Irish Republican Army (IRA). The rising of 1916 left the Irish Volunteers in disarray. However, the organization was quickly re‐established on a wave of popular support, due to the events surrounding the rising and a fear of conscription. The new leadership did not envisage starting another uprising for the time being. At their first post‐rising convention in October 1917 it was determined that the Volunteers were primarily to be used to exert political pressure on the British government to recognize the Irish Republic. For this aim the Volunteers were to arm, train, and organize. However, the public drilling exercises which started at the end of 1917, particularly in the south‐west, brought them into conflict with the authorities. The increasingly harsh measures taken by the government during 1918 drove the organization underground. The concurrent success of the politicians in Sinn Féin made the militarists in the Volunteers feel left out, and, without the sanction of their leadership, they began to take increasingly violent action which slowly led to the start of the Anglo‐Irish War.

After the foundation of Dáil Éireann in January 1919 the organization became increasingly known as the Irish Republican Army, but also retained the name Irish Volunteers. This highlighted the ambivalent relationship between individual Volunteer units and their military and political leadership. Although now officially the army of the Republic, Volunteers never fully accepted the central power of their GHQ, established only in March 1918, or the political control of the Dáil government, despite swearing an oath of allegiance to it.

The Volunteers/IRA were unevenly distributed over the country. They attracted the largest membership in the west, closely followed by Munster. Membership was limited in the more prosperous east, and extremely low in Ulster, where the Volunteers were a largely marginal organization concentrated in a few small areas. Membership was young, aged mainly between 20 and 30, and overwhelmingly Catholic. Volunteers were broadly representative of Irish Catholic male society, coming from most sectors of the working and middle or upper classes, and few were unemployed or indigent. Officers tended to be older, more urban based, and of a higher status—better educated, more skilled, and financially better off. In Dublin the majority of officers and men had working‐class backgrounds. There are clear changes in the composition of membership after the fighting started. The average age of Volunteers decreased, and in the most active areas the rank and file became more working class and urban, while officers became more middle class. The difference in backgrounds which had existed between areas in the early period largely disappeared in 1920–1.

Losing the Civil War, which followed the signing of the Anglo‐Irish treaty of 1921, showed the IRA that for the moment it could not achieve its objective through a military confrontation. However, neither did it accept the legitimacy of the Irish Free State or of Northern Ireland, nor did it hand in its arms. All it could do now was to try to maintain the organization and mobilize support through Sinn Féin, but the 1916–22 period left it with a difficult legacy. Abstention had become the benchmark of true republicanism, the organization had acquired an inherent suspicion of involvement in politics, and memories of James Connolly and the democratic programme gave rise to a strong socialistic tendency within its ranks. These elements combined made it nearly impossible to obtain the wide public support necessary to make a military campaign a success.

In 1925 the link with Sinn Féin was broken when a large section of the party under de Valera decided that abstention from parliament would lead them nowhere. The subsequent political success of Fianna Fáil, and the IRA's inability to launch a military campaign, soon made it clear that the IRA needed its own political party. This led to the launch of several unsuccessful political initiatives, including Comhairle na Poblachta in 1929 and Saor Éire in 1931. The left wing of the movement subsequently broke away in 1934 and formed Republican Congress. A more traditional republican party, Cumann Poblachta na hÉireann, was then launched by Sean MacBride in 1936, again without success.

The takeover of government by Fianna Fáil in 1932 led to a large increase in enthusiasm for the IRA. However, after slowly undermining their strength by satisfying many of their supporters' demands, de Valera banned the organization, now no longer needed as possible allies against the Blueshirts, in 1936.

In a final attempt to regain its relevance the hard‐line remnants of the IRA under Sean Russell embarked on a bombing campaign in Great Britain in January 1939. Their hope of forcing Britain to renegotiate the treaty soon proved futile. Some damage was done to economic targets but the campaign soon ended with relatively few casualties (7 deaths and 137 injured). Attention then turned to Northern Ireland but by December 1944 the movement there was virtually wiped out by a combined effort of the British, Irish, and Northern Irish governments.

After the Second World War the IRA was reestablished by some of its former members. The organization renewed its links with Sinn Féin, but again dedicated itself to reuniting Ireland by physical force. The subsequent border campaign, launched in 1956, failed due to a lack of public support. Hoping to attract a mass following the movement slowly moved to the left during the 1960s, becoming involved in economic and social agitation. These attempts to rouse the masses inevitably led those involved to a desire to become more fully engaged in politics through existing institutions. This in turn meant conflict with the more traditional abstentionists in the organization.

A formal split came about under pressure of the violence which erupted in the north in 1969. At the Army Convention of 1969 the militarists broke away over the issue of abstention and formed the provisional IRA, which became the dominant grouping, while the remainder became known as the officials. The official IRA suspended military operations in May 1972, although it remained in existence for some years, carrying out bank robberies and similar operations for fund‐raising purposes. A breakaway group unwilling to accept the ceasefire became the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA).

Although the provisional IRA sustained the campaign of violence for much longer than in the past, the tensions between abstentionism, political action, and physical force that have characterized the republican movement since the Civil War continued to dog it. The initial belief that a full‐scale military campaign with a maximum of civil disorder could bring about an early British withdrawal gave way from the mid‐1970s to the concept of the ‘long haul’, which would gradually sap the British will to remain; this change coincided with the adoption of a tighter cellular structure. From the early 1980s the continued use of violence was combined an attempt to establish Sinn Féin as a force in national, local, and community‐based politics. This fusion of military and political action in the two‐pronged approach of the ‘armalite and the ballot box’ was challenged by supporters of traditional abstentionism, who broke away to form Republican Sinn Féin in 1986. By 1994 successful involvement in social and political action had brought about a serious reappraisal of the role of physical force, leading to the formal suspension of the military campaign. This cleared the way for Sinn Féin to enter into a compromise political settlement, the 1998 ‘Good Friday Agreement’ (see peace process). However, the reluctance of unionists to accept Sinn Féin as a genuine political party and the continued uncertainty surrounding the implementation of the agreement have given a boost to supporters of continued violence and abstentionist politics. The emergence of the Continuity Army Council, connected to Republican Sinn Féin, and the formation of the Real IRA in 1995, show the potential for further conflict. The political success of Sinn Féin has so far constrained them, but in the long run the dominance of political tactics among republicans will depend on the success of the new power‐sharing institutions.

Bibliography

Bell, J. Bowyer , The Secret Army: The IRA (1996)
English, Richard , Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA (2003)
Hart, Peter , The I.R.A. at War 1916–1923 (2003)
Smith, M. L. R. , Fighting for Ireland? The Military Strategy of the Irish Republican Movement (1995)

Joost Augusteijn

Irish Republican Army

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The term Irish Republican Army was first used during the Fenian raids in Canada during the 1860s. Today the term is used in concert with the outbreaks of violence throughout Ireland, and especially in Northern Ireland, called the Troubles. The Irish Republican Army has a much longer history than that begun in the late 1960s and early 1970s, having been instrumental in the Easter Uprising in 1916. The Troubles refers to the sectarian conflict in Ireland (especially Northern Ireland) that began in the late 1960s.

The immediate postfamine years in Ireland were a period of escalating unrest between the Irish and their English occupiers. In 1916 the conflicts came to a head when a group of charismatic Irish began a revolt in Dublin. The focal point of the revolt was the General Post Office, now a shrine to their efforts, but the entire city, especially the area in and around O’Connell Street and Parnell Square, was involved in the violent armed conflict. In the end, the leaders of the revolt were arrested, put in Kilmainham Gaol, and many were executed. In the aftermath of the uprising and their executions, Michael Collins (1890–1922) and others organized guerrilla forces against the English Black and Tans. These forces became known as the Irish Volunteers.

In 1919 the Dáil Éireann or First Dáil (the government of Ireland) recognized the Irish Volunteers as the Irish Republican Army (IRA), and they in turn fought the Irish War of Independence from 1919 to 1921 against the English. At the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921, the IRA split into protreaty forces (which became known as the Old IRA, government forces, or regulars) and antitreaty forces (Republicans or irregulars). The antitreaty forces continued to use the name Irish Republican Army. In 1922 the two sides entered into the Irish Civil War, with the regulars led by Michael Collins on the side of the new Irish Free State, which still recognized England, and the Republicans led by Liam Lynch (1893–1923) refusing to recognize the new state or the partitioning of Northern Ireland. Collins was later assassinated by IRA members for his participation in the Civil War and support of the Free State government.

Éamon de Valera (1882–1975), a member of the antitreaty group Sinn Féin, eventually came to power as leader of the Fianna Fáil Party, currently the largest political party in Ireland. The IRA remained active in the Republic until the 1960s, when it split again to become the Official IRA (OIRA) and the Provisional IRA (PIRA). The Provisionals were most active in Northern Ireland and split with the Official IRA due to what they recognized as the OIRA’s lack of protection for nationalist communities in the North. This split came in 1969 as violence between sectarian communities and Republican and Unionist groups began to escalate. This is often recognized as a conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the North, but the underlying reasons remain tension between Unionists (those who support English rule) and Republicans (those who support unity with the Republic of Ireland and devolution from England).

Bloody Sunday, a violent clash between protesters and British and Northern Irish troops in Derry in 1972, was a flashpoint in the sectarian conflicts. Troops opened fire upon the crowd of protesters killing thirteen, all of whom were unarmed. There are conflicting reports from those present that suggest either a gun was fired from the protesters’ side toward the troops or that the troops were commanded to fire on the agitated crowd. In the days and months that followed, extreme violence in the form of shootings, bombings, murders, and arson engulfed the North. The PIRA carried out many of the killings and are suspected to be the perpetrators of specific acts of violence carried out against the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and the British army, among them the bombings of police stations and barracks and the targeting of pubs frequented by the RUC and the army. They are also accused of a number of attacks in Dublin and throughout the United Kingdom. In over thirty years of violence in Northern Ireland, more than three thousand people have died as a result of the conflict.

Since the mid-1990s, a process of political devolution has been under way in Northern Ireland. The peace process, as it is known, has been opposed by many, including the Real IRA, a splinter group of the PIRA that broke ranks in 1997. The Real IRA, considered to be a paramilitary group, has held out against the decommissioning of weapons as proposed in the Hume-Adams report. In 1993 the Hume-Adams initiative agreed to by John Hume, leader of the SDLP (the North’s nationalist party) and Gerry Adams was a directive to begin an IRA cease-fire and to include Sinn Féin in the peace talks. This in turn led to a series of cease-fires and began the peace process. Sinn Féin, led by Gerry Adams, entered the Dáil Éireann and now participates in the political decision-making process.

SEE ALSO Peace Process; Revolution

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Behan, Brendan. 1965. Confessions of an Irish Rebel. London: Hutchinson.

Coogan, Tim Pat. 2002. The IRA. Rev. ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Coogan, Tim Pat. 2002. The Troubles: Ireland’s Ordeal and the Search for Peace. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

English, Richard. 2003. Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Moloney, Ed. 2002. A Secret History of the IRA. New York: Norton.

Toolis, Kevin. 1995. Rebel Hearts: Journeys within the IRA’s Soul. London: Picador.

Kelli Ann Costa

Irish Republican Army (IRA)

The Irish Republican Army (IRA) also operates as, or is known as, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA or "Provos").

The IRA formally became a terrorist group in 1969 as the clandestine armed wing of Sinn Fein, a legal political movement dedicated to removing British forces from Northern Ireland and unifying Ireland. The IRA originated with a Marxist orientation and was organized into small, tightly knit cells under the leadership of the Army Council. The IRA has been observing a cease-fire since 1997 and in October 2001, took the historic step of putting an unspecified amount of arms and ammunition "completely beyond use." The International Commission on Decommissioning characterized the step as a significant act of decommissioning. The IRA retains the ability to conduct operations. Its traditional activities have included bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, punishment beatings, extortion, smuggling, and robberies. Bombing campaigns were conducted against train and subway stations and shopping areas on mainland Britain. Targets included senior British government officials, civilians, police, and British military targets in Northern Ireland.

The IRA has, at a minimum, several hundred members, plus several thousand sympathizers—despite the possible defection of some members to the Real IRA (RIRA). The IRA operates in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Great Britain, and Europe. During its history, the IRA has received aid from a variety of groups and countries and considerable training and arms from Libya and the Palestinian Liberation Organization. The IRA is suspected of receiving funds, arms, and other terrorist related materiel from sympathizers in the United States.

█ FURTHER READING:

ELECTRONIC:

CDI (Center for Defense Information) Terrorism Project. CDI Fact Sheet: Current List of Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations. March 27, 2003. <http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/terrorist.cfm> (April 17, 2003).

Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook, 2002. <http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/> (April 16, 2003).

Taylor, Francis X. U.S. Department of State. "Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001." Annual Report: On the Record Briefing. May 21, 2002 <http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/10367.htm> (April 17, 2003).

U.S. Department of State. Annual reports. <http://www.state.gov/www/global/terrorism/annual_reports.html> (April 16, 2003).

SEE ALSO

Terrorism, Philosophical and Ideological Origins
Terrorist and Para-State Organizations
Terrorist Organization List, United States
Terrorist Organizations, Freezing of Assets

Irish Republican Army (IRA). The Irish Volunteers, formed in 1913/14 and reorganized along conventional military command lines after the Easter Rising, became known as the IRA from 1919. During the Anglo-Irish War, 1919–21, it became the dominant military arm of the Dáil government, and fought a limited successful guerrilla war until stalemate was acknowledged by the truce of July 1921. Divided over the Anglo-Irish treaty of December 1921, the minority formed the Provisional Government/Free State Army, while the majority armed against the new state in the civil war 1922–3. Guerrilla warfare tactics were then less successful, and defeat was implicit in the cease-fire of April 1923. The raison d'être of the organization remained because of partition and the allegiance to the British crown. For four decades, the IRA was undecided whether to concentrate on a campaign against the border, or against British and Free State/Republic government, or to focus on social and economic issues. It waged an unsuccessful border campaign 1956–61, and shifted into being a Marxist pressure group. The outbreak of violence in Derry and Belfast from 1969 found the movement wanting in its traditional protective role for the catholic minority: graffiti claimed IRA stood for ‘I ran away’. A split occurred between the Belfast-based traditional nationalist Provisional IRA and the Marxist Official IRA, with the latter shrinking and splintering into smaller republican organizations. The Provisional IRA waged a high-profile terror campaign, which was instrumental in the collapse of Stormont in 1972 and in power-sharing initiatives, but it lost support and momentum as a result of an unsuccessful truce 1974/5, though continuing operations in the province and in Britain. Gaining considerable support from the hunger strike crisis of 1981, the movement adopted a more political strategy with Sinn Fein's Armalite and ballot policy. The decision of the IRA to agree to a cease-fire in the 1990s led to the ‘Real’ IRA taking over the mantle of violence. A Northern Ireland Assembly was established and Sinn Fein ministers appointed, but the reluctance of the IRA to begin serious decommissioning of arms led to the dissolution of the Assembly in 2003.

Michael Hopkinson

Irish Republican Army (IRA). The Irish Volunteers, formed in 1913/ and reorganized along conventional military command lines after the Easter Rising, became known as the IRA from 1919. During the Anglo‐Irish War, 1919–21, it became the dominant military arm of the Dáil government. Divided over the Anglo‐Irish treaty of December 1921, the minority formed the Provisional Government/Free State Army, while the majority armed against the new state in the civil war 1922–3. Defeat was implicit in the cease‐fire of April 1923. The raison d'être of the organization remained because of partition and the allegiance to the British crown. The outbreak of violence in Derry and Belfast from 1969 found the movement wanting in its traditional protective role for the catholic minority: graffiti claimed IRA stood for ‘I ran away’. A split occurred between the Belfast‐based traditional nationalist Provisional IRA and the Marxist Official IRA, with the latter shrinking and splintering into smaller republican organizations. The Provisional IRA waged a high‐profile terror campaign, which was instrumental in the collapse of Stormont in 1972 and in power‐sharing initiatives, but it lost support and momentum as a result of an unsuccessful truce 1974/5. Gaining considerable support from the hunger strike crisis of 1981, the movement adopted a more political strategy with Sinn Fein Armalite and ballot policy. The refusal of the IRA to begin effective disarmament jeopardized the peace process in the early 21st cent.

Irish Republican Army (IRA), formed during the First World War to fight the British for Irish independence. It continued to fight them after 1918 to make Eire a republic and to coerce them into leaving Northern Ireland (see UK, 4).

In January 1939 the IRA started a bombing campaign on the British mainland which continued until heightened security stopped it at the end of the year. On both sides of the Irish border the police acted promptly against the IRA when the war broke out. Many IRA suspects were interned, and an IRA raid on an army magazine in Dublin resulted in a further round-up. In August 1940 the organization's chief of staff, Sean Russell, died while returning to Eire from Germany in a U-boat and in 1941 his successor, Stephen Hayes, was accused by the leader of the IRA in Northern Ireland of being an informer. He was kidnapped and tortured by the IRA, but managed to escape; this led to a loss of public sympathy and the capture of the remaining IRA leaders.

In February 1939 the Abwehr sent an agent to discuss co-operation between the Germans and the IRA, and an IRA member then travelled to Germany three times to seek arms and financial assistance. To the annoyance of the German minister in Dublin, who knew that aiding and abetting subversion by the IRA could only help the Allied cause, several more Abwehr agents did arrive with radio transmitters and funds during the course of the war. All were captured and virtually nothing was gained by either party, one agent describing the IRA as rotten at its roots.

Irish Republican Army (IRA) Guerrilla organization dedicated to the reunification of Ireland. Formed in 1919, the IRA waged guerrilla warfare against British rule. Some members (‘irregulars’) rejected the Anglo-Irish settlement of 1921, fighting a civil war until 1923. In 1970, the organization split into an ‘Official’ wing (which emphasized political activities), and a ‘Provisional’ wing (committed to armed struggle). Thereafter, the Provisional IRA became committed to terrorist acts in Northern Ireland and mainland Britain. It declared a cease-fire in 1994, but in 1996 resumed its campaign. Another cease-fire was declared in 1997. The timing of the decommissioning of IRA weapons is a major issue in the peace process.

IRA abbreviation for the Irish Republican Army, the military arm of Sinn Fein, aiming for union between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The IRA was formed during the struggle for independence from Britain in 1916–21.

IRA Abbreviation of Irish Republican Army

IRA, see Irish Republican Army.

IRA, see irish republican army.