a cost of about 65,000 Herero lives. A Nama revolt met a similar fate in 1904.

When World War I broke out, the South Africans invaded Süd-West Afrika, as the German colony was then known. The South Africans wished to annex the territory, but the new League of Nations granted South Africa a mandate instead. From 1920 to 1946, South Africa administered the mandatory territory as if it were an integral part of the Union, but neglected social services and the Ovambo-Kavango sphere in the north.

After World War II, South Africa refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the UN over Namibia as a successor organization to the League of Nations. Instead, it progressively integrated Namibia into the Union. In the 1950s, senators from South West Africa sat in the South African parliament. The UN took South Africa before the International Court of Justice, which gave ambiguous verdicts in 1962 and 1966, but in 1971 it decisively declared South Africa's occupation of Namibia illegal. In 1978, the UN Security Council rejected South Africa's annexation of Walvis Bay.

Meanwhile, in 1960, representatives of the indigenous majority had formed the South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) to seek independence and black majority rule. Beginning in 1966, but especially after 1977, SWAPO used guerrilla tactics with varying success. South Africa countered by building up its armed forces along Namibia's borders with Zambia and Angola, where SWAPO had established bases and from where it launched raids.

In 1978, South Africa ostensibly accepted a Western-sponsored plan for an independent Namibia, but at the same time sponsored elections for a constituent assembly (opposed by the UN) that resulted in the victory of a white-dominated multi-ethnic party, the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance. Representatives of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, and Canada then attempted to devise a formula acceptable to South Africa that would permit Namibia to proceed to independence in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 435 of 1978. Black African countries rejected South Africa's demand that Cuban forces leave neighboring Angola as part of a settlement.

A "transitional government of national unity," composed of South African-appointed members of six parties, was installed in 1985. The South African administrator-general retained the right to veto legislation, and South Africa continued to exercise authority over foreign affairs and defense. On 13 December 1988, seven months of US-mediated (with observers from the Soviet Union) negotiations, resulted in the signing by Angola, Cuba, and South Africa of the Protocol of Brazzaville, by which South Africa agreed to implement the UN Plan for Namibia. Cuba and Angola agreed to a phased, total withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. Further agreements on details were signed in New York on 22 December 1988.

The process to implement UN Resolution 435 on 1 April 1989 started off shakily. In contravention of SWAPO president Sam Nujoma's assurances to the UN to abide by a cease-fire and repatriate only unarmed insurgents, around 2,000 armed members of the People's Liberation Army (PLAN), SWAPO's military wing, crossed into northern Namibia from Angola. South African forces were authorized to oppose them and 375 PLAN fighters were killed. This misunderstanding was overcome by negotiations and peace was restored.

Elections, held 7–11 November 1989, were certified as free and fair. This transitional period involved the return of some 42,000 refugees and the return of SWAPO politicians and PLAN fighters in exile. SWAPO took 57% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds necessary to allow it a free hand in drafting a constitution. The main opposition Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) received 29%. By 9 February 1990 the constituent assembly had drafted and adopted a constitution based on the 1982 constitutional principles. Namibia became independent on 21 March 1990. Nujoma was sworn in as president by UN Sec. Gen. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. Namibia's independence shines as a UN success story.

Since independence, the SWAPO government has pursued a policy of "reconciliation" with the white inhabitants. It is a vibrant multiparty, nonracial democracy. On 1 March 1994, the reincorporating of Walvis Bay into Namibia was completed through an agreement with South Africa.

Nujoma won the two-day 7–8 December 1994 legislative and presidential elections with 76% of the vote to the DTA's Mishake Muyongo's 23%. SWAPO won, 53 of the 72 contested seats of the National Assembly; DTA, 15; United Democratic Front (UDF), 2; Democratic Coalition of Namibia, 1; Monitor Action Group (MAG), 1.

By the late 1990s, secessionist sentiments were growing among the 92,000 Lozi of the Caprivi Strip in northeastern Namibia. They formed the Caprivi Liberation Front, led by Mishake Muyongo, former SWAPO executive secretary and DTA leader. On 2 August 1998, Caprivi Liberation Army (CLA) rebels attacked military, police, and other government installations around Katima Mulilo in Caprivi. Namibia declared a state of emergency that lasted three weeks. Six soldiers and police officers, and several civilians died in the attack. Many rebels were captured or killed by security forces. By December 1998, 2,250 Namibians from the Caprivi region had crossed into Botswana, allegedly fleeing persecution by the Namibian Defense Force, and 2,232 of them were given asylum in Botswana. In 2005, over 130 Caprivians are being held for trial on charges of treason, of which 13 are lodging a complaint under one of the several international and regional human rights treaties applicable in the country.

In November 1998, SWAPO used its two-thirds majority in parliament to change the constitution to allow Nujoma a third term of office. This move attracted wide national and international criticism in what some observers called a "torpedoing of democracy" to suit certain individuals. Namibia's ambassador to Britain and high-ranking SWAPO member, Ben Ulenga, resigned in protest over this. In March 1999, he formed his own party, the Congress of Democrats (CoD). Nujoma went on to win the (substantially free and fair) elections held on 30 November and 1 December 1999, taking 77% of the vote and three-quarters (55) of the 72 parliamentary seats. The CoD (tied with DTA at 7 seats) won the highest number of opposition votes (10.5%). At its congress in 2002, Nujoma was reelected head of SWAPO, which he has led for nearly 40 years. Although Nujoma will remain president of SWAPO until 2007, Hifikepunye L. Pohamba was selected as SWAPO's candidate at the extraordinary congress held in May 2004. Pohamba, former Minister of Lands, Resettlement and Rehabilitation, won the National Assembly and presidential elections with 76.4% of the votes. The elections of 15–16 November 2004, described as "generally free and well administered", gave SWAPO 55 of the 72 elected seats in the National Assembly. Six opposition parties won a total of 17 seats, including the CoD party, which won the largest number of opposition votes; the DTA; the National Unity Democratic Organization; the UDF; the Republican Party (RP); and the MAG.

Namibia maintained neutrality in its foreign policy, until the late 1990s, when 2,000 Namibian solders were sent to help President Laurent Kabila of the Democratic Republic of the Congo fight rebels. By August 2001, all but 150 of these troops had returned home. In December 1999 Namibia allowed Angolan troops to use its territory to pursue UNITA rebels. Between December 1999 and January 2000, scores of civilians were wounded or killed. The death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi in February 2002 and the subsequent peace accord between UNITA and the Angolan government ended bouts of "hot pursuit" across the Namibian-Angolan border in connection with the quarter-centurylong civil war in Angola. In 2003, the Namibian and Botswanan governments accepted the demarcation of their joint border along the Kwando, Linyanti, and Chobe rivers. In 2004, the Shesheke bridge across the Zambezi River was officially inaugurated, extending the Trans-Caprivi highway from Zambia and the DROC to Walvis Bay.

In June 2003, Namibia was included in free trade talks with the United States as part of the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). It also received more than us$37 million over five years in assistance from the Global Fund to fight HIV/AIDS and is one of 14 countries that will benefit from a us$15 billion five-year emergency plan for HIV/AIDS which was coordinated by the US government. Although the local production of anti-AIDS drugs was still being delayed, Namibia already provides anti-retrovirals to six public hospitals in an effort to assist the, then, 22.5% of the adult population that were HIV positive.

GOVERNMENT

The Namibia constitution adopted on 21 March 1990 is considered a model of democratic government. Universal suffrage and a strong emphasis on human rights and political freedom are prominent. An independent judiciary and legal obligations to improve the disadvantaged sectors of the population are written into the government. Namibia has a bicameral legislature. It consists of a National Assembly of 72 deputies elected for a five-year term, and up to six members appointed by the president, and a National Council comprised of two members from each of 13 regions elected for a six-year term. The National Council functions purely in an advisory capacity. The president is elected by direct, popular vote and serves as head of state and government and commanderin-chief of the defense force for no more than two five-year terms. The constitution was amended in November 1999 specifically to allow Nujoma (alone) a third term, a move that has attracted criticism both from within the country and the international community. There is also an independent ombudsman to investigate complaints and take action in defense of the interests of individuals and organization in their dealings with the state.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) is the largest political party, and during the struggle for independence, it was recognized by the OAU and the UN General Assembly as the sole legitimate representative of the Namibian people. SWAPO had a political wing, PLAN, that was engaged in war with South Africa. SWAPO's support comes chiefly from the Ovambo people of the north and from urban areas. The Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA), a white-led amalgam of constituent ethnic parties, was the main opposition party in Namibia's first two elections. It narrowly lost the main opposition role (partly due to early alleged financial links with white South Africa) to the new (formed in March 1999) Congress of Democrats (CoD) in the 1999 elections. Three other parties—the United Democratic Front (UDF), the Monitor Action Group (MAG), and the Democratic Coalition of Namibia—won at least a seat in the 1994 and 1999 elections. There are also several small ethnic parties, most of which were represented in the bodies appointed in 1985.

In the 1989 elections to the constituent assembly, SWAPO gained 41 seats (57.3%); the DTA 21 seats (28.6%); the United Democratic Front, four seats (5.6%); and the Action Christian National, three seats (3.5%). The other parties collectively gained three seats on 5% of the vote. In the 1994 elections, SWAPO maintained its commanding majority in the assembly, taking 73.9% of the vote, which translated to 53 seats. DTA held 15 seats; United Democratic Front, 2 seats; and one each by the Democratic Coalition of Namibia and the Monitor Action group. In the November/December 1998 elections for National Council, SWAPO took 21 seats, DTA 4, UDF 1 seat. In the November/December 1999 presidential elections, Nujoma performed even better that in previous elections, winning 76.8% of the vote. Ben Ulenga of the CoD had 10.5%; Katuurike Kaura of DTA, 9.6%; and Chief Justice Garoëb of the UDF, 3%. SWAPO swept 55 of the 72 National Assembly seats; CoD and DTA, got 7 each; UDF, 2; MAG, 1.

Nujoma and SWAPO hold a monopoly on power in what a specialist on Africa, Mahmood Mamdani, calls the "old nationalist model"—in which the liberation party is "the custodian of the nation, and anyone who disagrees is unpatriotic".

In the 2004 local elections, SWAPO won 64% of the votes, CoD, 30%; DTA, 7.8%; UDF, 6%; and NUDO Progressive Party, Local Associations, RP, and NDMC, less than 5% of the votes each. The results of the 15–16 November 2004 presidential and National Assembly elections gave again a vast majority to SWAPO, with 76.3% of the votes backing up the newly elected president Hifikepunye Pohamba, followed by CoD (7.3%), DTA (5.2%), NUDO (4.2%), UDF (3.8%), RP (1.9%), and MAG (1.1%).

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

There are 13 regions in Namibia. The most populous is Omusati, followed by Ohangwena, Khomas, Kavango, Oshana, Oshikoto, Otjozondjupa, Erongo, Caprivi, Kunene, Karas, Hardap, and Omaheke. They are governed by elected councils. Local governments (municipalities, towns and villages) have elected councils.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The court system retains Roman-Dutch elements inherited from South Africa along with elements of the traditional court system. The formal court system is arranged in three tiers: 30 magistrates' courts, the High Court, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court serves as the highest court of appeals and also exercises constitutional review of legislation.

The traditional courts handle minor criminal offenses such as petty theft and violations of local customs. In 1991 a presidential commission recommended that the traditional courts be maintained provided they act consistently with the constitution and laws. Legislation enacted in 1993 was intended to bridge the gap between traditional and magistrates' courts by creation of a system of "community courts."

The constitution calls for an independent judiciary as well as an extensive bill of rights protecting freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and religion and a guarantee of redress for those whose fundamental rights have been violated. It provides for an ombudsman to deliver free legal advice upon request.

Because of a shortage of trained magistrates and lack of legal counsel, courts typically face a significant backlog of cases awaiting trial. The government appointed the first public defender in 1993 and renewed funding for representation for indigent defendants.

Although the constitution specifically prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex, race, color, ethnic origin, religion, creed, or social or economic status, some customary and apartheid-based laws dating from before independence have not yet been repealed.

ARMED FORCES

The armed forces in Namibia numbered 9,000 active personnel in 2005 and included the Presidential Guard and an air wing. The Army was equipped with a small number of aging main battle tanks, 12 reconnaissance vehicles, 60 armored personnel carriers and 81 artillery pieces. The Navy numbered around 200, and operated two patrol craft and one utility helicopter for fishery protection. The air wing's equipment included two MiG-23 fighters, 11 fixed wing transports and two attack helicopters. The paramilitary arm consisted of a special field force of 6,000, which included border guards. Namibia participated in five UN peacekeeping efforts in Africa. In 2005, the defense budget totaled us$160 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Namibia became a member of the United Nations on 23 April 1990; it belongs to ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IAEA, ILO, ITU, UNESCO, UNHCR, the World Bank, and the WHO. It also serves as a member of the African Development Bank, the ACP Group, the Commonwealth of Nations, G-77, the African Union, and the WTO. In the subregion, Namibia belongs to the South Africa Customs Union (SACU) and to the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC). Namibia is also part of the Common Monetary Area (CMA) that includes Lesotho, Swaziland, and South Africa. Namibia is a member of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Namibia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Namibia's economy is dependent on a few primary commodity exports, including minerals (mainly diamonds, uranium, zinc, lead, copper, tin, lithium, and cadmium), livestock (both meat and hides), and fishing. Mining accounts for 14% of GDP and the majority of exports. Diamonds alone contribute approximately 10% of the national GDP. Tourism is also a growing Namibian industry. Led by the diamond industry, the GDP grew 6.6% in 1994, but by only 3.1% in 2003. The economy is highly linked to that of South Africa, in spite gaining independence from that country in 1990. Eighty percent of Namibia's imports originate there, and transport and communications infrastructure are strongly linked with South Africa. The Namibian dollar continues to be linked at parity to the South African rand. Following significant depreciation in 1998, the currency regained strength since 2002, with the exchange rate at us$1 = n$6.35 at the end of December 2005.

Although one of the most prosperous African countries, the country's high per capita income level (approximately us$1,800) is unevenly distributed. With 22.5% of the adult population infected at the end of 2003, the HIV/AIDS pandemic is also having a devastating effect on the economy. Nonetheless, a democratically elected government is following economic and social policies aimed at the development of previously neglected regions of the country and that respond to the major challenges faced by the population.

The economy has a superior transport and communications infrastructure, an extensive natural resource base, a small population, and a stable government committed to competitiveness in attracting investment. Large oil and gas reserves were discovered in 2000. For these reasons analysts believe that Namibia's economy holds enormous potential for long-term economic growth.

According to the last national census, unemployment was high at around 31% in 2001, and the government was geared toward the creation of jobs. The services sector is the largest employer (56%), followed by agriculture (31.1%) and industry (12.2%). The private sector employs about 43% of all employed persons. The government indicated it wished to privatize state-owned enterprises, including in the electricity, telecommunications, water, and transportation sectors, but established no time frame for such privatization. Although tourism accounted for less than 3% of GDP in 2002, it grew faster than any other sector of the economy. Ecotourism is an important segment of the tourism industry, as Namibia has a wide variety of wildlife and striking scenery.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Namibia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at us$15.8 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at us$7,800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.2%. The average inflation rate in 2002 was 2.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 9.3% of GDP, industry 27.8%, and services 62.9%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled us$13 million or about us$6 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to us$146 million or about us$73 per capita and accounted for approximately 3.2% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Namibia totaled us$2.38 billion or about us$1,182 per capita based on a GDP of us$4.3 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.1%. It was estimated that in 2002 about 50% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

As of 2005, the labor force was estimated at 820,000 workers. In 2000 (the latest year for which data was available), agriculture accounted for 31.1% of the workforce, with another 56% in the service sector, 12.2% in industry, and 0.7% in undefined occupations. In 2002, the unemployment rate was nearly 40%.

The constitution provides freedom of association, including the right to form and join trade unions, which was extended to public servants, farm workers, and domestic employees under the Labor Act of March 1992. The principal trade union organizations are the National Union of Namibian Workers (NUNW), a SWAPO-aligned federation, and the Namibia Federation of Trade Unions (NFTU). The main public service and construction unions are affiliates of the Namibia People's Social Movement (NPSM), formerly known as the Namibian Christian Social Trade Unions. Workers generally have the right to strike. Collective bargaining is permitted but is virtually only practiced in the mining and construction industries.

The minimum legal working age is 14, however child labor remains prevalent especially in rural areas. There is no legal minimum wage, and many workers have difficulty maintaining a decent standard of living. The legal workweek is set at 45 hours with a mandatory 24-hour rest period per week. The government implements health and safety standards.

AGRICULTURE

Less than 1% of Namibia is arable. About 31.1% of the active population depends on agriculture for their living. Agriculture consists of two sectors: a commercial sector with some 50,000 workers (producing 80% of annual yields), and a subsistence sector situated largely in communal areas. Colonialism left Namibia with a three-tier agricultural production system: 4,000 commercial ranches; 20,000 stock-raising households; and 120,000 mixed farming operations. The ranches displaced local farmers on 66% of the viable farmland and left only 5% of the land to the 120,000 mixed-farming operations.

Corn is grown primarily in the area known as the Grootfontein–Otavi–Tsumeb triangle, where farms are much smaller than in other parts of the country. Corn production in 2004 amounted only to 33,000 tons (down from 50,000 tons in 1991). Recent droughts have created a dependency on grain imports. Namibia is dependent on South Africa for corn, sugar, fruit, and vegetables. In 2004, Namibia's agricultural trade deficit was us$43.3 million.

Caprivi and Kavango in the northeast have potential for extensive crop development. Communal farms there are estimated to produce 60% of their staple food, such as mahango (which is also used to brew beer). Cotton, groundnut, rice, sorghum, and vegetable production have begun on an experimental basis in Kavango. An irrigation project at Hardap Dam near Mariental produces corn, alfalfa, feed corn, and grapes.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Namibia is an arid country with very little arable land. Livestock production is the major agricultural activity, making up more than 90% of that sector's output. In 2005, there were an estimated 2,500,000 head of cattle, 2,900,000 sheep, and 2,100,000 goats. In 2005, meat production totaled 107,600 tons, including 77,300 tons of beef, 14,000 tons of mutton, and 5,000 tons of goat meat. Karakul pelts have been a leading export, but the world market is currently depressed. Namibia has ideal conditions for commercial breeding of ostriches, and of other African game animals for meat, hide, trophy, and tourism purposes.

FISHING

The fish stocks of the rich Benguela current system were seriously depleted in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s. Most species, however, were expected to recover by the late 1990s as a result of conservation programs. Fishing and fish processing are among the nation's best prospects for employment and economic growth. In early 1992, a new fisheries code was presented to parliament, which stressed employment and training opportunities for Namibian citizens, profit reinvestment, and revenue gain for the nation. The total catch in 2003 was 636,464 tons, with Cape hakes accounting for 192,275 tons and Cape horse mackerels for 366,912 tons. After independence in 1990, the volume of the nominal catch skyrocketed nearly tenfold. Exports of fish and fish products totaled us$333 million in 2003.

FORESTRY

About 10% of Namibia consists of forests and woodland, including woodland savanna, all in the north and northeast. Most of the timber is used locally.

MINING

Namibia is among the world's premier producers of gem diamonds. In 2003 the mineral industry accounted for 20% of GDP and about two-thirds of the country's exports by value. More than 6,000 workers were employed by the minerals industry. The most valuable minerals were diamonds, uranium, copper, silver, lead, zinc, gold, pyrite, and salt. Diamonds were mainly recovered from a 96 km stretch along the coastline north of the Orange River; which produced 1,481,489 carats in 2003. Also produced in 2003 were tantalum, tin, cement, fluorspar, gypsum, semiprecious stones (agate, amethyst, garnet, pietersite, rose quartz, sodalite, and tourmaline), dolomite, granite, marble, sulfur (pyrite concentrate), and wollastonite.

In 2003, mine copper output was estimated at 19,500 metric tons (copper content), up from 18,012 metric tons in 2002; mine lead, 18,782 metric tons (metal content); zinc concentrate, 60,500 metric tons (metal content); and salt, 697,914 metric tons. Rössing Uranium, owned by Río Tinto-Zinc, of the United Kingdom, produced uranium oxide at the world's sixth-largest producing uranium mine, at Swakopmund. Coal has been discovered in southeastern Namibia. Mineral exports accounted for one-half of total export value. In the period 1999–2003, the following minerals experienced one or more years of no output: antimony, arsenic, tantalite, tin, industrial diamond, gypsum, lithium minerals (amblygonite, lepidolite, and petalite), several semiprecious gemstones (amethyst, chrysocolla, garnet, crystal quartz, pietersite, rose quartz, and tourmaline), and sulfur.

ENERGY AND POWER

Namibia, as of 1 January 2005, had no proven reserves of crude oil, or refining capacity, but does have proven reserves of natural gas.

In 2004, Namibia's demand for refined oil products and imports each averaged 23,000 barrels per day.

Proven reserves of natural gas have been placed, as of 1 January 2005 at 2.2 trillion cu ft. However in 2003, there was no recorded demand or output of natural gas.

Namibia generates around 50% of the electric power it consumes domestically. The main source is the 240 MW Ruacana hydroelectric plant. However, output is cyclical, necessitating the importation of power from South Africa. In addition, the Ruacana plant has been experiencing significant problems, thus boosting the need by Namibia to import power. In 2003, demand for electric power totaled 2.37 billion kWh, with production that year totaling 1.46 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Namibia's small industrial sector has centered on meat packing and fish processing, with some production of basic consumer goods. There are furniture and clothing factories, metal and engineering works, assembly plants for imported components, and a cement plant (which, however, closed in 1999 due to pollution risks to the lives of workers and residents in the area). A Malaysian textile company, Ramatex, established a garment factory in Windhoek in 2002, yet was closed in 2005 following accusations of workers' rights violations and inappropriate environment and labor conditions.

In 2002, the manufacturing sector represented 10.7% of the national GDP. Historically dependent on South Africa's manufacturing sector, Namibia processes fish, minerals and meat for export, and produces food and beverages. The government has committed to a mixed-market economy and aims to diversify the economy away from its traditional reliance upon the mining sector, encouraging private-sector investment and export-oriented manufacturing industries. Although the construction only contributed 2.2% of GDP in 2002, new projects included extending the Northern Railway line from Tsumeb to Oshikango, the construction of a new State House, the resurfacing of the Kongola-Katima road, and the extension of the Trans-Caprivi highway westward.

Namibia remains under explored with regard to oil and natural gas, but its greatest potential in the hydrocarbon sector remains with natural gas. The main significant discovery as of 2002 was the Kudu gas field off Luderitz. Originally involving big multinationals such as Shell and ChevronTexaco, these companies withdrew leaving the state-owned National Petroleum Corporation of Namibia (Namcor) in charge. Plans were to construct a moderatesize electric power generation plant in Orangemund, a pipeline to the Western Cape in South Africa, and potentially two electric power plants there. The primary partners in the Kudu gas field project are Namcor, NamPower, Energy Africa and South Africa's Electricity Supply Commission (ESKOM).

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Namibia Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, founded in 1979 at Windhoek, supports extensive research on natural resources and ecology. The Desert Ecological Research Unit of Namibia, founded in 1963 at Swakopmund, carries out exploration and research in the Namib Desert and semiarid Namibia. The University of Namibia has a faculty of science. The Namibia Scientific Society, at Windhoek, is concerned with ornithology, spelaeology, botany, archaeology, herpetology, astronomy, and ethnology. Natural science exhibits are displayed at the Lüderitz Museum, the Museum Swakopmund, and the National Museum at Windhoek. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 4% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, Namibia's high technology exports totaled us$6 million, or 1% of its' manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Windhoek is the country's major commercial center. A good road network, increasingly paved, facilitates trade and communications around the country. The marketing and distribution systems are mainly controlled by foreign investors and managers from South Africa and Germany. Domestic trade is heavily dependent on South African imports for most consumer goods; there is also significant South African presence in domestic investment mainly in the form of pension funds, life insurance and transactions between commercial banks. Business hours are from 7:30 am to 4:30 or 5 pm, Monday through Friday. Many businesses are closed from mid-December to mid-January for a summer holiday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Key export markets for Namibia are the United Kingdom (48%), South Africa (23%), Spain (15%), and France (4%). Main exports in 2001 were diamonds (approximately 46% of total export earnings in 2003), processed fish, other minerals, animals and derived products, and beverages and other foods. Along with uranium, copper, silver, lead, zinc, and gold, mineral exports accounted for 68.9% of total export earnings in 2002. The Walvis Bay enclave is an export-processing zone, with the potential of becoming a center for re-exports toward Angola, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Botswana.

Leading imports are vehicles and transport equipment, petroleum products and fuel, chemicals, foodstuffs, and machinery and electrical equipment. South Africa (80%), the United States (4%), Germany (2%), and Japan are the leading suppliers for Namibia's imports.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Traditionally, Namibia has maintained a trade surplus resulting from its valuable mineral exports. However, over 95% of Namibia's consumption and investment goods are imported, resulting in wide fluctuations in the merchandise trade surplus due to the constant changes in world mineral prices. Displaying a trade deficit, the overall balance of payments went from a deficit of us$50 million in 2002 to a deficit of us$103 million in 2003.

Namibia joined the IMF in September 1990, when it began opening more to foreign trade. In recent years, the current account has maintained a surplus, due to surpluses in net current transfers, particularly in Southern African Customs Union (SACU) receipts and foreign development assistance not linked to capital assets. Germany, the United States, and Scandinavian countries are the principal bilateral donors. Although revenues from the SACU are expected to decline for Namibia as a result of the 2002 new arrangements, they still represent an important financial source for the government.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Banking activities have recorded strong growth since independence in 1990, while the range of financial institutions operating in Namibia has begun to expand. Total assets of the four main commercial banks more than doubled in 1991–95, and during 1995 bank lending to the private sector rose by 34%, that represented 92% of total domestic credit, of which 41% comprised loans to individuals. There have been no banking failures since independence, but the regulatory regime inherited from South Africa is being brought more into line with international norms under a new banking institutions act that was due to come into effect in 1997.

First National Bank Namibia and Standard Bank Namibia have the largest branch networks and remain wholly owned subsidiaries of their South African parent banks. Other commercial banks included the Commercial Bank of Namibia (CBN, a subsidiary of the Geneva-based Société financière pour les pays d'outre mer, or SFOM), South Africa's Nedcor Bank, FirstRand Limited, and Bank Windhoek (in which South Africa's ABSA Bank is the main shareholder). In mid-1996, Bank Windhoek completed a merger with the Namibia Building Society. The City Savings and Investment Bank (CSIB) was launched in 1994 as Namibia's first indigenously owned financial institution. At that time it had a single branch in Windhoek, but has since grown. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to us$733.3 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was us$1.2 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 9.25%.

Within four years, the Namibian Stock Exchange (NSE), which started operations in October 1992, grew to become sub-Saharan Africa's second-largest in terms of market capitalization, next to the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE). The NSE is increasingly being used by local firms to raise capital for business expansions, while foreign investors are buying into Namibian equities through new listings and rights offers, which have been mainly oversubscribed. Some 95% of the NSE's overall market capitalization comprises dual-listings of South African parent groups of Namibian subsidiaries. Thirteen different companies were listed in 2001, when local market capitalization was us$151 million. As of 2004, a total of 13 companies were listed on the NSE, which had a market capitalization that year of us$442 million.

INSURANCE

The government embarked on a considerable shake-up of the insurance and pensions sector during the 1990s, over which the South African mutual societies had the biggest influence. Premium income continued to be invested mainly in South African assets following independence, overriding Namibian insurance funds like the Government Institutions Pension Fund (GIPF).

Legislative amendments of 1995 required that 35% of Namibian-generated funds under management be reinvested in specified local assets. A long-term insurance bill tabled at the end of 1996 made it compulsory for South African mutuals to establish Namibian-registered public companies and match net liabilities with local assets. As part of their asset localization measures, Sanlam and Old Mutual launched the first Namibian unit trusts in 1995. Other major insurance companies include Metropolitan Life and Mututal and Federal Insurance Company.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Although per capita GDP is one of the highest in Africa, the majority of Namibia's people live in poverty. The economy is one of the most advanced in the region, but income distribution is very skewed. In order to combat this problem, the government continues to concentrate its spending on social services. A large portion of the budget is also allocated to development projects, including

boosting the construction industry and expanding the infrastructure.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Namibia's central government took in revenues of approximately us$1.9 billion and had expenditures of us$2 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -us$94 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 39.6% of GDP. Total external debt was us$1.164 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were n$10,349 million and expenditures were n$10,657 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$982 million and expenditures us$1,081 million, based on a market exchange rate for 2002 of us$1 = n$10.54075 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 26.4%; defense, 9.0%; public order and safety, 9.8%; economic affairs, 10.4%; housing and community amenities, 9.0%; health, 10.6%; recreation, culture, and religion, 2.2%; education, 22.4%; and social protection, 7.3%.

TAXATION

There is a progressive personal income tax with a top rate of 35%. The basic tax on corporate profits is 35%. Nonresident shareholders are taxed 10% on dividends, and there is a tax on undistributed profits. Mining companies, and oil and gas extraction companies are taxed at special rates. As of 27 November 2001, a value-added tax (VAT) replaced the 8% general sales tax (GST), with a standard rate of 15%. Exempted from VAT are education, medical services, hotel accommodations, and public transportation. There are also excise taxes on luxury goods.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Namibia is part of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the SADC Free Trade Protocol. No tariffs exist on most goods moving between members, but there is a 15% duty on nonimports from nonmember nations, plus a 15% sales duty. It also has signed bilateral trade agreements with over 20 major trading nations around the world. Imports from outside the union are subject to a common tariff rate based on the Harmonized System of Import Classification; most imports need licenses. South Africa levies and collects most of the customs and excise duties for the other members and then pays each a share, based on an established formula. Namibia has double taxation agreements with South Africa, the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Germany (but not the United States) and is a member of the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

International investment, mostly South African, has historically played an important role in Namibia. In addition, there is significant UK and US investment in mining. Several international oil and gas distribution as well as fishing companies operate in Namibia. In December 1990, foreign investment legislation was liberalized. In April 1993, Namibia announced a program of private-sector investment incentives that included lower taxes, grants, and development loans. In 1994, the government created an export processing zone at Walvis Bay. Namibia's goal is to create an infrastructure that will serve as a reexport center for southern Africa, including Angola, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Botswana.

The total foreign direct investment (FDI) in Namibia as a percent of GDP increased from 17.8% in 1998 to over 25% in 2004.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Namibia's government will continue to build and diversify its economy around its mineral reserves. Priorities include expanding the manufacturing sector, land reform, agricultural development in the populous north, and improved education and health opportunities. Transfer of Walvis Bay and 12 offshore islands to Namibia in 1994 returned to Namibia its deep-water port and 20% of its offshore rights. With 9,000 workers, the fishing industry is an increasingly important source of private-sector employment.

The five-year development program started in 1994 set an annual growth rate target of 5%, highlighting government budget cuts and foreign investment and trade. As of 2002, gross domestic product (GDP) growth since the mid-1990s had averaged 3.5% a year. Unemployment remained high, at around 30% of the labor force, and economic growth was not substantial enough to significantly reduce poverty. The 2004–05 budget aimed to limit the fiscal deficit to 1.6% of GDP. The recent Namibian Stock Exchange (NSX) continues to expand, gaining weight particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

By many economic and social indicators, including population per physician, per hospital bed, and per telephone, Namibia is statistically better off than many other sub-Saharan African countries. However, such comparisons also mask the huge disparities between rural and urban Namibia, and between its black and white populations.

The government is obliged by the constitution to promote actively the welfare of the people, including gender, racial and regional equality. Considerable discrimination against women exists in both formal and customary law. Community property laws, for example, define women as legal minors, unable to enter into any kind of contract without the husband's signature. In the absence of this permission, women may not open a bank account or purchase property. Some measures were taken to address these inequities through the Married Person's Equality Bill, which out-laws discrimination against women in civil marriages. However, the law does not affect practices in customary, or traditional, marriages. Domestic abuse and violence are widespread, and cultural views of women exacerbate the problem.

Human rights are generally respected. However, there are excesses by security forces, and prison conditions remain harsh. Indigenous San peoples have historically faced discrimination from Namibia's other ethnic groups. The government has attempted to redress the marginalization of the San by increasing their participation in decision-making on issues that affect them. These efforts have been applied unevenly, and the San remain relatively isolated and largely excluded from national decision making.

HEALTH

In 2004, there were an estimated 30 physicians, 168 nurses, and four dentists per 100,000 people. Safe water and adequate sanitation were available to 77% and 41% of the population, respectively. Since health services are provided by the ethnically-based second-tier authorities, the system is effectively segregated. Approximately 57% of the population had access to health care services.

In 2005, average life expectancy was 43.93 years and infant mortality was 48.98 per 1,000 live births. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 34.2 and 22.3 per 1,000 people and the maternal mortality rate was estimated at 230 per 100,000 live births. About 29% of married women ages 15 to 49 years used some form of contraception.

Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 100%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 79%; polio, 79%; and measles, 68%. The rates for DPT and measles were, respectively, 72% and 66%. About 26% of children under age five were malnourished. The Namibian government is considering fortifying foods with vitamin A and/or iron. Vitamin A deficiencies were seen in 20.4% of children under age five and goiter is a common problem.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 21.30 per 100 adults in 2003, the 6th highest rate in the world. As of 2004, there were approximately 210,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 16,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003. The epidemic was worst in the northeastern part of the country, where rates of infection were as high as 29% of the population. HIV/AIDS was the leading cause of mortality, followed by pneumonia, tuberculosis, and malaria. Measles and polio prevalence was low.

HOUSING

There is a sharp contrast in housing standards between white and black Namibians primarily because the economic imbalance between these groups has not evened out since the end of apartheid. A majority of the population is rural, where most dwellings are self-constructed from local materials. In a 1991 housing survey, 50% of all housing units were kraals (huts) made from pole frames and thatch or mud walls. Some kraal are plastered with cow dung. It was estimated that 58% of all households lived in these type of huts. About 40% of kraal households had seven or more members. About 33% of all housing units were detached homes, but these were only serving 30% of all households.

The urban areas of Windhoek, Walvis Bay, and Swakopmund have faced housing challenges with rapid urbanization in those areas. In 2001, about 30% of all residents in Windhoek lived in informal settlement communities. From 1991–99, the city had developed three reception areas that were intended to be temporary settlements for new residents, who would have been resettled under the squatter's policy. Unfortunately, the settlements grew more quickly than the land and utility systems could be developed. In other cities, it has been estimated that about up to 70% of urban residents live in informal settlements. Regional and town governments build and rent housing to migrants, but the demand has overwhelmed the supply. In the 1990s, the backlog in housing units was estimated at 45,000 units.

In 2001, there were about 346,455 private households. The average number of people per household was about 5.1. About 87% of all households had access to safe drinking water. Less than 50% had access to modern toilet facilities, only 32% have electric lighting, and 62% used wood or charcoal for cooking fuel.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory for 10 years between the ages of 6 and 16. Primary education is for seven years, and secondary lasts for five years. The academic year runs from February to November. In 2001, about 23% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 78% of age-eligible students; 76% for boys and 81% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 44% of age-eligible students; 39% for boys and 50% for girls. It is estimated that about 92.4% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 28:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 24:1.

Higher education is provided primarily by the University of Namibia, the Polytechnic of Namibia, and the Colleges of Education (at Windhoek, Ongwediva, Rundu, and Caprivi). There is an Academy for Tertiary Education for adult students. In 2003, about 7% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 85%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 7.2% of GDP, or 21% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

Public libraries serve most cities and towns in an extensive network. The National Archives and a public library (78,000 volumes) are both located in Windhoek, as is the National Library, which contains about 90,000 volumes. The library of the University of Namibia at Windhoek holds 86,800 volumes.

There is a National Museum of Namibia in Windhoek, with an emphasis on the natural and human sciences, and local museums in Lüderitz, Swakopmund, Gobabis, Omaruri, Outjo, Tsumeb, and other towns. The State Museum in Windhoek features objects from the cultures of the Nama, Bushman, Herero, Ovambo, and other Southern African peoples. The Lüderitz Museum features displays of diamond mining.

MEDIA

Namibia has good quality telephone service, with at least 18 automatic telephone exchanges that can put callers in touch with 63 countries. Communication with rural areas is provided by about 65 fixed radio stations and 500 mobile stations. Fax machines and telex services are readily available. In 2003, there were an estimated 66 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 2,600 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. Also in 2003, there were approximately 116 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government-owned Namibian Broadcasting Corp. transmits radio programs in English, German, Afrikaans, and African languages. Television relays from South Africa began in the Windhoek and Oshakati areas in 1981. In 2004, there were nine private radio stations, one private television station, and a private cable and satellite television service. In 2003, there were an estimated 134 radios and 269 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 16 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 99.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 34 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were nine secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

Four major daily newspapers are published in Windhoek, including (with 2002 circulation): The Namibian (11,000), Die Republikein (12,000), and The Windhoek Advertiser (5,000). Tempo is a Sunday paper with a circulation of 11,000. The government owns and operates the Namibia Press Agency. The government also owns one biweekly newspaper, New Era, and two magazines, Namibia Today and Namibia Review.

The constitution provides for free speech and a free press, and the government is said to generally respect those rights. However, the government-owned Namibian Broadcasting Corporation operated most radio and television services, and though it provides significant coverage of opposition opinions, there have been many complaints of bias in the reporting of sensitive issues.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are two chambers of commerce in Windhoek. Professional and trade associations exist for teachers, miners, journalists, architects, jewelers, and members of the tourist industry. The National Scientific Society promotes research and education in the fields of national history, ethnology, archaeology, zoology, botany, and geology.

National youth organizations include the Namibian National Students Organization, the National Youth Council of Namibia, the SWAPO Youth League of Namibia, Junior Chamber, and Boy Scouts of Namibia. A number of sports associations are active within the country, representing such pastimes as sailing, badminton, baseball, and tennis. Women's organizations include the Sister Namibia Collective and the Namibia National Women's Organization. The YWCA has chapters in Namibia.

Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs International, are also present. The Red Cross and the Society of St. Vincent de Paul are also active in the country.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Namibia's prime tourist attractions are game viewing, trophy hunting, and the scenic beauty of its deserts. In the west, Swakopmund is a Hanseatic-style resort town populated by Namibians of German descent. It is the center for tours of the nearby Namib dunes, and for visits to the wild Skeleton Coast to the north. In the south, the Fish River Canyon, 85 km (53 mi) long and 700 m (2,300 ft) deep, ranks second in size to the Grand Canyon.

In 2003, Namibia had 695,221 foreign visitors, of whom 32% came from South Africa. There were 2,749 hotel rooms with 6,091 beds and an occupancy rate of 43%. Visitors stayed an average of two nights. Vaccinations are required if traveling from an infected area. All nationals except those of Japan, Germany, the United States, and 42 other countries are required to carry a visa for stays of up to 90 days.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Windhoek at us$157; in Etosha, us$198; and in Swakopmund, us$172.

FAMOUS NAMIBIANS

Herman Toivo ja Toivo (b.1915?), the founder of SWAPO and the leader of Namibian nationalism, languished in a South African prison from 1966, when he was convicted of treason, until his release in March 1984. Sam Nujoma (b.1929) has been leader of SWAPO since 1966, and served as first president of Namibia, from 1990–2005. Hifikepunye Pohamba (b.1935) took office as Namibia's second president in 2005.

DEPENDENCIES

Namibia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Minahan, James. Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998.

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Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Namibia , officially Republic of Namibia, republic (2005 est. pop. 2,031,000), c.318,000 sq mi (823,620 sq km), SW Africa. It is bordered by Angola in the north, by Zambia in the northeast, by Botswana in the east, by South Africa in the southeast and south, and by the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The Orange River forms the southern boundary, and the Kunene, Cubango, and Zambezi rivers form parts of the northern and northeastern borders. The country includes the Caprivi Strip in the northeast; there have been clashes there between government forces and separatists. The capital and largest city of Namibia is Windhoek .

Land and People

The country has four main geographical regions: the arid and barren Namib Desert, which runs along the entire Atlantic coast with widths of from 50 to 80 mi (80–130 km); an extensive central plateau that averages c.3,600 ft (1,100 m) in elevation; the western fringes of the Kalahari Desert in the east; and an alluvial plain in the north that includes the Etosha Pan, a large salt marsh. The highest point is Brandberg Mt. (8,402 ft/2,561 m), situated in the western part of the central plateau. In addition to the capital, other towns include Keetmanshoop , Tsumeb , Lüderitz, Gobabis, and Otjiwarongo.

Namibia has an ethnically diverse population that includes the Bantu-speaking Ovambo (about 50% of the population), Kavango, and Herero ; various Nama (see Khoikhoi ) groups; the Damara; San (Bushmen); and whites of South African, German, and British descent. English is the official language, but most of the population speaks Afrikaans. About 80% of the population is Christian, and the rest follow traditional beliefs.

Economy

Because of inadequate rainfall, crops are not widely raised and pastoralism forms the backbone of the agricultural sector. Goats and sheep are raised mainly in the south, and cattle are herded chiefly in the north. About half the people make their living by agriculture, mainly from Karakul pelts, livestock, and dairy goods. Millet, peanuts, sorghum, and grapes are grown. Unemployment is high, and much of the agricultural land remains in the hands of several thousand white farmers; this has led to pressure for land redistribution, and the government has gradually transferred ownership to black Namibians through land purchases, some of which have involved expropriation.

The country's few manufactures are made up mostly of processed food. There is an extensive mining industry, run principally by foreign-owned companies. Namibia is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds, the country's principal export; the most significant diamond deposits are offshore. Other important minerals are uranium, lead, zinc, tin, silver, tungsten, and copper. There are significant but yet unexploited natural gas deposits offshore. Fishing fleets operate in the Atlantic. Unrestricted fishing by commercial companies severely depleted the country's supply of certain types of fish, but stocks are being replenished.

The central part of the country is served by roads and rail lines that are linked with those of South Africa, its largest trading partner. The main exports are diamonds, copper, gold, zinc, lead, uranium, cattle, fish, and Karakul pelts. Foodstuffs, petroleum products, machinery and equipment, and chemicals are imported.

Government

Namibia is governed under the constitution of 1990. The president, who is head of state, is popularly elected for a five-year term and is eligible for a second term. The government is headed by a prime minister, who is appointed by the president. There is a bicameral legislature. The National Council has 26 seats, with two members chosen from each regional council to serve six-year terms. Members of the 72-seat National Assembly are popularly elected for five-year terms. Administratively, the country is divided into 13 regions.

History

Early History and Colonialism

The earliest inhabitants of Namibia were San hunters and gatherers, who lived there as early as 2,000 years ago. By c.AD 500, Nama herders had entered the region; they have left early records of their activities in the form of cave paintings. The Herero people settled in the western and northern areas of Namibia around 1600. The Ovambo migrated into Namibia after about 1800.

Diogo Cam and Bartolomeu Dias, both Portuguese navigators, landed on the coast in the early 15th cent. Portuguese and Dutch expeditions explored the coastal regions, and in the late 18th cent. Dutch and British captains laid claim to parts of the coast. These claims, however, were disallowed by their governments. In the 18th cent., English missionaries arrived, and they were followed by German missionaries in the 1840s. Britain annexed Walvis Bay in 1878. The Bremen trading firm of F. A. E. Lüderitz gained a cession of land at Angra Pequeña (now Lüderitz) in 1883, and in 1884 the German government under Otto von Bismarck proclaimed a protectorate over this area, to which the rest of South West Africa (Ger. Süd-West Afrika ) was soon added.

Conflicts between the indigenous population and the Europeans, mainly over control of land, led to outbreaks of violence in the 1890s, which worsened in the 1900s. In 1903 the Nama began a revolt, joined by the Herero in 1904. The Germans pursued an uncompromising military campaign that by 1908 had resulted in the death of about 54,000 Herero (out of a total Herero population of about 70,000), many of whom were driven into the Kalahari Desert, where they perished; 30,000 others also died in the revolt. In 1908 diamonds were discovered near Lüderitz, and a large influx of Europeans began.

During World War I the country was occupied (1915) by South African forces, and after the war South Africa began (1920) to administer it as a C-type mandate under the League of Nations. In 1921–22 the Bondelzwarts, a small Nama group, revolted against South African rule, but they were crushed by South African forces employing airpower. After the founding of the United Nations in 1945, South Africa, unlike the other League of Nations mandatories, refused to surrender its mandate and place South West Africa under the UN trusteeship system.

The Struggle for Independence

In 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia (both of which had been members of the League of Nations) initiated proceedings in the International Court of Justice to have the mandate declared as being in force and to have South Africa charged with failing to fulfill the terms of the mandate. The court ruled in 1966 that Ethiopia and Liberia had not established a legal right or interest entitling them to bring the case. In frustration at this decision, the South West African People's Organization (SWAPO), operating in exile, undertook small-scale guerrilla warfare in South West Africa.

The UN General Assembly in 1966 passed a resolution terminating the mandate, and in 1968 it resolved that the country be known as Namibia. The International Court of Justice reaffirmed (1971) the General Assembly's resolution, but the South African government maintained that the United Nations had no authority over South West Africa, and it proceeded with plans for establishing ten African homelands (Bantustans) in the country and for tying it more closely to South Africa.

South Africa's attempt to repress political opposition was met with SWAPO's extensive boycott of the Bantustan elections in Ovamboland in 1973. South Africa held a constitutional conference (the Turnhalle Conference) in 1975 and delayed deciding Namibia's status. Responding to threats from the world community, the government promised Namibian independence by the end of 1978.

In 1977, the government adopted a new constitution that upheld apartheid policies, restricted SWAPO participation in politics, and sought to continue South African control over foreign affairs after independence. SWAPO and other opposition groups effectively waged guerrilla warfare, gaining control of areas in the north. A UN resolution in 1978 called for a cease-fire and UN-monitored elections. South Africa balked at elections, fearing a SWAPO-led Namibian government.

Under a 1988 agreement brokered by the United States, the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola was linked with the implementation of the UN plan in Namibia. UN-supervised elections were held in 1989; SWAPO won a majority of the parliamentary seats, and party leader Sam Nujoma was elected president. A constitution was adopted in Feb., 1990, and Namibia became independent on Mar. 21, 1990. The important deepwater port of Walvis Bay, to which South Africa had continued to lay claim, was yielded to Namibia in 1994. In the 1994 elections, SWAPO again won a majority and Nujoma was reelected. A land reform program began in 1996 but proceeded slowly; in 2004 the government began expropriating white-owned farms to accelerate the process of resettlement. In the late 1990s Namibia supplied military aid to President Laurent Kabila of the Congo, who was fighting rebel forces seeking to overthrow him.

President Nujoma was reelected again in 1999, following a constitutional change that permitted him to run for a third term. Suggestions in 2004 that another amendment be made to permit a fourth term proved potentially polarizing within both the ruling party and the nation, but in Apr., 2004, Nujoma announced that he would step down at the end of his third term. In Nov., 2004, Hifikepunye Pohamba , the SWAPO candidate and Nujoma's handpicked successor, was elected president in a landslide, and succeeded him in the post in Mar., 2005. SWAPO also retained a two-thirds majority of the seats in the parliament.

An outbreak of polio in 2006 that resulted in more than 100 cases led to a mass immunization program throughout the country in June and July. Namibia has a significant AIDS problem, with more than 40% of the population infected in some northern areas. In Sept., 2006, the government declared the revived United Democratic party, a group advocating independence for the Caprivi Strip through peaceful means, illegal for secessionist activities. Pohamba was reelected by a large margin in Dec., 2009, and SWAPO again dominated the parliamentary elections.

Bibliography

See H. Bley, South West Africa under German Rule, 1894–1914 (tr. 1971); I. Goldblatt, History of South West Africa from the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century (1971); D. Soggot, Namibia: The Violent Heritage (1986); P. H. Katjavivi, A History of Resistance in Namibia (1988); D. L. Sparks and D. Green, Namibia: The Nation after Independence (1991).

Namibia (formerly South-West Africa) A country in southern Africa with borders on Angola in the north, Botswana in the east, and South Africa in the south.

Physical

In the north-east of Namibia a long sliver of territory, the Caprivi Strip, reaches between Angola and Botswana to Zambia. In the west the Namibia Desert stretches down the Atlantic Ocean coast; in the east is the Kalahari. The higher land between is also hot and arid and has no permanent rivers.

Economy

Poor rainfall limits agriculture to livestock-raising, although fishing, millet, maize, and wheat are also important. Exports are dominated by uranium and diamonds. Diamonds are found near the Orange River in the extreme south. There are also deposits of tungsten, vanadium, tin, copper, and lead. There is a shortage of skilled labour, and manufacturing industry is limited. The economy has not recovered from the devastation of the war for independence, and is still highly dependent on South Africa and multinational companies.

History

Namibia was occupied by Khoikhoin (Hottentot), San (Bushman), and Herero peoples when Portuguese navigators explored the coastal areas of the country in the late 15th century. German missionaries went there in the 19th century and in 1884 the German protectorate of South-West Africa was established. In 1915, during World War I, it was captured by South African forces, and in 1920 became a LEAGUE OF NATIONS mandated territory under South Africa. In 1946 the United Nations refused to allow it to be incorporated into South Africa and ended the mandate (1964), renaming the territory Namibia. In 1971 the International Court of Justice at The Hague ruled that the continued occupation of Namibia by South Africa was illegal and the UN recognized the Black nationalist group, SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organization), as the legitimate representative of the people of Namibia. A National Assembly for internal government was established by South Africa in 1979 but SWAPO guerrillas continued to operate from Angola, which South African troops invaded. In 1988 South Africa was persuaded by the UN to negotiate with the SWAPO leader Samuel Nujoma. A Geneva protocol was signed in August and SWAPO won elections in November 1989, with Nujoma becoming President. Namibia gained independence as a multiparty democracy in 1990. Walvis Bay, a major port, remained an enclave of South Africa until 1994, when it was returned to Namibia. Nujoma was re-elected President in 1994.

Namibia (formerly South West Africa)

Country statistics

Land and climate

Namibia broadly has four geographical regions. The arid Namib Desert runs along the Atlantic coast. Inland, a central plateau, mostly between 900 and 2000m (2950–6560ft), includes the capital, Windhoek. The highest point is Brandberg Mountain, at 2606m (8550ft). In the n lies an alluvial plain, which includes the marshlands of the Caprivi Strip. To the e is the w fringe of the Kalahari. The Orange River forms Namibia's s border. It is a warm, arid country. Grassland and shrub cover much of the interior.

History

The nomadic San inhabited the region c.2000 years ago. They were gradually displaced by Bantu-speakers, such as the Ovambo, Kavango and Herero. Portuguese navigators arrived in the early 15th century. Colonization began in earnest in the 19th century. In 1884 Germany claimed the region as a protectorate and subsumed it into the territory of South West Africa. Germany brutally local rebellions. The discovery of diamonds in 1908 increased European settlement. During World War 1 it was occupied (1915) by South African troops. In 1920, South Africa gained a mandate. After World War 2, South Africa refused to relinquish control. In 1966, the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) began a guerrilla war against South Africa. In 1968, the United Nations called on South Africa to withdraw. In 1971, the International Court of Justice declared that South Africa's rule over Namibia was illegal. South Africa refused to comply. International pressure forced South Africa to promise Namibia independence, but South Africa then qualified the terms. Civil war raged from 1977. A UN security council peace settlement was finally implemented in 1989. SWAPO won multi-party elections in November 1989. In March 1990, Namibia became an independent republic within the British Commonwealth. In 1990, Sam Nujoma became president. He was re-elected in 1994 and 1999. In 1994 South Africa renounced its claim to Walvis Bay and it was incorporated into Namibia. In 2003, the Namibia Farmworkers Union announced it would start forcibly taking white-owned farms.

Economy

Namibia is the world's seventh largest producer of diamonds and ninth largest producer of uranium (2000 GDP per capita, US$4300). Minerals make up 90% of exports. Farming employs c.40% of the workforce. The main activity is cattle and sheep farming. The chief food products are maize, millet and vegetables. Atlantic fishing is also important.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.namibweb.com

Namibia South West Africa The Republic of Namibia since 1990 when independence was achieved. Although there was some desultory European interest in south‐west Africa before 1800 and missionaries increased their activities thereafter, it was not until 1884 that the territory became a German protectorate, officially named South West Africa. This lasted until 1915 when it was occupied by South African forces at the request of the Allies; and in 1920 it became a South African League of Nations mandate. At the end of the Second World War South Africa refused to place the territory under a United Nations Trusteeship, but it was not until 1966 that the UN terminated the mandate. Nevertheless, South Africa continued to administer the territory, in many ways as a part of South Africa, in defiance of UN resolutions. In 1968 the territory came under the nominal control of the UN (although South Africa continued to govern) which changed the name to Namibia, from the Nama word namib ‘shield’ coined by a nationalist leader some years before. However, it is also said to take its name from the Namib Desert (see Namibe).

NAMIBIA. A country of southern Africa and member of the Commonwealth. Languages: English (official), Afrikaans, Damara, German, Herero, Kavango, Ovambo, Nama, etc. Because of the Namib Desert, British and Dutch missionaries did not penetrate the region until the late 18c. The Germans colonized it as German West Africa in 1892–3, but lost it during the First World War to South Africa, which governed it from 1920 as South West Africa, under a League of Nations mandate. The United Nations sought to make it a trusteeship after 1946, but South Africa refused to co-operate. In 1966, the UN mandate was withdrawn. In 1968, the territory's name became Namibia. South Africa governed the territory without international recognition until independence in 1990. English, Afrikaans, and German were all official until independence, when English was declared the sole official language.

Namibia

Culture Name

Namibian

Orientation

Identification. Namibia was colonized by Germany and South Africa and was named Südwestafrika or South West Africa. Those who opposed colonial rule preferred Namibia, from a Nama/Damara word meaning "shield" used for the coastal desert, the Namib, which long protected the interior from access by sea. During the colonial period, many indigenous peoples were dispossessed of their lands and relegated to reserves established for each ethnic group. The emphasis on ethnicity was opposed by growing nationalist sentiment, and Namibia became a unitary nation-state when it gained independence in 1990.

Location and Geography. Covering 318,500 square miles (825,000 square kilometers) on the southwest coast of Africa, Namibia is bordered by Angola and Zambia (north), Botswana (east), South Africa (south), and the Atlantic Ocean (west). The coast, with its productive fishing grounds and the deep water harbor of Walvis Bay, is edged by the dunes and gravel plains of the Namib desert. Inland, the hills and plains of the central plateau are predominantly scrub savannah, gradually transforming into the Kalahari semi-desert to the east. The flat north-central and northeastern regions have extensive flood plains and areas of dense vegetation. The driest country in sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia only has permanent rivers on its northern and southern borders.

Demography. With large expanses of arid and semi-arid land, Namibia has a small population— about 1.7 million—for its size. The population is youthful, with 44 percent aged fourteen and under and only 4 percent older than 65. About 60 percent live in the far north, where rainfall is sufficient for grain farming. In 1996 Namibia's capital city, Windhoek, had a population of 183,000.

Linguistic Affiliation. Despite the small population, there is great linguistic variety. Most Namibians speak Bantu languages like Oshiwambo and Otjiherero as their first language. Others speak Khoisan languages (Nama/Damara and various Bushman languages), while a smaller percentage are native speakers of Indo-European languages like Afrikaans and English. Afrikaans was promoted as a language of wider communication before independence and is still widely spoken in southern and central Namibia. At independence, English was chosen as the primary language for government and education because it was not associated with any particular ethnicity and could facilitate interaction with the outside world. Urban dwellers, young people, and northerners are more likely to have learned it.

Symbolism. The colors on the national flag symbolize important natural and human characteristics of Namibia: sunlight and the desert (yellow), rain and the ocean (blue), crops and vegetation (green), the blood shed in war (red), and peace and reconciliation (white). Schoolchildren sing the national anthem daily; it is also heard on the radio and at national celebrations.

History and Ethnic Relations

Namibia was originally inhabited by nomadic hunters, gatherers, and pastoralists (livestock herders), the ancestors of today's Bushman and Khoispeaking people. Agriculturalists and pastoralists speaking Bantu languages, such as the Owambo and Herero, arrived in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries and settled throughout northern and central Namibia. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Nama- and Afrikaans-speaking pastoralists, under pressure from white settlers in South Africa, moved into southern and central Namibia. The different groups came into conflict over access to land and other resources, but they were linked by trade relationships.

European traders, missionaries, and settlers began arriving in significant numbers in the mid-1800s. Increasing expropriations of land and cattle by German settlers led Herero and Nama communities to rebel. In a series of genocidal wars from 1904 to 1907, the German military killed three-quarters of the Herero population and nearly one-half the Namas. The survivors were settled on barren reserves and forced to work in mines and on commercial farms. Since labor was short, large numbers of men from the far north, a densely-populated area not subject to white settlement, were brought south as contract laborers. This pattern of eviction from the land and migrant labor continued when South Africa assumed control after World War I. In the 1960s and 1970s, South Africa formally extended its apartheid system to Namibia, creating ethnic homelands with their own administrations for each ethnic group. Movement outside one's own homeland was strictly controlled.

Emergence of the Nation. The boundaries defining present-day Namibia were European creations, and there was no prior sense of common identity among the many different groups inhabiting the area. Their common experience of oppression under colonialism, however, led to shared nationalist sentiment, first expressed in the 1940s during a letter-writing campaign by traditional leaders to the United Nations protesting South African rule. Initiated by the Herero Chiefs Council, the campaign grew throughout the 1950s to include leaders from other ethnic groups. In 1959, thirteen protestors were killed in Windhoek by South African forces as they demonstrated against the planned relocation of their community. The Windhoek Massacre and ensuing government repression stimulated the rise of new nationalist organizations. The most successful of these, the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), was initially based among Owambo contract workers, but soon attracted broader support, took up armed struggle, and gained UN recognition as the "sole and authentic" representative of the Namibian people. The strongest and most enduring element of SWAPO ideology has been nationalism, seen as a necessary counter to the ethnic divisions perpetuated by apartheid. At independence on 21 March 1990, SWAPO became the first democratically elected ruling party of the new nation, a position it has held through two subsequent elections. The country was divided into thirteen new administrative regions, cross-cutting the boundaries of the former ethnic homelands.

National Identity. Despite significant cultural differences and considerable ethnic stereotyping, there is a widely shared orientation to the nation, particularly among young people, who are more likely to travel through the country for economic and educational reasons. Urban areas, large workplaces such as mines and fisheries, and secondary and tertiary schools are multi-ethnic sites where people are creating new ways of interacting across ethnic boundaries. Soccer is extremely popular among men of all ethnicities, and the national team is followed closely and is widely discussed.

Ethnic Relations. Despite the emphasis on nationalism, ethnicity is still a force in Namibian society. Some groups have restored kings to power and made land claims since independence, and the official opposition party, the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA), is an alliance of ethnically-based organizations. Some members of smaller groups fear domination by the Owambos, who comprise about half the population of the country and provide most of SWAPO's electoral support.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Most of central and southern Namibia, an area formerly known as the Police Zone, was appropriated for white settlement. Today it consists of large commercial farms and widely scattered towns with Western-style buildings, some distinctly German. In the rural communal areas (former ethnic homelands), there are a variety of architectural styles in addition to Western buildings. Construction materials include sticks and logs, earth, and thatch. Houses may be round, square, or beehive-shaped; in some areas, clusters of huts are enclosed in wooden palisades. Some dwellings and shops are also made of metal sheets or concrete blocks with metal roofs, a style also seen in some urban neighborhoods.

In urban areas under apartheid, whites lived in the town centers, while blacks and mixed-race people were clustered in outlying "locations," sometimes divided into sections by ethnicity. Although legislation enforcing this racial segregation was abolished in the late 1970s and 1980s, attitudes and economic barriers have changed more slowly and this pattern has persisted. Urbanization increased greatly after independence, especially in Windhoek, as the last restrictions on population movement were removed and exiles returned from abroad. The rapidity of urban growth has led to problems in the provision of basic services as well as higher unemployment and increased crime.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. For agriculturalists, the staple foods are millet and sorghum; for pastoralists, dairy products. Beans and greens are eaten with millet in the north, but otherwise few vegetables are grown or consumed. Hunting and gathering, more important in the past, still provides a dietary supplement for some. Meat is highly desired and eaten as often as it is feasible—daily for some, on special occasions for others. Fish consumption is slowly increasing with government promotion of Namibian fish products.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Important occasions are marked by the slaughter of cattle or goats, and the consumption of meat, home-brewed beer, purchased beverages, and other foods. In some cultures, leftover meat is sent home with the guests.

Basic Economy. The Namibian economy is divided between capital-intensive industry, which accounts for most of the gross domestic product, and labor-intensive subsistence agriculture, which employs over half of the population. With little access to financial or technical assistance, most subsistence farmers rely on small-scale commercial activity and/or family members who earn wages or pensions to make ends meet.

Land Tenure and Property. Land tenure in central and southern Namibia is based on private property. In the rural communal areas, land is not bought or sold; families have heritable rights to use specific plots or pay fees to traditional leaders for use rights. In pastoral communities, all members generally have access to grazing and water in the community's area. Recent sources of controversy include the illegal fencing of communal land for private use by the wealthy and the extensive ownership of land by whites.

Commercial Activities. Alongside Namibian retail stores and South African chains, informal, small-scale commercial activity is widespread. Home-brewed alcohol, freshly butchered meat, prepared foods, and crafts are the major products sold. Others buy small quantities of soap, fruit, watches, and other goods to resell along the roadside or in small shops.

Major Industries. Mining (diamonds and other gemstones, uranium), fishing and fish processing, and commercial agriculture (cattle and sheep) have long been the economic mainstays in terms of value produced. Earnings fluctuate greatly depending on world market prices and weather conditions. The manufacturing sector is growing with government promotion and incentives, although the small size of the skilled labor force and domestic market are limiting factors. Tourism has grown substantially since independence.

Trade. Diamonds and other minerals are the most important exports, followed by processed and unprocessed fish, other food products, and live animals. The main export destinations include the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Spain. Most imports are purchased from South Africa, and include food and beverages as well as a wide variety of manufactured goods. Imports slightly exceed exports.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Namibia is characterized by great economic inequality; the wealthiest 1 percent consume more than the poorest half of the population combined. Segregation has continued since the end of apartheid, although more non-whites have joined the upper classes. Whites, only 7 percent of the population, own and manage most large businesses and commercial farms; in the civil service, the races are on more equal terms. In the rural communal areas, teachers, health care workers, government employees, and successful business people form a local elite, though they are still closely integrated into their communities through kinship ties and obligations.

Symbols of Social Stratification. The wealthier classes of all races are distinguished by expensive cars, large homes in exclusive neighborhoods, a command of English, attendance at private schools, and extensive travel.

Political Life

Government. Namibia has a parliamentary government with two houses (National Assembly and National Council), a president, prime minister, and cabinet. There is a clear separation of judicial, legislative, and executive powers, and the constitution is internationally acclaimed for its guarantees of fundamental rights and freedoms. Elections since independence have been judged "free and fair" by outside observers.

Leadership and Political Officials. Voters elect parties, rather than candidates, and the parties select representatives to fill the seats they win.

Social Problems and Control. Although crime levels are relatively low, recent years have seen an increase in violent crime and theft, along with complaints that the police lack the manpower and equipment to combat crime properly.

Military Activity. The major post-independence military accomplishment was merging the previously opposed People's Liberation Army of Namibia and the South West Africa Territorial Force into a single national army. Namibia's recent involvement in a civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been controversial.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

During a wave of grassroots organizing in the 1980s, dozens of community-based organizations (CBOs) were formed to deal with worsening social problems and to complement the political struggle for independence. Today numerous CBOs, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), cooperatives, and religious groups provide housing assistance, legal advice, education, community media outlets, and self-help projects. The government has created a favorable climate for these groups, seeing them as valuable partners in the task of developing Namibia.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. In the rural communal areas, men and boys generally care for livestock, build and maintain homesteads, plow fields, and contribute some agricultural labor, while women and girls do most of the agricultural labor, food preparation, childcare, and household work.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Women married to migrant laborers have taken on some traditionally male responsibilities, and women who fled the country to participate in the liberation struggle took on new roles as combatants, students, and refugee camp workers. They pushed SWAPO to support gender equality and helped ensure that the Constitution guarantees equal rights for men and women, however the process of changing discriminatory legislation is slow and ongoing. Women still have fewer economic opportunities than men, and the incidence of rape and domestic violence is extremely high.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Weddings are extremely important social events in Namibia, bringing family and friends together to sing, dance, and feast. Most weddings combine old and new elements. Many Owambo couples, for example, say their vows in a church ceremony accompanied by identically-dressed bridesmaids and groomsmen, then exit to a crowd of guests shouting praises, dancing, and waving horsetail whisks.

Domestic Unit. Most households are not nuclear families, but contain other kin as well. The head of the household manages domestic finances, makes important decisions, and organizes productive activities.

Kin Groups. Corporate kin groups are formed by ties traced through women (matrilineal), men (patrilineal), or both (bilateral), depending on ethnicity. These kin groups provide a support network for their members and control joint property, especially livestock; in the past, they also played significant roles in political and religious affairs. There has been a general shift from matrilinealism to patrilinealism. For example, wives and children in matrilineal communities can now assert rights to the property of deceased husbands and fathers, which has been traditionally inherited by the man's matrilineal relatives (his siblings and sisters' children).

Socialization

Infant Care. Babies are breast-fed and carried on the mother's back until about the age of two. Most sleep with their mothers, and children usually share a bed or room with siblings.

Child Rearing and Education. Parents receive substantial help with child rearing from other family members. It is not unusual for children to live with other relatives if the parents have work obligations, the child needs to be closer to school, or a relative needs a child's help. Most boys and girls attend primary school, although sometimes they stay at home to help with the livestock or crops.

Higher Education. Education is highly valued, but the limited availability of places in secondary and tertiary schools, as well as the expense involved, hinders many students from continuing beyond primary school.

Etiquette

Extended greetings and handshakes are very important in most Namibian cultures. When food and drink is offered, it is polite to accept. There is a general emphasis on emotional restraint in public, and public displays of affection between spouses or lovers are frowned upon, especially in rural areas.

Religion

Although a small percentage of the population practices traditional religions, the vast majority are Christian. The Lutheran Church is the largest; other major denominations include the Catholic, Dutch Reformed, and Anglican churches. Easter and Christmas are public holidays and especially popular times for travel so families can gather together.

Medicine and Health Care

The health care system ranges from state-of-the-art private hospitals in Windhoek to small state- or church-run clinics in the rural areas. Traditional healers are sometimes consulted instead of or in addition to the biomedical system, particularly when biomedicine has been unsuccessful.

Although malaria is fairly common in the north and 10 percent of the population suffers from chronic malnutrition, the most serious health problem is HIV-AIDS—20 to 25 percent of the adult population is estimated to be infected, and the number is still rising. Life expectancy has dropped significantly, and analysts predict a major loss of economic productivity as most of those infected are young people. The number of AIDS orphans is already testing the ability of kinship networks to cope.

Secular Celebrations

Celebrations with national or political significance include Cassinga Day (4 May) which commemorates the deaths of hundreds of Namibian refugees in a 1978 attack, Independence Day (21 May), and Heroes Day (26 August). These occasions are marked by singing, dancing, and speeches by public officials. Other secular holidays include New Year's Day (1 January), Workers' Day (1 May), and Africa Day (25 May).

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. Before independence, European-influenced arts were relatively well-funded by private and governmental sources. Since independence, research on and promotion of indigenous music, dance oral literature, and other artistic forms has increased greatly with government support.

Literature. The literary community in Namibia is relatively small. Most literature in the indigenous languages consists of traditional tales, short stories, and novels written for schoolchildren. Published fiction, poetry, and autobiographical writings appear in both the English and Afrikaans languages.

Graphic Arts. Many craftspeople produce objects for local use and the tourist trade; wood carvings (containers, furniture, animals) from the Kavango and basketry from Owambo are the best known examples. Some craftspeople have formed organizations to assist each other with production and marketing.

Performance Arts. The National Theatre of Namibia serves as a venue for both Namibian and foreign musicians and stage actors, in addition to assisting community-based drama groups. School and church groups create and stage less formal productions. Traditional dance troupes representing the various ethnic groups of Namibia perform at local and national festivals and holiday celebrations, and also participate in competitions.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

The only university, the University of Namibia (UNAM), was founded in 1992. The largely foreign faculty is slowly being replaced as qualified Namibian candidates become available. Applied sciences are emphasized over theoretical sciences in an effort to meet Namibia's human resource needs. Agricultural, environmental, and health sciences are prominent, and numerous socioeconomic research reports have been produced by UNAM's Social Sciences Division and several independent social science research organizations.

Bibliography

Bauer, Gretchen. Labor and Democracy in Namibia, 1971–1996, 1998.

Becker, Heike. Namibian Women's Movement, 1980 to 1992: From Anti-Colonial Resistance to Reconstruction, 1995.

Emmett, Tony. Popular Resistance and the Roots of Nationalism in Namibia, 1915–1966, 1999.

Gordon, Robert J. The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass, 1992.

Hayes, Patricia, Jeremy Silvester, Marion Wallace, and Wolfram Hartmann, eds. Namibia Under South African Rule: Mobility and Containment, 1915–1946, 1998.

Katjavivi, Peter H. A History of Resistance in Namibia, 1988.

Leys, Colin, and John S. Saul. Namibia's Liberation Struggle: The Two-Edged Sword, 1995.

The Namibian. the.namibian.com.na.

Pendleton, Wade C. Katutura, A Place Where We Stay: Life in a Post-Apartheid Township in Namibia, 1996.

Sparks, Donald L., and December Green. Namibia: The Nation After Independence, 1992.

Tapscott, Chris. "National Reconciliation, Social Equity and Class Formation in Independent Namibia." Journal of Southern African Studies 19 (1): 29–39, 1993.

Ya–Otto, John. Battlefront Namibia: An Autobiography, 1981.

—Wendi A. Haugh

Namibia. After much missionary activity, South West Africa was annexed by Germany in 1884. After the First World War, the territory was administered as a mandate by South Africa. In 1966 the United Nations ended the mandate but South Africa retained control in the face of an increasing guerrilla war, waged by the South West Africa People's Organization. In 1990 the territory became independent and a SWAPO government was established. Much of the area is barren and the population is sparse. The main economic activity is the extraction of diamonds, uranium, and copper.

J. A. Cannon

Namibia After much missionary activity, South West Africa was annexed by Germany in 1884. After the First World War, the territory was administered as a mandate by South Africa. In 1966 the United Nations ended the mandate but South Africa retained control in the face of an increasing guerrilla war, waged by the South West Africa People's Organization. In 1990 the territory became independent and a SWAPO government was established.

Namibia

The people of Namibia are called Namibians. The largest ethnic group is the Ovambo, who live in northen Namibia and number about 665,000. The majority of whites, called Afrikaners, are of Dutch descent. The Coloureds (people of mixed descent) numbered 48,000, and there are about 32,000 San (Bushmen).

Namibia •Gambia, Zambia •Arabia, labia, Swabia •Libya, Namibia, tibia •euphorbia •agoraphobia, claustrophobia, homophobia, hydrophobia, phobia, technophobia, xenophobia, Zenobia •Nubia • rootbeer • cumbia •Colombia, Columbia •exurbia, Serbia, suburbia •Wiltshire • Flintshire •gaillardia, Nadia, tachycardia •steadier • compendia •Acadia, Arcadia, nadir, stadia •reindeer •acedia, encyclopedia, media, multimedia •Lydia, Numidia •India • belvedere • Claudia •Cambodia, odea, plasmodia, podia, roe-deer •Mafia, raffia, tafia •Philadelphia • hemisphere •planisphere • Montgolfier • Sofia •ecosphere • biosphere • atmosphere •thermosphere • ionosphere •stratosphere • headgear • switchgear •logia • nemesia • menhir