MONGOLIA

Mongol Uls

CAPITAL: Ulaanbaatar

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1946, contains a blue vertical stripe between two red stripes; in gold, on the stripe nearest the hoist, is the soyombo, Mongolia's independence emblem.

ANTHEM: Bügd Nayramdah mongol ard ulsyn töriin duulal (State Anthem of the Mongolian People's Republic).

MONETARY UNIT: The tugrik (t) of 100 mongos. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 50 mongos and notes of 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 tugriks. t1 = $0.00084 (or $1 = t1,187.17) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Constitution Day, 13 January; Women's Day, 8 March; Mother and Children's Day, 1 June; Naadam Festival, 11–13 July; Mongolian Republic Day, 26 November. Movable holidays include Mongol New Year's Day, in February or March.

TIME: 8 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in east-central Asia, Mongolia has an area of 1,565,000 sq km (604,250 sq mi), extending 2,368 km (1,471 mi) e–w and 1,260 km (783 mi) n–s. Comparatively, the area occupied by Mongolia is slightly smaller than the state of Alaska. The largest landlocked country in the world, Mongolia is bordered on the n by Russia and on the e, s, and w by China, with a total boundary length of 8,162 km (5,072 mi).

TOPOGRAPHY

Mongolia is essentially a vast plateau with an average elevation of 914 to 1,524 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft). Mongolia comprises a mountainous section in the extreme west, where the peak of Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) of the Mongolian Altay Mountains rises to a height of 4,374 m (14,350 ft). Other mountain ranges are the Hentiyn, along the Soviet border, and the Hangayn, in west-central Mongolia. The southern part of the country is occupied by the Gobi, a rocky desert with a thin veneer of shifting sand. Explorations have uncovered large reservoirs of water 2–3 m (7–10 ft) beneath the desert surface. The largest lakes are found in the northwest. These include the nation's largest lake, Uvs Lake, a saltwater lake with an area of about 3,366 sq km (1,300 sq mi).

CLIMATE

Mongolia has an arid continental climate with a wide seasonal range of temperature and low precipitation. In winter, it is the site of the great Siberian high, which governs the climate of a large part of Asia and gives Mongolia average winter temperatures of -21° to -6°c (-6° to -22°f) and dry, virtually snowless winters. In summer, remnants of the southeasterly monsoon bring most of the year's precipitation. Annual precipitation ranges from 25 to 38 cm (10 to 15 in) in mountain areas to less than 10 cm (4 in) in the Gobi.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Mongolia is divided into several natural regions, each with its characteristic plant and animal life. These regions are the mountain forests near the Soviet Siberian border; the mountain steppe and hilly forest farther south; the lowland steppe grasslands; the semidesert; and finally the true desert. Larch and Siberian stone pine are characteristic trees of the northern forests, which are inhabited by bear, Manchurian red deer, snow panther, wild boar, and elk. The saiga antelope and the wild horse are typical steppe dwellers. As of 2002, there were at least 133 species of mammals, 274 species of birds, and over 2,800 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Environmental problems facing Mongolia include desertification, inadequate water supply, and air and water pollution. Areas affected by deforestation and excessive grazing are eventually overtaken by the desert. After a winter of little snow, wildfires spread across northern Mongolia from March until June of 1996. The fires were the most extensive since records were first compiled in 1978, resulting in 26 deaths and nearly 800 people injured or rendered homeless. An estimated 20% of Mongolia's coniferous forest was damaged in the blaze. In 2000, only about 6.8% of the total land area was forested.

Water pollution is a particularly significant problem in Mongolia because the water supply is so limited. The country has only 35 cu km of renewable water resources. In 2002, only 87% of city dwellers and 30% of the people living in rural areas had access to improved water sources.

The country's air pollution problems are due to increased industrial activity within the country, including the burning of soft coal, and airborne industrial pollution from the former Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The heavy concentration of factories in Ulaanbaatar has polluted the environment in that area.

In 2003, about 11.5% of the total land area was protected, including six Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 13 types of mammals, 22 species of birds, 1 species of fish, and 3 species of invertebrates. Przewalski's horse (also called takh) is considered to be the last existing ancestor of the modern domesticated horse. The species was extinct in the wild of Mongolia by 1970, but a special government project of breeding the remaining animals in captivity has resulted in more than 1,500 horses reintroduced to a nature reserve at Hustain Nuruu. Threatened species included the Bactrian camel, the snow leopard, and the saiga.

POPULATION

The population of Mongolia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 2,646,000, which placed it at number 135 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 4% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 31% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 100 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.6%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 3,390,000. The population density was less than 1 person per sq km (1 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 57% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.74%. The capital city, Ulaanbaatar, had a population of 812,000 in that year. Darhan has a population of 90,000; Erdenet, 72,300.

MIGRATION

Few Mongolian nationals live outside the country, but 3.4 million persons of Mongolian extraction lived in the Inner Mongolia province of China. About 500,000 live in Russia—in the Buryat and Kalmyk republics. Between 1955 and 1962, some 20,000 Chinese laborers entered Mongolia to work on construction projects, but in 1964 Mongolia expelled about 2,000 Chinese nationals who had refused to take part in an agricultural resettlement program. In addition, Mongolia expelled 7,000 ethnic Chinese between 1983 and 1993. Since the independence of Kazakhstan, many Kazakhs have emigrated.

Nomadic herders account for nearly half of Mongolia's population. Mongolia is one of the only developing countries where internal migration to rural areas exceeds migration to cities. The number of families formally registered as nomadic herders grew from an estimated 74,000 in 1990 to 170,000 in 1995. In 2000 the total number of migrants was 8,000, with virtually no refugees. There were no reports of refugees or asylum seekers in 2004.

In 2004 some 2,259 Mongolians sought asylum in Europe, mainly in France and the United Kingdom.

In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero, a significant change from 2000 when the rate was -6.5 per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

According to latest estimates, about 85% of the population are ethnic Mongols; they are primarily Khalkha, which account for about 90% of all Mongols. The remainder include Durbet Mongols of the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (including Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) account for about 7% of the population. Other groups include those of Chinese and Russian origin.

LANGUAGES

Khalkha Mongolian, the official language, is spoken by about 90% of the population. It is one of a large dialect group in the Mongolic branch of the Altaic language family. Early in the 13th century, the Mongols adopted an alphabet written in vertical columns from the Turkic Uighurs, and they retained that script until modern times. The literary language differed increasingly from the living spoken language and, in 1941, the Mongolian government decided to introduce a new phonetic alphabet that would accurately reflect modern spoken Mongolian. The new alphabet consisted of the Cyrillic letters used in Russian, except for two special characters needed to render the Mongolian vowels represented as ö and ü in Western European languages. After a period of preparation (1941–45), the new alphabet was introduced in 1946 in all publications and in 1950 in all business transactions, but, following independence, the traditional script was due to be restored in 1994.

The differences between the Khalkha language spoken in Mongolia, the Buryat language spoken in the Buryat Republic of the Russian Federation, the Chahar and Ordos languages of China's Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, and other Mongolian dialects are comparatively small and chiefly phonetic. A characteristic phonetic feature of Mongolian is the law of vowel harmony, which requires that a word contain either the so-called back vowels, represented as a, o, and u in Western European languages, or the so-called front vowels, represented as e (ā), ö, and ü, but not an association of the two types of vowels. Turkic, Russian, and Chinese are also spoken.

RELIGIONS

Before the government's campaign against religion in the 1930s, there were about 700 Buddhist monasteries with about 100,000 lamas in Mongolia. During 1936–39, the Communist regime closed virtually all monasteries, confiscated their livestock and landholdings, tried the higher lamas for counterrevolutionary activities, and induced thousands of lower lamas to adopt a secular mode of life. In the mid-1980s, only about 100 lamas remained. Since the new constitution of 1992 established freedom of religion, Mahayana Buddhism has made a surprising resurgence. Former monasteries have been restored, and there is a seminary at Gandantegchinlen Hiyd. In 1992, Roman Catholic missionaries were also encouraged to come to Mongolia to continue the presence they had initiated earlier in the century.

A 2004 report indicated that about 50% of the population practiced some form of Buddhism, mostly Lamaist (or Tibetan) Buddhism. About 4% of the population were ethnic Kazakh Muslims. There were small Christian communities throughout the country, including Roman Catholics, Russian Orthodox, and Protestants. It is believed that some natives practice shamanism. About 40% of the population still claims no religious affiliation.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and the separation of church and state. However, the government has reserved the right to place some restrictions on religious activities. For instance, the government can limit the number of churches and clergy allowed for each religious organization. Religious groups are required to register through the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs.

TRANSPORTATION

The Trans-Mongolian Railway, about 1,496 km (930 mi) in length, connects Mongolia with both China and Russia. Ulaanbaatar has been connected to the Trans-Siberian Railway via Bayantümen since 1939 and via Sühbaatar since 1950, and to the Chinese Railways via Dzamïn üüd since the end of 1955. Choybalsan is also connected to the Trans-Siberian system via Ereenstav. Ulaanbaatar Railways has been linked to Nalayh since 1938 and to Darhan and Tamsagbulag since 1964. The Sharïn Gol Open-Pit Coal Mining Industry was connected to the Darhan industrial center during the third five-year plan (1961–65) by a 60-km (37-mi) rail line. A 200-km (124-mi) railroad line connects Erdenet, a copper-molybdenum mining and industrial center near the Russian border, with the Trans-Mongolian Railway. The total length of railroads in 2004 was 1,810 km (1,125 mi), all of it broad gauge.

Mongolia had 49,256 km (30,637 mi) of roadways in 2002, of which 1,724 km (1,068.8 mi) were paved. Although Mongolia, as of 2004, had 580 km (360 mi) of navigable waterways, only Lake Hovsgol (135 km) was in regular use. The 270 km (168 mi) Selenge River and the 175 km (109 mi) Orhon River, while navigable, carry little traffic. In addition, the country's lakes and rivers are only open from May through September due to freezing in winter. Although land-locked, Mongolia, as of 2005, had a merchant fleet of 65 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 339,423 GRT.

There were an estimated 46 airports in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 14 had paved runways, and there were also two heliports. Mongolia's first air service began operating between Ulaanbaatar and Verkhneudinsk in eastern Siberia in 1926. Miat-Air Mongol is the principal airline. In 2003, about 295,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Archaeological investigations show that the land now known as Mongolia has been inhabited since the Lower Paleolithic period, more than 130,000 years ago. By about 1000 bc, animal husbandry of the nomadic type had developed, and by the 3rd century bc, a clan style of organization based on horsemanship had emerged. The Huns, a Turkic-speaking people, driven westward during the Han dynasty in China (206 bc–ad 220), created a nomadic empire in central Asia that extended into Europe, beginning about ad 370. It reached almost to Rome under the leadership of Attila (r.433?–453) and declined after his death. Mongolia first played an important part in world history in ad 1206, when the Mongol tribes united under the leadership of the conqueror Temujin, or Genghis Khan. The Mongols set up their capital at Karakorum and established a vast empire extending from the northern Siberian forest to Tibet and from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific. After the death of Genghis in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons into Mongol states, or khanates: the Great Khanate of East Asia, which included the Yüan dynasty of China, and reached its peak under Kublai Khan (r.1260–94), who established his capital at Cambaluc (now Beijing); the Khanate of Chaghadai (Djakhatai) in Turkestan; the Hulagid Khanate, founded by Hulagu Khan in Persia; and the Golden Horde in southern Russia, founded by Batu Khan, who invaded Poland and Hungary in 1240. Having crossed the Danube River, Batu withdrew in 1241. The Mongols' century of dominance in Asia allowed for great trade and cultural interchange but also led to the spread of the bubonic plague to Europe.

During the 14th century, the great Mongol states disintegrated. The Yüan dynasty in China collapsed in 1368, to be replaced by the Ming dynasty; the western part of the Turkestan Khanate was incorporated into the empire of Timur in 1390; Hulagu's Persian empire disintegrated after 1335; and the Golden Horde was attacked and shaken by the forces of Prince Dmitry Donskoy in Russia in 1380 but ruled South Russia into the 15th century. In 1369, at the age of 33, Timur, also called Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane, proclaimed himself ruler of all the land lying between the Tien Shan and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges. The Mongols retired to their original steppe homelands, splitting into three major groups: the northern Khalkha Mongols, north of the Gobi Desert; the southern Chahar Mongols, south of the Gobi; and the western Oirat Mongols. Babur, a descendant of Timur, founded the Mughal (or Mogul) Empire (so called from the Farsi word for "Mongol") in India in 1526; it lasted until the 18th century. Buddhism, which had been introduced by Tibetan monks in the 15th century, became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries.

A cleavage developed between the northern (outer) Mongols and the southern (inner) Mongols, who had been more closely associated with Mongol rule in China. In the course of conquering China, the Manchus subdued the southern Mongols in 1636, placing them under the eventual rule of China's Qing (Ch'ing) or Manchu dynasty (1644–1911). The northern Mongols, who had been fighting with western Mongols for supremacy, sought Manchu aid against their foes and accepted Manchu suzerainty in 1691. Finally, the Manchus destroyed the western Mongols as a historical force in 1758. The Russian-Chinese border treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kyakhta (1727) confirmed Chinese rule over both the southern and northern Mongols but assigned the Buryats to Russia.

Following the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty by the Chinese revolution in 1911, northern Mongol princes proclaimed an autonomous Outer Mongolia under the rule of Bogdo Khan, the Living Buddha (Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu) of Urga, an earlier name of Ulaanbaatar. A treaty with the tsar's government pledged Russian assistance for the autonomous state. After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Chinese exploited Russia's weakness, reoccupying Outer Mongolia in 1919 and ending its autonomy. In early 1921, the Chinese were driven out by Russian counterrevolutionary forces under Baron von Ungern-Sternberg. He, in turn, was overcome in July 1921 by the Mongol revolutionary leaders Sukhe Baatar and Khorloin Choybalsan, assisted by the Soviet Red Army. Under Soviet influence, a nominally independent state, headed by the Living Buddha, was proclaimed on 11 July 1921 and lasted as a constitutional monarchy until his death in 1924.

The Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), the second communist country in world history, was proclaimed on 26 November 1924. With the support of the former USSR, Communist rule was gradually consolidated. Large landholdings of feudal lords were confiscated, starting in 1929, and those of monasteries in 1938. A 10-year mutual assistance treaty, signed in 1936 and renewed for another 10 years in 1946, formalized the close relations between the former USSR and the MPR. In the summer of 1939, with Soviet support, the Mongolians fought invading Japanese along the border with Manchuria, ending with a solid defeat for the Japanese in September. After a virtually unanimous plebiscite by the Mongolians in favor of independence, the Nationalist government of the Republic of China formally recognized the MPR in 1945 (it withdrew its recognition in 1953) and the Nationalists on Taiwan still claim Mongolia as part of China. On 14 February 1950, the People's Republic of China and the former USSR signed a treaty that guaranteed the MPR's independence. In October 1961, the MPR became a member of the United Nations. Conflicting boundary claims between the MPR and China were settled by treaty on 26 December 1962, and on 30 June 1964 the MPR and the former USSR signed a 20-year treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance. In June 1987, the MPR and the United States established diplomatic relations. With the growth of cities around the mining industry, Mongolian society shifted from being 78% rural in 1956 to being 52% urban in 1980 to 57% in 2005.

With their close ties with the former USSR, Mongolians were well aware of Soviet policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) and of the democratic movements in Eastern Europe after the mid-1980s. The MPR initiated its own policy of "openness" (il tod ) and began economic reforms to serve as transitional steps away from a centrally planned, collective economy and toward a market economy. Following the first popular demonstrations calling for faster reforms, in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989, the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) opted for political as well as economic reforms. The MPRP's leadership resigned in March 1990 and in May the constitution (of 1960) was amended to allow for new, multiparty elections, which took place in July. The MPRP won a majority (85% of the seats) in the legislature, the People's Great Hural (PGH), which took office in September. The PGH elected as president a member of the MPRP, Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat, but invited the opposition parties to join in forming the new government.

During 1991, the new government discussed Mongolia's economic and political transformation. It issued vouchers to all citizens for the purchase of state property as a step toward privatization. Economic reform was made more difficult by the economic collapse of the former Soviet Union. In 1991, Russia insisted on trade based on cash rather than barter and dramatically cut aid. By 1992, Mongolia faced severe energy shortages. In 1991, the PGH also discussed the writing of a new constitution, which took effect in February of the next year. Based on that constitution, elections in June 1992 created a new legislature (with a MPRP majority), the State Great Hural (SGH) and, in June 1993, President Ochirbat was reelected (but with the support of a coalition of new parties, not the MPRP) in the first direct presidential elections. By September 1992, some 67,000 former Soviet troops (in Mongolia since 1966 when Sino-Soviet tensions increased) completed a process of withdrawal begun in 1990.

In the 1996 parliamentary elections, discontent, especially among the young, led to the defeat of the MPRP. The leaders of the winning Democratic Union Coalition (DUC), mostly political novices, promised to intensify market reforms. The election results marked the first smooth transfer of power in Mongolia's modern history and one of the most peaceful among all the former communist nations. In the following years, however, the stability and effectiveness of Mongolia's democratic government were hobbled by disunity within the majority DUC and by the political stalemate between the DUC and the ex-communists of the opposition MPRP. In late 1996 and early 1997, the MPRP prevailed in local elections, and its candidate, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, was elected president. After the resignation of two prime ministers, the nation was left with an interim government in the second half of 1998, as Bagabandi rejected multiple DUC nominees for the post.

In October 1998 the country was shaken by the murder of Sanjaasurengiyn Zorig, a pro-democracy leader and government minister who had been tapped to be the next DUC nominee for prime minister. By August 1999, yet another DUC government had fallen, and Rinchinnyamiin Amarjargal, the 38-year-old former foreign minister, became Mongolia's third prime minister in 15 months.

On 2 July 2000, parliamentary elections were held that resulted in an overwhelming victory for the MPRP. The MPRP took 72 of 76 seats in the State Great Hural, with only 4 seats going to opposition members. Nambaryn Enkhbayar was named prime minister. On 20 May 2001, Bagabandi was reelected president with 58% of the vote, giving the MPRP control of both the presidency and parliament. The elections were characterized by international observers as free and fair.

In November 2002, the Dalai Lama visited Mongolia, a trip denounced by China. China warned Mongolian officials not to meet with the Tibetan spiritual leader, and briefly suspended train services with the country. Thousands of Mongolian Buddhists attended the Dalai Lama's speech on 6 November.

As of early 2003, the country continued to face problems of high unemployment, poor welfare and education systems, corruption, crime, and harsh winters. This was due, in part, to a steep drop in world prices for Mongolia's two largest exports, cashmere and copper. The severe winter of 2001 killed at least 1.3 million livestock; approximately 40% of Mongolians depend upon the country's 30 million livestock for their livelihood. Mongolia, though engaging in increased privatization of state-owned enterprises to speed the country's alignment with free market principles, has been careful to dedicate a percentage of the resulting revenues to social programs. Growth improved from 2002 at 4% to 2003 at 5%, due largely to high copper prices and new gold production, with the government claiming a 10.6% growth rate for 2004 that was unconfirmed. The unemployment rate for 2005 was 6.7%. Mongolia's economy continued to be heavily impacted by its neighbors, particularly since it imports a large majority of its energy and oil from Russia. Mongolian economy also largely consists or a 'black' or 'gray' market. The World Bank estimated that this underground economy is equal to or greater than the official economic statistics. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Due to stagnant unemployment and poverty, Bagabandi made an increased effort to align Mongolia with the international community. Bilateral talks were held in China and the United States in 2004 which led to increased trade and cooperation. The United States is particularly interested in Mongolia due to its strategic geographical position and that it holds relations with North Korea. Mongolia also reopened relations with Russia, due mainly to the Russian decision to resolve a large portion of Soviet-era debt. This allowed Mongolia to fully pay off all debt to Russia in 2004.

MPRP candidate Nambariin Enkhbayar was elected president in May 2005. He won 53.4% of the vote, thereby avoiding a runoff election. His closest rival, Mendsaikhan Enkhsaikhan of the Democratic Party, took 20%. Enkhbayar's declared that the largest problem during his tenure would be the poverty experienced by many Mongolians; over ⅓ of the population lives in poverty.

GOVERNMENT

A new constitution went into effect 12 February 1992, replacing the 1960 constitution and completing Mongolia's transition from a single-party state to a multiparty, parliamentary form of government. At that time, the country's name was officially changed from "Mongolian People's Republic" to "Mongolia." Suffrage is universal at age 18. The unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH), has 76 members, who are elected by district to four-year terms. The SGH meets twice each year. It can enact and amend laws, set domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency.

A president, the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, is selected by direct, popular vote for a four-year term, with a limit of two terms. The president nominates the prime minister and can call for the dissolution of the government, initiate and veto legislation (subject to override by two-thirds vote of the SGH), and issue decrees which take effect with the signature of the prime minister.

A prime minister, the head of government, is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH to a four-year term. The prime minister selects a cabinet which must be confirmed by the SGH. The government dissolves when the prime minister resigns, when half the cabinet resigns simultaneously, or upon a vote for dissolution by the SGH.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), which had been the single ruling party since 1924, legalized opposition parties in 1990. In addition to the MPRP, major parties prior to the 2004 elections included the Motherland Democratic Party (MDP), which included the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP), the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP), the Green Party (NYAM), and the Mongolian Democratic Party of Believers (MDPB); Mongolian Conservative Party (MCP); Democratic Power Coalition, which included the Mongolian Democratic Renaissance Party (MDRP) and Mongolian People's Party (MPP); Mongolian National Solidarity Party (MNSP); Bourgeois Party/Capitalist Party; United Heritage Party (UHP), which included the United Party of Herdsman and Farmers, Independence Party; Traditional United Conservative Party, and Mongolian United Private Property Owners Party; and the Mongolian Workers Party.

In the first election for the State Great Hural (SGH) 28 June 1992, the MPRP won 56.9% of the vote and 71 of 76 seats in the SGH. In the first direct presidential election, 6 June 1993, President Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat (first elected president 3 September 1990) was reelected with 58% of the vote. A former member of the MPRP, Ochirbat defeated that party's candidate, running as head of a coalition of the SDP and MNDP.

In the elections of 30 June 1996, the Democratic Union Coalition (which included the MNDP, the MSDP, and two smaller parties) defeated the MPRP, winning 50 of 76 seats (an increase of 44 seats). The MPRP won 25 seats, and the remaining seat went to the MCP. The DUC campaign platform included the Mongolia's Contract With Voters, which promised to cut government spending, reduce welfare, and reorganize the transformation of the government.

In the July 2000 parliamentary elections, MRPR candidates won 72 or the 76 seats, with the remaining 4 seats won (one each) by MNDP, the Civil Courage Party or Civil Will Party (CWP) in alliance with the Mongolian Green, the Motherland Alliance (the Mongol Democratic New Socialist Party and the Mongolian Labor Party), and an independent nonpartisan candidate.

General elections held in 2004 resulted in an impasse, as neither the MPRP or nor the main opposition, the Motherland Democratic Party (MDP), held the 39 seats required to form a government. The MPRP was dealt a devastating blow with a reduction in parliamentary seats from 72 to 36. Electoral fraud was suspected on the part of the MDC and a recount was ordered. Parliament was not able to meet for the first half of 2004 as neither side wished to pursue legislation while the electoral investigation was ongoing. In August, the MPRP formed a coalition with the MDC and Tsakhilganiin Elbegdorj retained his post of prime minister for a second term.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Mongolia administratively consists of 21 provinces (aymag ), divided into 334 counties (soums) and lesser administrative units called baghs, as well as one autonomous city, Ulaanbaatar, which is divided into districts and horoos. Each level of local administration has its own legislative body, or hural. These hurals nominate the provincial governors, who are then appointed by the prime minister.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Prior to the 1992 constitution, justice was administered through a Supreme Court elected by the People's Great Hural; province and city courts, elected by the corresponding assemblies of people's deputies; and lower courts. The 17-member Supreme Court remains the highest judicial body with a Constitutional Court vested with sole authority for constitutional review. The local courts (people's courts) handle most routine civil and criminal cases. Provincial courts hear more serious cases and review local court decisions. The Supreme Court hears appeals from the local and provincial courts. The old specialized military justice and railway courts have been abolished. All courts are now organized under a single unified national system.

The General Council of Courts nominates and the president appoints the lower and the Supreme Court judges. The new constitution provides for a completely independent judiciary. It also promises procedural due process rights to a fair trial, legal assistance, right to appeal, and access to requests for pardons.

A 1999 media law banned censorship of public information, and many independent newspapers and media outlets exist. However, to the extreme poverty in the country, the main source of news is the state-owned Radio Mongolia. Internet access and Western news media are available in all major cities and not hampered by government censorship. Parliamentary meetings are also broadcast to the public.

Trade unions are legal, although with the continued sale of many state factories, membership in trade unions has declined to approximately one-half the population in 2005. Strikes and collective bargaining are legal except in what the government considers "essential sectors", which are transportation, law enforcement and utilities.

The constitution bars arbitrary arrest, although this continued to occur. Prisoners also report beatings and torture while in detention. Deaths in prison are reported, although this is most likely due to disease exacerbated by poor conditions like lack of food, heat and medical services. Mongolia vowed to concentrate resources on prison reform by 2010.

Military service is mandatory for all men aged 18–28 for 12 months. In 2003 the army had approximately 7,500 soldiers and the Air Defense Force had about 800 personnel.

Mongolia is a member of most international organizations including the United Nations, International Court of Justice and the World Trade Organization.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Mongolia's armed forces had 8,600 active personnel, with reserves of 137,000. The Army had 7,500 personnel, whose equipment included 370 main battle tanks, 120 reconnaissance vehicles, 310 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 150 armored personnel carriers, and 570 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 800 personnel whose major equipment included 11 attack helicopters and 9 fixed wing transport aircraft. Paramilitary forces consisted of a border guard numbering 6,000 and 1,200 internal security troops. Mongolia's defense budget in 2005 totaled $17.6 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Admitted to the United Nations on 27 October 1961, Mongolia participates in ESCAP and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IAEA, ILO, IMF, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, and the World Bank. It is a member of the WTO, the Asian Development Bank, the Colombo Plan, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the ASEAN Regional Forum, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council, and the G-77. Mongolia is a partner in the OSCE and an observer of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), an agreement signed in June 2001 between the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to fight terrorism and ethnic and religious militancy while promoting trade.

The principal ally of Mongolia was the former USSR, which provided substantial economic and military assistance over the years. In 1986, the MPR made efforts toward normalizing relations with China, which had become strained after the expulsion of Chinese laborers in 1983, by establishing the first five-year trade agreement between the two countries, restoring air service and improving rail service between them, and exchanging consular delegations for the first time. In the 1990s, Mongolia expanded its political and financial relationships with the United States, Japan, and the European Union. However, it remains dependent upon Russia and China for the development of its economy and trade. Mongolia is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Mongolia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

After 70 years as a centrally planned economy, Mongolia has undergone a difficult transition towards a free market system since 1990. With the help of active government promotion, the country's industrial sector grew steadily for several decades, expanding from 7% of the national income in 1940 to 35% by 1997, as agriculture's share of total production declined from 79% to 31%. Despite these changes, animal husbandry has remained a dominant sector of the economy, with live animals and animal products accounting for a major share of exports, and livestock providing much of the raw material processed in the country's industrial sector. Total Soviet assistance at the height of Soviet support amounted to 30% of GDP. A number of factors, including the sudden cessation of economic aid from the former Soviet Union and allied countries, the disruption of trade with traditional trading partners, as well as a severe winter in 1990/91, caused a steep decline in the country's economic activity in the early 1990s. The annual growth rate of the GDP dropped steeply from 8.3% to -9.5% in 1992, and -3% in 1993.

Despite these difficulties, the government continued its economic transformation program involving the privatization of most previously state-owned enterprises and other policy reforms. In 1994, GDP grew by 2.3%, followed by further increases of 6.3% in 1995, 2.6% in 1996, 4% in 1997, 3.5% in 1998, 3.2% in 1999, 1.1% in 2000 and 1.4% in 2001. Although the economy has grown steadily since 1994, the economic wellbeing of most people is still in decline. Inflation reached a peak of over 325% in 1992, accelerating faster than wages, but dropping to about 4% in 1995. In 1999, inflation jumped to 10%, and was at 8% and 8.1% in 2000 and 2001. Development of the country's rich oil and mineral resources continues to be a high priority, and negotiations for the exploitation of oil, gold and rare earth elements with foreign companies are being actively pursued.

The GDP growth rate was 6.0% in 2004, up from 5.1% in 2003, and 3.9% in 2002; in 2005, the economy was expected to expand by 5.5%. This growth was mainly fueled by higher commodity prices (for gold, copper, etc.) requested from Mongolia's main trading partner—China. Inflation, reduced to insignificant levels in 2002—0.9%, started growing again in 2003 (5.1%), and 2004 (8.7%). The unemployment rate reached 14.2% in 2003, but it is believed that a large part of the jobless population is actually employed by the grey economy.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $6.0 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.5 %. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 11%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 20.6% of GDP, industry 21.4%, and services 58%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $56 million or about $23 per capita and accounted for approximately 4.4% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $247 million or about $100 per capita and accounted for approximately 19.7% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Mongolia totaled $894 million or about $361 per capita based on a GDP of $1.3 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings.

It was estimated that in 2004 about 36.1% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2003 (the latest year for which data was available), the workforce was estimated at 1.488 million people. Of that total that same year, 42% were involved in agriculture/herding, 4% in mining, 6% in manufacturing, 14% in trade, 29% in services, 5% in the public sector and 3.7% in undefined occupations. In 2003, unemployment was put at 6.7%. A shortage of skilled labor has required the procurement of a large supplementary workforce from the former USSR and Eastern Europe.

The right to organize trade unions and professional organizations is granted by the 1990 constitution. In that year, the Association of Free Trade Unions, (AFTU) which includes about 70 unions, was chartered. In 2002, there were 400,000 unionized workers, amounting to less than 50% of the workforce. Nonessential workers have a right to strike.

According to the labor code, the working week is fixed at 40 hours, and for those under 18, at 36 hours. Children as young as 14 or 15 may work with parental permission. In reality, regulations regarding child labor are not effectively enforced. The legal minimum wage was less than $25 per month in 2002, although most workers earned in excess of this amount.

AGRICULTURE

As of 2003, cropland amounted to 1,200,000 hectares (2,965,000 acres), up from only 1,160,000 hectares (2,866,000 acres) in 1979; the cultivated area represents only 1% of potentially arable land. The high altitude, temperature extremes, long winters, and low precipitation provide limited potential for agricultural development. Crop production accounts for 3% of all employment.

Shortages of fuels and parts for agricultural equipment caused crop production to decline by 70% during the 1990s. Principal crops produced in 2004 (in 1,000 tons) included: wheat, 150; barley, 2.5; potatoes, 67; and vegetables, 44. Trade in agricultural products in 2004 consisted of $173.6 million in imports and $62.7 million in exports.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal husbandry is the backbone of Mongolia's economy, employing some 160,000 persons. After Mongolia became the world's second communist country in 1924, many nomads settled down to raise livestock on state-owned collectives. The end of communist rule in 1990 brought the resurgence of traditional animal herding methods. Pastures constitute about 75% of the national territory. In 2005 there were 11,686,000 sheep, 12,238,000 goats, 1,842,000 cattle, 2,005,000 horses, 257,000 camels, and some 6,000 hogs. The goat population increased by over one million in 1994/95, due to a boom in the cashmere industry. The meat produced in 2005 was 195,400 tons. Because of the harsh climate, Mongolians consume much fat and meat during winter, and dairy products in the summer.

Mongols claim that the Mongolian thoroughbred is the progenitor of many breeds of race horses worldwide; furthermore, its stamina and speed over long distances surpass Arabic and Akhaltec racers. The Mongolian Horse Association was founded in February 1989 in Zunmod to increase the population and preserve traditional horse-breeding techniques, which were largely being forgotten over the past three decades.

Hunting remains an important commercial activity, with furs and skins the chief products. In 2005, production of skins and hides was estimated at 19,800 tons from sheepskins and 11,200 tons from cattle hides.

FISHING

Fishing is not a significant industry in Mongolia. The total catch in 2003 was 130 tons.

FORESTRY

Forests cover about 6.8% of the total territory of Mongolia, mainly in the area around Hövsgöl Lake. It is estimated that the country's total timber resources represent at least 1.25 billion cu m (44 billion cu ft). Birch, cedar, larch, and fir trees predominate. In 2004, the timber cut was 6.631 million cu m (222.7 million cu ft), with 29% burned as fuel. The lumber industry yielded 300,000 cu m of sawn wood that year.

MINING

Mongolia was the world's third-largest producer of fluorspar and among the top three producers in Asia and the Pacific of copper and molybdenum. In 2004, Mongolia exported nearly all of its copper and molybdenum concentrates, while fluorspar was sent to Japan and Russia. Construction, mining (of coal, copper, molybdenum fluorspar, and gold), and oil were Mongolia's top three industries. Geological surveys have uncovered deposits of some 80 minerals, which were largely untapped. Also produced in 2004 were cement, hydrated lime, quicklime, varieties of stone, and silica. Most mining operations were in the eastern and north-central regions, including the Erdenet copper mining center.

Output in 2004 included (in metric tons): mine copper (metal content), 130,000; fluorspar (including acid grade and sub-metallurgical), 295,000; mine molybdenum, 1,411; gypsum, 25,000; and mine tungsten, 40,000 (estimated). Gold output for 2004 was 18,600 kg, up from 11,119 kg in 2003. Gold mining increased significantly in the 1990s, and the number of companies engaged in gold mining grew to more than 100; total reserves were estimated to be 2,000 tons gold in 17 regions, the most important being Naran, Tolgoi, and Zamar. No tin was mined in 1999 and 2000, or in 2004. Uranium production ceased after 1997. The Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine, completed in 1981, was developed by the state in cooperation with the former USSR, and was 51% owned by the Mongolian government and 49%, by the Russian government. Clay, gold, gypsum, limestone, molybdenum, salt, sand and gravel, silver, precious stones, and tungsten were also mined by small operations.

Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004 totaled $1.5 billion. The country's minerals sector accounted for around 17.3% of GDP that year. The government encouraged foreign investment and adopted a number of long-term programs to explore for and develop metallic and nonmetallic minerals. Ivanhoe Mines Ltd. estimated that the Oyu Tolgoy had as much as 750 million tons of copper and gold resources. The Tsagaan Suvraga porphyry copper deposit, in southwestern Sayanshand City, in the northern part of the Ulaan-Uul structural-formational zone of the south Gobi mineral belt, contained 240 million tons of sulfide ore at a grade of 0.53% copper and 0.018% molybdenum. The government was looking for investors to develop a 500-million-ton iron ore deposit north of Darkhan City.

Parliament-approved guidelines for 2001–04 would privatize 27 state-owned enterprises and restructure 25 state-owned enterprises and organizations. Copper mining remained state owned. In 1997, the government modified mining laws to increase the land open to exploration to 40%, change policies regarding exploration licenses, and grant tax incentives to promote mining.

ENERGY AND POWER

Mongolia produces only a small amount of oil, no natural gas, and some coal.

In 2004, Mongolia's production of oil averaged 542 barrels per day, while demand and imports each averaged an estimated 11,000 barrels per day in that year. A small amount of oil, averaging an estimated 497 barrels per day, was exported that same year.

All of Mongolia's electricity is produced by conventional thermal power plants. In 2004, electric power output totaled an estimated 2.692 billion kWh, with consumption in that year, an estimated 2.209 billion kWh. Electricity exports and imports in 2004 came to an estimated 8.2 million kWh and 130.5 million kWh, respectively. In 2002, Mongolia's generating capacity was put at 0.901 million kW. Although about half the population is served with electricity, electric power outages in rural areas can last for months.

Mongolia produced 7,081,000 short tons of coal in 2002, of which 86% consisted of brown coal or Lignite, and the remainder bituminous.

INDUSTRY

Small-scale processing of livestock and agricultural products has historically been a mainstay of Mongolia's industrial sector. With the establishment of the Erdenet copper plant in the late 1970s, metal processing also became an important part of the economy. In 1996, industrial output was estimated at t239.3 billion, with production of metals accounting for 32.6%; energy production, 19.1%; processed foods, 15.8%; wool and woolen apparel, 11.5%; mineral fuels, 6.8%; chemicals, 6.7%; and other items, 7.5%. Much of the country's industrial activity is concentrated in four centers: Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, Darhan, and Choybalsan. Industry employed approximately 74,100 persons in 1996.

Mongolia's industrial development has been severely affected by dwindling imports of fuel, spare parts, and equipment formerly obtained from the former USSR and allied trading partners. As a result, total output from the industrial sector generally declined in the early 1990s, falling by 2.5% in 1996. By 1997, the industrial sector had begun to recover, with growth estimated that year at 4.5%. Industrial growth in 2000 was 2.4%. Industrial production in Mongolia included about 40 different commodities. As of 2002, the production of food, leather, shoes, glass, and garments were on the decline, while production of copper and molybdenum concentrates, coal mining, and the food and beverage industries were increasing. About 72% of the economy had been privatized by 2000.

In 2003, industry made up 21.4% of the economy, with 4% of the labor force being engaged in mining, and 6% in manufacturing; 42% of the working population is still engaged in herding or agriculture. The industrial production growth rate was 4.1% in 2002, slightly higher than the GDP growth rate, and a sign that the industry is an important economic growth fosterer.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Academy of Sciences, in Ulaanbaatar, was founded in 1921 and reorganized in 1961. It includes departments of agriculture, chemistry and biology, geography and geology, medicine, and technology; and numerous research institutes concerning agriculture, fisheries and veterinary science, medicine, natural sciences, and technology. The Natural History Museum in Ulaanbaatar features Gobi Desert dinosaur eggs and skeletons. The National University of Mongolia, founded in 1942 at Ulaanbaatar, has faculties of mathematics, natural sciences, physics, and biology, and undertakes research with the State Construction Research Institute in pursuit of knowledge related to nuclear physics, biophysics, mineral resources, energy, and communications. The Mongolian Technical University, founded in 1969 at Ulaanbaatar, has schools of power engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and geology and mining engineering. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 24% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, Mongolia's expenditures on research and development (R&D) totaled $11.868 million, or 0.28% of GDP. In that same year, the country had 710 researchers and 72 technicians per million people that were involved in R&D. High technology exports in that year totaled $1 million.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Prior to economic reforms of the early 1990s, consumer goods produced at Ulaanbaatar or imported from abroad were distributed by state marketing agencies to retail outlets in local administrative centers. Prices for all items except consumer services and some luxury goods were set by the government. With steady price liberalization undertaken since 1990, prices are now closely regulated for only a few staples, such as fuel, rice, and flour.

Because the rapid dismantling of the government's centrally planned distribution system proceeded without an effective alternative yet in place, severe supply shortages have been experienced especially in the country's urban centers. To reduce these shortages, a system of public markets has been developed where supplies in excess of targeted deliveries can be sold freely. Commodity exchanges, however, still retain some of the characteristics of a centrally planned economy. Bartering is still common among Mongolia's nomadic population.

As of 2002, wide-spread reform toward privatization was nearly completed and these privately-owned enterprises have begun to show growth in contributions to the economy. The government still seeks foreign investment as a major opportunity to boost and stabilize the domestic economy.

Business hours are generally from 9 am to 6 pm, Monday through Friday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Minerals, mainly copper concentrates and molybdenum, were Mongolia's largest exports. In 1998, exports totaled $316.8 million. The second most important export category includes wool, hides, and skins, followed by consumer goods, mainly manufactured garments. The liberalization and expansion of free trade zones have promoted the export of manufactured goods such as spun wool and cashmere, carpets, leather goods, green tea, canned meat, and light consumer goods. In 1999, imports amounted to $472.4 million. Imports included machinery and equipment, fuels, rice, wheat flour, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea.

Although Mongolia continues to depend on the republics of the former USSR (especially Russia) as its dominant trading partners, the country's trading profile has changed greatly since the mid-1980s. In 1985, communist countries, excluding China and North Korea, accounted for 95.5% of Mongolia's exports and 98.1% of its imports. In 1997 Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization. By 1998 Russia accounted for only 12.1% of exports, while their share of imports fell to 30.6%.

In 2004, Mongolia's exports totaled $853 million (FOB—Free on Board), while its imports grew to $1 billion (CIF—Cost and Freight). Export commodities included copper, apparel, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, and other nonferrous metals, and they mainly went to China (which received 47.8% of total exports), the United States (17.9%), and the United Kingdom (15.7%). Imports chiefly came from Russia (33.3%), China (23.6%), Japan (7.4%), South Korea (6%), and the United States (4.6%), and included machinery and equipment, fuel, cars, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Mongolia consistently imports more than it exports. The sudden discontinuance of grants and debt cancellations by the former

Soviet Union devastated the balance of payments position. Subsequently, the IMF in 1993, 1997, and 2001 approved a series of three-year loans to Mongolia, the last due to expire in September 2004.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Mongolia's exports was $466.1 million while imports totaled $614.5 million resulting in a trade deficit of $148.4 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Mongolia had exports of goods totaling $460 million and imports totaling $549 million. The services credit totaled $86 million and debit $174 million.

Exports of goods and services reached $1.2 billion in 2004, up from $835 million in 2003. Imports grew from $1.1 billion in 2003, to $1.5 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, worsening from -$249 million in 2003, to -$303 million in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, slightly improving from -$99 million in 2003, to - $35 million in 2004.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Before 1924, Mongolia lacked its own banks and currency. Mongolians bartered, using such commodities as livestock, tea, and salt for exchange, or such foreign currencies as the US dollar, the Russian ruble, the British pound, and the Chinese Mexican dollar in commerce. Chinese and Russian banks offered credit, as did monasteries and private moneylenders. The government began to transform this chaotic monetary situation with a series of reforms, starting with the establishment of Mongolbank, or the Mongolian Trade-Industrial Bank, in June 1924. Mongolbank was founded as a Mongolian-Soviet joint-stock company. In February 1925, the tugrik was made the official national currency, and it was slowly introduced into circulation over the next three years. In April 1928, all other currencies were withdrawn from circulation. In 1929, the government drove private moneylenders out of business by establishing a monopoly on foreign trade and outlawing private lending.

In April 1954, the Soviet Union handed over its shares in Mongolbank, which was renamed the State Bank of the Mongolian People's Republic, which remains the official bank of Mongolia. However, economic reforms have allowed the formation of a commercial banking sector. The economic reforms were brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.

Mongolia has a two-tier banking system where control of the money supply is invested in the central bank. The Bank of Mongolia has established lending rules the commercial banks must follow. Also, reserve requirements are set by the national bank. In 1991, commercial functions were separated from the Mongol Bank, and two commercial banks were created; by the late 1990s there were 18. On advice from the Asian Development Bank, the government closed a number of banks in 1999 and 2000, leaving 12 in operation in an effort to restructure the two-tier system. In 2000, the World Bank gave Mongolia a loan earmarked for restructuring of its financial systems. Also in that year, foreign exchange reserves reached $123 million. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $142.2 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $301.6 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 8.6%.

The Mongolian Securities Exchange opened in August 1995. About 60,000 individuals have opened accounts on the stock market. By 1996, more than 7.8 million shares from 400 companies had been traded and 28,000 contracts concluded; average daily trade volume is 60,000–80,000 shares.

INSURANCE

In the 1980s, insurance was offered by the State Directorate for Insurance, or Mongoldaatgal, which was under the control of the Ministry of Finance. The government was planning to introduce health insurance in 1993 as a cooperative effort between individuals, government agencies, and the private sector.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The annual budget is submitted to the People's Great Hural for approval. Privatization did not begin until fiscal year 1990/1991 along with political upheaval. Privatization of large state businesses has begun, as has the implementation of tax reforms. Most small businesses were private as of 2001.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2004 Mongolia's central government took in revenues of approximately $582 million and had expenditures of $602 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$20 million. Total external debt was $1.36 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were t403.22 billion and expenditures were t422.62 billion. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 32.4%; defense, 5.9%; public order and safety, 3.9%; economic affairs, 21.2%; environmental protection, 0.3%; housing and community amenities, 0.3%; health, 4.7%; recreation, culture, and religion, 2.2%; education, 6.3%; and social protection, 22.8%.

TAXATION

The turnover tax, for the majority of state revenues, is an indirect sales tax levied at the production stage on all manufactured commodities. Personal taxes consist of income taxes, paid by salaried industrial workers and office employees, and livestock taxes on private herders, based on the number of livestock owned. There is a ceiling of 40% on taxes levied on enterprises with foreign capital. There is also a 13% value-added tax (VAT). Exemptions from the VAT include financial and legal services, leases and rents for dwellings, religious organizations, and public transportation.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Mongolia collects a general import tariff of 5% and a VAT of 13% on most imported items. However, gold is subject to a 10% VAT, while imports of technological equipment and machinery imported under the country's Law of Foreign Investment are exempt. Customs duties have been insignificant, yielding less than 1% of total state revenues.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Prior to 1990, no private investments were possible in Mongolia; much of the country's investment capital was derived from government loans and grants provided by the former USSR and allied countries. New government policy and laws since the late 1980s, including the Foreign Investment Law of 1993, provide the legal basis and incentive for foreign investments. In 1994, Mongolia concluded a Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) with the United States, in 1997 accessed to the WTO, and in 1999 was granted normal trade relations (NTR) status by the United States.

The Foreign Investment and Taxation Laws provide for tax incentives and exemptions for foreign investment. Total income tax exemptions are granted to businesses engaged in infrastructural projects like building power plants, thermal plants, power transmission networks, highways, railways, and air cargo transportation facilities. Mining operations, metallurgy operations, chemicals production, and machinery and electronics manufacturing receive a 10-year tax holiday, and 50% tax exemption for the next five years. Companies that export more than 50% of production receive a three-year tax holiday, and 50% tax exemption for another three years.

Thus far, private foreign capital remains a small source of investment in the country. Mongolia's lack of infrastructure remains an impediment to foreign investment. A north-south paved road running from Russia to China and through the capital was completed with finance from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) but Mongolia still lacks an east–west highway. As of July 2000, cumulative foreign investment in Mongolia totaled $308.4 million. The biggest source has been China, including Hong Kong ($86 million), followed by Japan ($47.5 million), South Korea ($30.4 million), the United States ($27.1 million), Russia ($15.5 million), and Canada ($9.3 million). The sector attracting the most foreign direct investment (FDI) has been mining (24%), followed by light industry (19.6%); raw material processing, including cashmere (10.9%); trade and catering (6.4%); construction (6.3%); banking and financial services (5.4%) and telecommunications (5.0%). Leading investors include Sumitomo Corporation and Komatsu of Japan; Korean Telecom; and SOCO Oil, Caterpillar, and Nescor of the United States.

Although the Mongolian government openly welcomes foreign investments (albeit, it favors a series of key industries, like banking and cashmere production), there are reports of corruption at the level of individual agencies and the judiciary that hinder the free flow of capital.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In the past, Mongolia operated on the basis of a planned economy, with five-year plans implemented from 1947 until 1990, with assistance from the former USSR and China. In 1990, with the establishment of a new consensus government, there followed a three-year plan that aimed for achieving greater efficiency in the allocation of resources and a diversified economic base by undertaking a sustained transition to a free market economy. The change was a fundamental shift, as the government relinquished its role as the primary factor in the economy and began limiting itself to policies supporting a market-oriented economy. Main components of the government's program include privatization of state enterprises, price liberalization, changes in national law, and an action plan for environmental protection. Current plans specify development of the country's energy and mining sectors, and further action in environmental protection as well as continued reforms in a number of areas including fiscal management, land tenure, and social benefit entitlements.

In 1996, the initial phase of privatization of state property was completed. According to the government, 100% of small- and medium-sized enterprises were privatized as well as 97% of the country's livestock. In 2000, the private sector accounted for 72% of GDP. At the end of the 1990s, however, the government's commitment to privatization and market reforms appeared to be weakening. However, the government that took office in August 2000 renewed the effort at gaining macroeconomic stability and restoring the momentum for reform. In September 2001, the administration entered into a three-year arrangement with the IMF under its Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) supported by stand-by funds of sdr28.49 million (about $40 million). In a 2002 review, the IMF commended the government on progress made to contain inflation, but noted that improvements were needed in fiscal transparency and accountability.

In July 2002, a pledge meeting of the Consultative Group (CG) for Mongolia, consisting of donors from 20 countries and 18 international organizations in addition to representatives of various civil and private organizations, agreed on the importance of the government's addressing governance issues: ensuring accountability, promoting transparency, controlling corruption, reforming the judiciary and strengthening the rule of law. Priority areas of action stressed were energy and information and communications technology (ICT), as well as preparation of a long-term strategy for rural development. The donors pledged $333 million in support of Mongolia's development efforts in 2003.

Economic development strategies were expected to be less successful if they focused only on the national economy of Mongolia, outside of the political, geographical, and economic context it finds itself in. The country was still heavily dependent on trade with its neighbors (most of the petroleum products and a substantial part of its electric power are imported from Russia, while most of its exports are going to China), and as such will find it hard to develop an endogenous growth strategy. The large gray economy (some specialists think this is almost as large as the real economy), corruption, and a weak law and regulatory system are some of the factors that could hamper the country's economic expansion. Market opportunities include mining, construction, tourism, and meat processing.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance program provides for free medical services, benefits for temporary disability, and pensions for permanent disability and old age.

Women have equal rights and freedoms under Mongolian law, with the exception of a law barring them from hazardous work. Women account for approximately half of the work force, generally receive equal pay for equal work, and many hold mid-level government and professional jobs. Domestic abuse and violence remain serious problems. New laws went into effect in 2005 to combat domestic violence.

Although the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, there are reports of mistreatment of detainees and prisoners. Human rights organizations operate openly in Mongolia.

HEALTH

Health care is administered under state auspices and all medical and hospital services are free. The government gives special priority to increasing the number of physicians and other health personnel and expanding facilities in rural areas. Each province has at least two hospitals and each agricultural cooperative and state farm has a medical station. As of 2004, there were an estimated 267 physicians, 305 nurses, 18 dentists, and 31 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Most Mongolians had access to health services. In 2000, 60% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 30% had adequate sanitation. Health expenditures were 4.7% of the GDP.

Average life expectancy in 2005 was an estimated 64.52 years (up from 45 years in 1950). Pulmonary and bronchial infections, including tuberculosis and brucellosis, are widespread but are being brought under control through the use of ayrag, an indigenous drink brewed from horse milk and possessing demonstrated healing qualities. Cholera, smallpox, typhus, and other epidemic diseases have been virtually eliminated. Immunization rates for children up to one year of age were as follows: tuberculosis, 90%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 78%; polio, 87%; and measles, 80%. Rates for DPT and measles were, respectively, 94% and 93%.

The general mortality rate was estimated at seven per 1,000 people as of 2002. In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 53.79 per 1,000 live births. At least 30.4% of children had goiter. About 25% of children under five years of age were malnourished and 11% of births were of low birth weight. Maternal mortality in 2003 was 65 per 100,000 live births. The total fertility rate decreased steadily from 5.4 in 1980 to 2.6 per woman in 2000.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Although there are many stone and wood buildings in Ulaanbaatar and some of the larger provincial centers, the traditional housing structure is the ger, a tent-like wooden frame structure covered in woolen felt. In 2002, about 49% of the population lived in gers. Approximately 57% of the population lived in Ulaanbaatar, where large apartment-house complexes with stores, services, and cultural facilities were being built to house the growing urban population. Apartments are the primary residence for urban dwellers.

The Asian Development Bank has sponsored a loan program to support housing construction in the nation. Within the country itself, groups focusing on housing issues include the Citizen's Representatives Meeting of Ulaanbaatar, the Tsast Impex Company, and the joint Mongolian-Chinese Bogda Holding Company.

EDUCATION

The 1991 Education Law introduced a number of changes in the system. The traditional Mongolian script was to be introduced from the first grade, and teaching of English in all schools was made compulsory. Nonformal education offered by private institutions was also given due importance and recognition.

Eight years of schooling is compulsory starting at age eight, and free of charge. Primary school covers four years of study, followed by four years of junior secondary school and two years of upper secondary school. There are technical and vocational schools, which admit students after their primary education is complete. Many children in rural areas are withdrawn from school in order to work at home. An absence of heat in many rural schools is also a problem that may contribute to poor enrollment levels. More than 70% of students from rural areas reside in dormitories adjoining the schools. The academic year runs from September to July.

In 2001, about 31% of children between the ages of three and seven were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 79% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 77% of age-eligible students; 72% for boys and 83% for girls. It is estimated that nearly all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 31:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 22:1.

While higher and professional education is not free, tuition fees for poor students are subsidized by the government. The Mongolian State University, in Ulaanbaatar, was founded in 1942 and includes faculties in the social sciences, trade, and philology, as well as in science and technology. The Ministry of Science, Technology, Education and Culture (MOSTEC) is responsible for higher education. In 2003, about 37% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program; 28% for men and 47% for women. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 97.8%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 9% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Mongolian State University has a library of 350,000 volumes. The State Central Library of Mongolia, which is under the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences, contains four million volumes in Mongolian, Chinese, English, French, German, Manchu, Russian, Tibetan, and other languages. It also has a collection of valuable Buddhist manuscripts, including a 335-volume Buddhist encyclopedia. In 1991, the country opened a college of business and commerce, which houses a library of 21,000 volumes. Also that year, it opened the College of Economics with 40,000 volumes. The Library of the State Great Hural of Mongolia, established in 1992, serves the members of parliament, with holdings of about 40,000 volumes and subscriptions of over 100 periodicals per year. Ulaanbaatar City Central Library was established in 1980 and has over 500,000 items.

The State Central Museum, containing art treasures and antiquities, the Museum of National History, the Ulaanbaatar Museum (a public affairs museum), the Fine Arts Museum, and the Museum of Religion, all in Ulaanbaatar, are under the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences. Also in the capital are the Mongolian National Modern Art Gallery, opened in 1989, and the Palace Museum, in the home of Bodg Geegen, former head of state and leader of the Buddhist Church of Mongolia. The Zanabazar Museum of Fine Art features collections of native artists. The Theater Museum opened in 1991.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 56 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 35,600 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 130 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Radio broadcasting began in the MPR in 1934. Radio Ulaanbaatar broadcasts programs in Mongolian, Russian, Chinese, English, French, and Kazakh. Mongel Telev 12, which transmits locally produced programs, and a satellite station are also located in Ulaanbaatar. There are several independent stations. In 2004 there were 7 AM and 62 FM radio stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 50 radios and 81 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 20.5 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 77.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 58 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were five secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

The newspapers of the MPR (together with the organizations that publish them) include Unen (Central Committee of the MPRP, 1999 circulation 170,000); Ardyn Erh (Mongolian Great Hural and Cabinet, circulation 77,500); Novosti Mongoliy (the Mongolian News Agency); Hodolmor, the organ of the trade unions; Dzaluuchuudyn Unen (Central Committee of the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League); Shine Hodoo (Ministry of Agriculture and the Supreme Council of the Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives); Utga Dzohiol Urlag (the Union of Mongolian Writers and the Ministry of Culture); and Ulaan Od (Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Public Security). Also published are 41 periodicals, including Namyn Am'dral, a journal of the Central Committee of the MPRP, and Shinjleh Uhaan Am'dral, a bimonthly publication of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences.

The constitution provides for freedom of expression, including free speech and a free press, and the government is said to respect these rights in practice.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Mongolian National Chamber of Commerce and Industry is in Ulan Bator.

Mongolia's mass organizations, all of which work closely with the MPRP, include the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League (founded in 1922), Mongolian Pioneers' Organization, Committee of Mongolian Women (founded in 1933), and Mongolian-Soviet Friendship Society (founded in 1947).

Other youth organizations include the Union of Mongolian Students, Junior Chamber, and the Scout Association of Mongolia. There are several sports associations in the country promoting competition amongst amateur athletes. Another nongovernment women's organization is the Women's Information and Research Center.

Professional and cultural organizations include the Mongolia Academy of Science, the Union of Mongolian Artists, the Union of Mongolian Composers, the Mongolian Association for Lawyers, the Union of Mongolian Journalists, the Union of Mongolian Writers, and the Union of Mongolian Philatelists.

Social action organizations are the Mongolian Committee for Afro-Asian Solidarity, Mongolian Union for Peace and Friendship Organizations, and Mongolian Committee for the Defense of Peace. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Points of interest include the largest monastery in Mongolia, Gandan Lamasery in Ulaanbaatar, and the ruined city of Karakorum, once the capital of the Mongol Empire. Mongolia offers abundant and varied scenery, including forests, steppes, lakes, and deserts, and a wide variety of wildlife. The national sports of Mongolia are wrestling, archery, and horse racing. Mongols also participate in boxing and sumo wrestling.

A valid passport is required for entry into Mongolia, an onward/return ticket, and a visa if staying of more than 90 days. In 2003, about 201,000 tourists visited Mongolia. Tourist expenditure receipts totaled $154 million that same year. Despite the birth of multiparty democracy in the 1990s, Mongolia has not encouraged tourism. Tourist facilities are in short supply, and prices are high.

According to the US Department of State, the estimated cost of staying in Ulaanbaatar in 2004 was $200 per day.

FAMOUS MONGOLIANS

A long line of Mongol khans have left their mark on history ever since Temujin, or Genghis Khan (1162–1227), set up the first Mongol empire in 1206. Outstanding among them were Kublai Khan (1216–94), a grandson of Genghis, who conquered most of China; Hulagu Khan (1217–60), a brother of Kublai, who conquered Persia and Syria; Batu Khan (d.1255), Kublai's cousin, who overran Russia, Poland, and Hungary; Timur, also known as Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane (1336?–1405), a descendant of Genghis, who extended his military power for short periods into southern Russia, India, and the Levant; and Babur (Zahir ad-Din Muhammad, 1483–1530), a descendant of Timur, who established an empire in India.

In recent times, two national leaders were Sukhe Baatar (1894–1923) and Khorloin Choybalsan (1895–1952). Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (1916–91), intermittently general secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP since 1940, became chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1952, was elected chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Hural in 1974, and was named the MPRP general secretary in 1981. Jambyn Batmunkh (1926–97) became chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1974 and was elected chairman of the Presidium and general secretary of the MPRP in 1984. Natsagiyn Bagabandi (b.1950) was the president of Mongolia from 1997 to 2005; he was succeeded by Nambaryn Enkhbayar (b.1958), who was prime minister from 2000–04.

The founder of modern Mongolian literature is D. Natsagdorj (1906–37). Tsendyn Damdinsuren (1908–86) is one of the most important writers. Leading playwrights are Ch. Oydov (1917–63) and E. Oyuun (1918–2001). Other prominent writers are B. Rindhen (1905–78), D. Namdag (1911–82), U. Ulambayar (b.1911), and Ch. Lodoydamba (1917–70). B. Damdinsuren (1919–92) and L. Murdorzh are noted composers. Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha (b.1947) became the first Mongolian in space in 1981, when he was carried into orbit aboard the former USSR's Soyuz 39.

DEPENDENCIES

The MPR has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hanson, Jennifer. Mongolia. New York: Facts On File, 2004.

Hoare, Jim and Susan Pares. A Political and Economic Dictionary of East Asia. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Kotkin, Stephen and Bruce A. Elleman (ed.). Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1999.

Mongolia in Transition. Surrey, England: Curzon, 1996.

Nordby, Judith. Mongolia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio, 1993.

Poverty and the Transition to a Market Economy in Mongolia. New York: St. Martin's, 1995.

Sanders, Alan J. K. Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2003.

Soucek, Svatopluk. A History of Inner Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Mongolia

Basic Data

Mongolia (Mongol Uls) has moved from being a largely agricultural and nomadic society, to being split between a nomadic and an urban population. One-third of all Mongolians reside in the capital city of Ulan Bator (Ulaanbaatar). Just larger than Alaska in size, 90 percent of its land is pasture or desert wasteland; 9 percent is forested; and 1 percent is arable. There is scant rain and large seasonal climate fluctuations occur.

Mongolia, with Soviet backing, gained its independence from China in 1921, but as of 1990 dropped its Soviet styled single-party state and began movements toward democratically oriented governance. Currently, 18 parties are active in the Mongolian political system. However, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)—the former party of Soviet rule—still has significant influence, including the support of current president Natsagiyin Bagabandi and a strong showing of 72 out of 76 seats in the 2000 parliamentary elections.

This has created some directional uncertainty concerning the political future of Mongolia. As with many countries experimenting with new systems of political governance, Mongolia's economic situation has been a struggle. While new avenues are being sought, there continues to be an inability to create and sustain a viable economy. Being landlocked and losing significant trading prospects with the collapse of the Soviet Union, they have been aggressively pursuing relationships with all countries, but have yet to find an economic niche that can provide any consistency and growth. Mongolia's precarious economic and still new political activities have lent themselves both positively and negatively to press and broadcast media situations.

Mongolian press began in 1920 under the Mongolian Communist Party (equivalent with the MPRP at the time) with Unen (Truth )—similar to Soviet Pravda —being the oldest newspaper published in the country; and Dzaluuchuudyn Unen (Young People's Truth ), founded by the Central Committee of the Revolutionary Youth League; and Ulaan Od (Red Star ) founded by the Ministries of Defense and Public Security following respectively in 1924 and 1930.

During those years the government directly oversaw all publishing. However much has changed since then. In a May 22, 2001, press conference newly elected Bagabandi iterated that he would seek to ensure press freedom through legal guarantees. However, while a Law of Press Freedom passed August 28, 1998, and enacted January 1, 1999, exists it has yet to obtain the necessary guarantees to assure its full implementation. In fact, soon after the MPRP regained power, the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs closed three newspapers without legal authority. Further, while the 1998 law forbids state ownership or financing of media or of their organizations, the majority of radio and television stations are still state-owned and there continue to be problems in transferring this state-owned material to private hands. Government reticence also extends to allowing access to information.

The government, while taking no official actions against the media except in a couple of fairly justifiable cases, continues investigations into local media and press operations that—whether accurate or not—seem to these organizations negative and threatening.

As of a 1991 decree, The Ministry for Justice and Home Affairs is in charge of issuing licenses for all newspapers and can also confiscate them if newspapers break any ordinances. Additionally, the government has attempted to use moral rules and tax laws to keep tight rein on the "free" media. In many senses this has led to much self-censorship by the press. Even with these legal hurdles existing 1,150 newspapers were reported registered in 2001. With newspaper circulation essentially limited to Ulan Bator and only one-third of the country's 2.4 million people living there, this is a large figure. One factor in the high number of registered papers has to do with the fact that many of the papers are small circulation presses, some being literally one-person operations. There are only four dailies in Mongolian. Still, overall newspaper circulation stands on average at about 27 per 1,000 people.

Government has relinquished control of newsprint, but costs fluctuate dramatically due to shortages of paper and fuel supplies. Thus, the process of buying privately is prohibitive for many of the small presses. Also hindering newspapers is the fact that 90 percent of the advertising market is obtained by government television and radio leaving the press with little to exploit for income. Therefore, they are primarily dependent on circulation sales for income, but this presents an extra challenge in a country with per capita income of about $400 U.S. dollars per year. While there is lack of capital working against the press, one favorable aspect of the population is an average 97 percent literacy rate for both males and females. According to a 1998 poll more than 68 percent of Mongolians favor newspapers as their favorite form of media—one of the highest percentages in the world.

Dailies include: Odiriyn Sonin (Daily News ; independent; succeeded state paper Ardyn Erh ; founded 1990), Onoodor (independent; largest newspaper with regular 12-page issues and advertisements; founded 1996), Zuuny Medee (independent; succeeded state paper Zasigyn Gazryn Medee ), Mongolia This Week (independent; first and only daily in English), and Unen (Truth ; organ of the MPRP). Circulation figures are still generally not reported and at least one editor suggested this is one major problem that needs to be resolved in order to begin facilitating a freer press. However, before their name transition Onoodor and Zuuny Medee were among the largest circulations. An interesting variation from some of the other publications available is Ger Magazine (published online with guidance from the United Nations Development Program, UNDP), which is concerned with Mongolian youth in cultural transition. The name of the magazine is meant to be ironic because a ger is the Mongolian word for yurt—a yurt being traditional nomadic housing—but the magazine is about urbanization and globalization of Mongolian youth.

Broadcast media runs in a similar vein with the press. Private radio and television stations exist alongside state-owned operations, but lack of funding and lack of general infrastructure tend to limit the capacity for private ventures (this is the downside of the media law not allowing the government to fund media). What privatization has occurred is primarily limited to Ulan Bator with others only having access to state television and radio for news and a few private stations that primarily play music (music is cheaper than live programming). However, according to the International Journalists' Network, even state-owned television and radio stations are now required to be run as a "self-funding national public broadcasting system." This is still much more the ideal than the actual.

One state-owned radio broadcast station, The Voice of Mongolia, began in 1965, is operated by Mongolian Radio and Television. It broadcasts eight hours a day in Mongolian, English, Chinese and Russian, and remains the sole international radio broadcasting station for the government of Mongolia. Overall, 2001 estimates suggest there are seven AM, nine FM, and four short-wave radio broadcast stations in the country. They broadcast to 155,900 radios (according to 1999 estimates).

Mongolteleviz is the state-owned television station under Mongolian Radio and Television and broadcasts nationwide. Other private stations include Eagle (Bürged) TV, MN Channel 25, and UBSTV. As of 1999, there were four television broadcast stations with 18 provincial repeaters and numerous low power repeaters. They broadcast to 168,800 televisions—approximately 50 to 60 percent of households possessing a television. Mont-same is Mongolia's state-owned news agency.

The Internet is a relatively new medium for Mongolia with its first connection established in 1995, but it is up and coming. There is no direct infringement by the government concerning private Internet use by citizens. As of 2001 there were five Internet service providers in the country and between 10,000 and 15,000 subscribers. The United Nations Volunteers and United Nations Development Programme are currently running a major program in partnership with the Open Society Institute-Mongolia and with funding from the government of Japan to increase ICT access and utilization.

There is respect for the academy in Mongolia and journalistic training can be gained there. Perhaps one of the most prescient statements offered about Mongolia in recent years comes from the head of DataCom and board member of the Open Society Institute-Mongolia. D. Enkhbat says, "Mongolia cannot solve the task of creating [an] open society without creating mechanisms for the free flow of information."

Bibliography

All the World's Newspapers. Available from http://www.webwombat.com.au.

Arignews: Daily Frontier News Bulletin. Available from http://www.eurasianet.org.

Atalpedia Online. Country Index. Available from http://www.atlapedia.com.

Boyd, Douglas. Broadcasting in the Arab World: A Survey of the Electronic Media in the Middle East , 3rd ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA: 1999.

British Broadcast Company. BBC News Country Profiles. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk.

Central Intelligence Agecy. The World Factbook 2001. (2002) Available from http://www.cia.gov.

Eurasianet. Initial Analysis of State Media Law and Resolution Passed Friday, August 28, 1998. Available: http://www.eurasianet.org.

Eurasianet: Mongolia Media Links. Available from http://www.eurasianet.org.

Government of Mongolia. Available from http://www.pmis.gov.mn.

International Journalists' Network (IJNet). Mongolia: Press Overview. Available from http://www.ijnet.org.

International Press Institute. World Press Review. Available from http://www.freemedia.at.

Kurian, George, ed. World Press Encyclopedia. Facts on File Inc. New York: 1982.

The Library of Congress. Country Studies. Available from http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs.

Maher, Joanne, ed. Regional Surveys of the World: The Middle East and North Africa 2002 , 48th ed. Europa Publications. London: 2001.

The Middle East, 9th ed. Congressional Quarterly Inc. Washington, DC: 2000.

Mongolian Radio and Television. Available from http://web.mol.mn.

Redmon, Clare, ed. Willings Press Guide 2002, Vol. 2. Waymaker Ltd. Chesham Bucks, UK: 2002.

Reporters Sans Frontieres. Bahrain Annual Report 2002. Available from http://www.rsf.fr.

Reporters Sans Frontieres. Middle East Archives 2002. Available: http://www.rsf.fr.

Russell, Malcom. The Middle East and South Asia 2001, 35th ed. United Book Press, Inc. Harpers Ferry, WV: 2001.

Stat-USA. International Trade Library: Country Background Notes. Available from http://www.stat-usa.gov.

Sumner, Jeff, ed. Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media, Vol. 5 136th ed. Gale Group. Farmington Hills, MI: 2002.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Available from http://www.uis.unesco.org.

United Nations. Ger Online Magazine. Available from http://www.un-mongolia.mn/ger-mag.

United Nations in Mongolia. Available from http://www.un-mongolia.mn.

United Nations Volunteer Programme. Freedom Of Expression: Introducing investigative journalism to local media in Mongolia. Available from http://www.unvolunteers.org.

U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices-Mongolia. Available: http://www.state.gov.

World Bank. Data and Statistics. Available from http://www.worldbank.org.

World Desk Reference. Available: http://www.travel.dk.com.

Clint B. Thomas Baldwin

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