GHANA

Republic of Ghana

CAPITAL: Accra

FLAG: The national flag is a tricolor of red, yellow, and green horizontal stripes, with a five-pointed black star in the center of the yellow stripe.

ANTHEM: Hail the Name of Ghana.

MONETARY UNIT: The cedi (′ ) is a paper currency of 100 pesewas. There are coins of ½, 1, 2½, 5, 10, 20, and 50 pesewas and 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 cedis, and notes of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1,000 cedis. ′ 1 = $0.00011 (or $1 = ′ 127.42) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Anniversary of the Inauguration of the Fourth Republic, 7 January; Independence Day, 6 March; Labor Day, 1 May; Republic Day, 1 July; Christmas, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday and Easter Monday.

TIME: GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the southern coast of the West African bulge, Ghana has an area of 238,540 sq km (92,100 sq mi), extending 458 km (284 mi) nne–ssw and 297 km (184 mi) ese–wnw. Bordered on the e by Togo, on the s by the Atlantic Ocean (Gulf of Guinea), on the w by Côte d'Ivoire, and on the nw and n by Burkina Faso, Ghana has a total boundary length of 2,633 km (1,635mi), of which 539 km (334 mi) is coastline. Comparatively, the area occupied by Ghana is slightly smaller than the state of Oregon. Ghana's capital city, Accra, is located on the Gulf of Guinea coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

The coastline consists mostly of a low sandy shore behind which stretches the coastal plain, except in the west, where the forest comes down to the sea. The forest belt, which extends northward from the western coast about 320 km (200 mi) and eastward for a maximum of about 270 km (170 mi), is broken up into heavily wooded hills and steep ridges. North of the forest is undulating savanna drained by the Black Volta and White Volta rivers, which join and flow south to the sea through a narrow gap in the hills. Ghana's highest point is Mount Afadjato at 880 m (2,887 ft) in a range of hills on the eastern border.

Apart from the Volta, only the Pra and the Ankobra rivers permanently pierce the sand dunes, most of the other rivers terminating in brackish lagoons. There are no natural harbors. Lake Volta, formed by the impoundment of the Volta behind Akosombo Dam, is the world's largest manmade lake (8,485 sq km/3,276 sq mi).

CLIMATE

The climate is tropical but relatively mild for the latitude. Climatic differences between various parts of the country are affected by the sun's journey north or south of the equator and the corresponding position of the intertropical convergence zone, the boundary between the moist southwesterly winds and the dry northeasterly winds. Except in the north, there are two rainy seasons, from April through June and from September to November. Squalls occur in the north during March and April, followed by occasional rain until August and September, when the rainfall reaches its peak. Average temperatures range between 21–32°c (70–90°f), with relative humidity between 50% and 80%. Rainfall ranges from 83–220 cm (33–87 in) a year.

The harmattan, a dry desert wind, blows from the northeast from December to March, lowering the humidity and causing hot days and cool nights in the north; the effect of this wind is felt in the south during January. In most areas, temperatures are highest in March and lowest in August. Variation between day and night temperatures is relatively small, but greater in the north, especially in January, because of the harmattan. No temperature lower than 10°c (50°f) has ever been recorded in Ghana.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Plants and animals are mainly those common to tropical regions, but because of human encroachment, Ghana has fewer large and wild mammals than in other parts of Africa. Most of the forest is in the south and in a strip along the border with Togo. Except for coastal scrub and grassland, the rest of Ghana is savanna. As of 2002, there were at least 222 species of mammals, 206 species of birds, and over 3,700 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Slash-and-burn agriculture and overcultivation of cleared land have resulted in widespread soil erosion and exhaustion. Over-grazing, heavy logging, overcutting of firewood, and mining have taken a toll on forests and woodland. About one-third of Ghana's land area is threatened by desertification. Industrial pollutants include arsenic from gold mining and noxious fumes from smelters. Water pollution results from a combination of industrial sources, agricultural chemicals, and inadequate waste treatment facilities.

The nation has 30 cu km of renewable water resource with 52% used for farming activity and 13% used for industrial purposes; about 93% of all urban dwellers and 68% of the rural population have access to pure water.

Ghana has five national parks and four other protected areas; there are six Ramsar wetland sites. In 2003, 5.6% of the country's total land area was protected. The ban on hunting in closed reserves is only sporadically enforced, and the nation's wildlife is threatened by poaching and habitat destruction. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 15 types of mammals, 8 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 10 species of amphibians, 8 species of fish, and 117 species of plants. Threatened species included the white-breasted guinea fowl, the hartebeest, Pel's flying squirrel, the black crowned crane, the red-capped monkey, and the great white shark.

POPULATION

The population of Ghana in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 22,019,000, which placed it at number 49 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 40% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.3%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The government has become involved in programs aimed at slowing population growth, especially by educating adolescents about reproductive health. The projected population for the year 2025 was 32,846,000. The population density was 92 per sq km (239 per sq mi), with approximately 80% of the population residing in the south or in the far northeast and northwest.

The UN estimated that 44% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 3%. The capital city, Accra, had a population of 1,847,000 in that year. Other large cities and their estimated populations were Kumasi (862,000) and Tema (209,000).

MIGRATION

For generations, immigrants from Burkina Faso and Togo did much of the manual work, including mining, in Ghana; immigrant traders from Nigeria conducted much of the petty trade; and Lebanese and Syrians were important as intermediaries. In 1969, when many foreigners were expelled, Ghana's alien community was about 2,000,000 out of a population of about 8,400,000. In 1986, the government estimated that at least 500,000 aliens were residing in Ghana, mostly engaged in trading.

Ghanaians also work abroad, some as fishermen in neighboring coastal countries. Many Ghanaians were welcomed in the 1970s by Nigeria, which was in the midst of an oil boom and in need of cheap labor. In early 1983, as the oil boom faded, up to 700,000 Ghanaians were expelled from Nigeria; soon after, however, many deportees were reportedly being invited back by Nigerian employers unable to fill the vacant posts with indigenous labor. But in May 1985, an estimated 100,000 Ghanaians again were expelled from Nigeria.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) organized a plan for the voluntary repatriation of some 15,000 Liberian refugees; since June 1997, 3,342 have repatriated under the plan. Of those Liberian refugees remaining in Ghana, another 4,000 have expressed willingness to return to their homeland; however, the majority wish to stay in Ghana or be resettled in third countries. Repatriation efforts for both Liberian and Togolese refugees were ongoing in 1999. Also in 1999, both Liberian and Sierra Leonean refugees were still arriving in Ghana in sizable numbers. In 2000 the number of migrants living in Ghana was 614,000.

In 2004, Ghana hosted some 42,053 refugees, almost all Liberians. Asylum seekers numbered 6,010, mainly from Togo, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire.

The level of remittances in Ghana increased appreciably from $201.9 million in 1990 to $1,017 million in 2003. As a percentage of GDP this increase is even more significant, 2.24% in 1990 to 13.4% in 2003. In 2005 the net migration rate was estimated as 0.59 migrant per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

It is fairly certain that Ghana has been occupied by Negroid peoples since prehistoric times. Members of the Akan family, who make up about 44% of the population, include the Twi, or Ashanti, inhabiting the Ashanti Region and central Ghana, and the Fanti, inhabiting the coastal areas. In the southwest, the Nzima, Ahanta, Evalue, and other tribes speak languages related to Twi and Fanti. The Moshi-Dagomba constitute about 16% of the population, the Ewe 13%, the Ga 8%, the Gurma 3%, and the Yoruba 1%. The Accra plains are inhabited by tribes speaking variants of Ga, while east of the Volta River are the Ewe living in what used to be British-mandated Togoland. All these tribes are fairly recent arrivals in Ghana, the Akan having come between the 12th and 15th centuries, the Ga-Adangbe in the 16th century, and the Ewe in the 17th century. Most of the inhabitants of the Northern Region belong to the Mole-Dagbani group of Voltaic peoples or to the Gonja, who appear to bear some relation to the Akan. European and other groups account for only 1.5% of the population.

LANGUAGES

Of the 56 indigenous languages and dialects spoken in Ghana, 31 are used mainly in the northern part of the country. The languages follow the tribal divisions, with the related Akan languages of Twi and Fanti being most prominent. Also widely spoken are MoshiDagomba, Ewe, and Ga. English is the official language and is the universal medium of instruction in schools. It is officially supplemented by five local languages.

RELIGIONS

An estimated 69% of the population belong to various Christian denominations, 15.6% are Muslims (though Muslim leaders claim the number is closer to 30%), and about 15.4% of the population follow traditional indigenous beliefs or other religions, including the Baha'i Faith, Buddhism, Judaism, Hinduism, Shintoism, Ninchiren Shoshu Soka Gakkai, Sri Sathya Sai Baba Sera, Sat Sang, Eckanker, the Divine Light Mission, Hare Krishna, and Rastafarianism. Christian denominations include Roman Catholics, three branches of Methodists, Anglicans, Mennonites, two branches of Presbyterians, Evangelical Lutherans, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Seventh-Day Adventists, Pentecostals, Baptists, and Society of Friends. Some Christians also include elements of indigenous religions in their own practices, particularly magic and divination. There are three primary branches of Islam within the country: Ahlussuna, Tijanis, and Ahmadis. A small number of Muslims are Shia. Zetahil, a religion that is unique to Ghana, combines elements of both Islam and Christianity.

The indigenous religions generally involve a belief in a supreme being along with lesser gods. Veneration of ancestors is also common. The Afrikan Renaissance Mission, also known as Afrikania, is an organization which actively supports recognition and practice of these traditional religions.

In many areas of the country, there is still a strong belief in witchcraft. Those suspected of being witches (usually older women) have been beaten or lynched and occasionally banished to "witch camps," which are small villages in the north primarily populated by suspected witches. The law does provided protection for alleged witches. Among the Ewe in the Volta Region, there are still some who practice a form of religious servitude known as Trokosi (or Fiashidi). In this practice a virgin girl, usually in her early teens, is placed as a servant at a local shrine for a period of time that may extend from a few weeks to three years. The girl's service is meant to atone for crimes committed by a member of the girl's family. After the set period of service is completed, many girls continue to visit the shrine on a voluntary basis as a matter of maintaining family honor. Involuntary servitude is prohibited by law.

Although there is no state religion, attendance at assemblies or devotional services is required in public schools, with a service that is generally Christian in nature. However, this requirement is not always enforced.

TRANSPORTATION

The government's development program has been largely devoted to improving internal communications; nevertheless, both road and rail systems deteriorated in the 1980s. Rehabilitation began in the late 1980s, with priority being given to the western route, which is the export route for Ghana's manganese and bauxite production and also serves the major gold-producing area. Rail lines are also the main means of transportation for such products as cocoa, logs, and sawn timber; they are also widely used for passenger service. There were 953 km (592 mi) of narrow-gauge railway in 2004, with the main line linking Sekondi-Takoradi with Accra and Kumasi.

Ghana had about 47,787 km (29,723 mi) of roads in 2003, of which about 8,563 km (5,326 mi) were paved. Good roads link Accra with Tema, Kumasi, Takoradi, and Akosombo. In 2003, Ghana had 104,550 private automobiles and 53,450 commercial vehicles. The government transport department operates a cross-country bus service; municipal transport facilities are available in all main towns.

The Black Star Line, owned by the government, operates a cargo-passenger service to Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Italy, and West Africa. In 2005, Ghana had a merchant shipping fleet comprising four vessels of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 19,086 GRT. Lake transport service between Akosombo and Yapei is operated by Volta Lake Transport Co.

Ghana has no natural harbors. An artificial deepwater port was built at Sekondi-Takoradi in the 1920s and expanded after World War II. A second deepwater port, at Tema, was opened in 1962, and in 1963 further extensions were made. At a few smaller ports, freight is moved by surfboats and lighters. The major rivers and Lake Volta provide about 1,293 km (803 mi) of navigable waterways.

In 2004, there were an estimated 12 airports in Ghana, 7 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Accra's international airport serves intercontinental as well as local West African traffic. Smaller airports are located at Sekondi-Takoradi, Kumasi, Tamale, and Sunyani. Ghana Airways, owned by the government, operates domestic air services and flights to other African countries and to the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), London, and Rome. In 2003, approximately 241,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Oral traditions indicate that the tribes presently occupying the country migrated southward roughly over the period 1200–1600. The origins of the peoples of Ghana are still conjectural, although the name "Ghana" was adopted on independence in the belief that Ghanaians are descendants of the inhabitants of the empire of Ghana, which flourished in western Sudan (present-day Mali), hundreds of miles to the northwest, more than a thousand years ago.

The recorded history of Ghana begins in 1471, when Portuguese traders landed on the coast in search of gold, ivory, and spices. Following the Portuguese came the Dutch, the Danes, the Swedes, the Prussians, and the British. Commerce in gold gave way to the slave trade until the latter was outlawed by Great Britain in 1807. The 19th century brought a gradual adjustment to legitimate trade, the withdrawal of all European powers except the British, and many wars involving the Ashanti, who had welded themselves into a powerful military confederacy; their position as the principal captors of slaves for European traders had brought them into conflict with the coastal tribes. British troops fought seven wars with the Ashanti from 1806 to 1901, when their kingdom was annexed by the British crown.

In 1874, the coastal area settlements had become a crown colony—the Gold Coast Colony—and in 1901 the Northern Territories were declared a British protectorate. In 1922, part of the former German colony of Togoland was placed under British mandate by the League of Nations, and it passed to British trusteeship under the UN after World War II. Throughout this period, Togoland was administered as part of the Gold Coast.

After a measure of local participation in government was first granted in 1946, the growing demand for self-government led in 1949 to the appointment of an all-African committee to inquire into constitutional reform. Under the new constitution introduced as a result of the findings of this committee, elections were held in 1951, and for the first time an African majority was granted a considerable measure of governmental responsibility. In 1954, further constitutional amendments were adopted under which the Gold Coast became, for practical purposes, self-governing. Two years later, the newly elected legislature passed a resolution calling for independence, and on 6 March 1957 the Gold Coast, including Ashanti, the Northern Territories Protectorate, and the Trust Territory of British Togoland, attained full independent membership in the Commonwealth of Nations under the name of Ghana. The Gold Coast thus became the first country in colonial Africa to gain independence. The nation became a republic on 1 July 1960.

During the period 1960–65, Ghana's first president, Kwame Nkrumah, steadily gained control over all aspects of Ghana's economic, political, cultural, and military affairs. His autocratic rule led to mounting but disorganized opposition. Following attempts on Nkrumah's life in August and September 1962, the political climate began to disintegrate, as government leaders accused of complicity in the assassination plots were executed or removed from office. A referendum in January 1964 established a one-party state and empowered the president to dismiss Supreme Court and High Court judges. Another attempt to assassinate Nkrumah occurred that month.

In February 1966, Nkrumah was overthrown. A military regime calling itself the National Liberation Council (NLC) established rule by decree, dismissing the civilian government and suspending the constitution. A three-year ban on political activities was lifted 1 May 1969, and after elections held in August, the Progressive Party, headed by KofiA. Busia, formed a civilian government under a new constitution. During his two years in office, Busia lost much of his public following, and Ghana's worsening economic condition was the pretext in January 1972 for a military takeover led by Lt. Col. Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, who formed the National Redemption Council (NRC). Unlike the military rulers who came to power in 1966, however, the NRC made no plans for a rapid return to civilian rule. The NRC immediately repudiated part of the foreign debt remaining from the Nkrumah era and instituted an agricultural self-help program dubbed Operation Feed Yourself. By July 1973, the last 23 of some 2,000 persons arrested during the coup that brought the NRC to power had been released.

The NRC was restructured as the Supreme Military Council in 1976. A military coup on 5 July 1978 ousted Acheampong, who was replaced by Lt. Gen. Frederick Akuffo. Less than a year later, on 4 June 1979, a coup by enlisted men and junior officers brought the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council to power, led by a young flight lieutenant, Jerry Rawlings. Acheampong, Akuffo, and another former chief of state, A. A. Afrifa (who had engineered Nkrumah's overthrow in 1966), plus five others, were found guilty of corruption and executed in summary proceedings. Dozens of others were sentenced to long prison terms by secret courts. The new regime did, however, fulfill the pledge of the Akuffo government by handing over power to civilians on 24 September 1979, following nationwide elections. The Nkrumah-style People's National Party (PNP) won 71 of 140 parliamentary seats in the balloting, and PNP candidate Hilla Limann was elected president.

Ghana's economic condition continued to deteriorate, and on 31 December 1981 a new coup led by Rawlings overthrew the civilian regime. The constitution was suspended, all political parties were banned, and about 100 business leaders and government officials, including Limann, were arrested. Rawlings became chairman of the ruling Provisional National Defense Council. In the following 27 months there were at least five alleged coup attempts. Nine persons were executed in 1986 for attempting to overthrow the regime, and there remained concern over the activities of exile groups and military personnel.

A new constitution was approved by referendum on 28 April 1992 and Rawlings was elected with about 58% of the vote in a sharply contested multiparty election on 3 November 1993. The legislative elections in December, however, were boycotted by the opposition, and the ruling National Democratic Congress (NDC) was able to capture 190 of the 200 seats.

On 4 January 1993, the Fourth Republic was proclaimed and Rawlings was inaugurated as president. Opposition parties, assembled as the Inter-Party Coordinating Committee (ICC), issued a joint statement announcing their acceptance of the "present institutional arrangements" on 7 January, and further stated that they would continue to act as an elected opposition even though they had won no seats in the assembly.

Throughout the 1990s, Ghana's Northern Region has been the site of ethnic/tribal strife. The Kankomba, a landless, impoverished people, began to fight for economic rights against the dominant Nanumbia. In 1995, a curfew was imposed on the region amid massive strife.

Legislative elections were again held in 1996. By maintaining power throughout his elected term (1992–96), Rawlings became the head of the first Ghanian government to serve a full term without being overthrown. In 1995, Rawlings set up an Electoral Commission charged with setting up and conducting free elections complete with international observers. The Commission enlisted the help of all registered opposition parties and conducted a massive drive to register voters. In the balloting, held 7 December 1996, 77% of the electorate turned out, a substantial improvement over the turnout in 1992. Most observers credited the increase with the Rawlings government's increased transparency.

1n 1996, Rawlings was reelected to a second four-year term, having received about 58% of the vote to the Great Alliance Party candidate John Kufour's 40%. The NDC took 133 seats in the 200-member assembly. The NPP emerged as the leading opposition, taking 60 of the remaining seats. The next presidential elections were held on 7 and 28 December 2000, with Rawlings barred by law from serving a third term. Kufour won the election, taking 57.4% of the vote to NDC candidate and Rawlings' vice president John Atta Mills's 42.6% in the second round of voting (Kufour won 48.4% of the vote in the first round, and Mills took 44.8%). Five other candidates contested the elections, and Rawlings relinquished power willingly. When Kufour took office in January 2001, he began investigations into alleged corruption and human rights violations during the time Rawlings was in power, which caused consternation on Rawlings' part. Also on 7 December, parliamentary elections were held; the second round of voting was held on 3 January 2001, and the NPP took 100 of the 200 seats, to the NDC's 92. The elections were judged by international observers to be generally free and fair, although there were reports of government pressure on the media and voter intimidation.

Tension between Kufour and Rawlings continued throughout 2001, and came to a head on 4 June when Rawlings, who was celebrating the anniversary of his 1979 takeover of power, gave a speech that implied Kufour did not have the confidence of the military. This was seen as a threat of another coup, and thousands marched in protest of Rawlings' statement. One of Kufour's first acts as president was to abolish the national holidays commemorating 4 June 1979 and the 31 December 1981 anniversary of the second coup that began the Rawlings era. Following Rawlings' speech, the military leadership stated its support of the Kufour government.

One of the most well-known Ghanaians is KofiAnnan, the seventh secretary general of the United Nations. Born in Kumasi, Ghana, on April 8, 1938, KoffiAnnan rose as a UN bureaucrat and was elected by the UN Security Council as Secretary General on 13 December 1996 and confirmed by the UN General Assembly four days later. Annan was the first black African to become Secretary General. Annan's tenure as Secretary General was renewed on 1 January 2002 for another five-year term. Annan and the United Nations jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize for "their work for a better organized and more peaceful world" on 10 December 2001.

In early 2003, Kufour was host to talks between Côte d'Ivoire's new prime minister, Seydou Diarra, and representatives of the country's northern-based rebels in an attempt to reach an accord on a power-sharing agreement with President Laurent Gbagbo's government, after the civil war that broke out in the country in September 2002.

Ghana's leaders and citizens face unprecedented social threats. The National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) in Accra expects that by 2014 AIDS will account for 35% of all deaths. In 1994, AIDS accounted for an estimated 3.5% of all deaths with some 200 people being infected daily. In February 2000, the estimated HIV prevalence was between 4% and 5% nationwide. HIV/AIDS affects the development of all sectors including health, education, the labor force, economy, transport and agriculture. To curb the pandemic, Ghana has launched a national crusade against it. In August 2005 Ghana started producing antiretroviral (ARV) drugs in the capital Accra as part of government plans to expand distribution of the life prolonging treatment for its HIV-positive citizens. This was achieved in a joint venture between Danpong Pharmaceuticals of Ghana and Adams Pharmaceuticals of China. The venture was expected to decrease the government bill for providing ARVs to some 2,600 patients by 45%, according to official sources.

Despite this setback to Ghana's development, in August 1999, representatives of Shell and Chevron signed a memorandum of understanding with representatives of Nigeria, Benin, Togo, and Ghana specifying that a gas pipeline traversing the four countries would be built. In February 2003, the heads of state of the four countries signed a treaty on establishing a legal and fiscal framework and a regulatory authority for the $500 million West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP). The pipeline will be designed to carry an initial volume of 195 million cubic feet of gas. In 2004 the US mining company Newmont entered Ghana's mining sector; it was projected they would invest up to $1 billion.

On 15 July 2004 the National Reconciliation Commission (NRC) formally wrapped up public hearings after 18 months and over 2,000 accounts of human rights violations. Modeled on South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Kufour's government set up the NRC on 3 September 2002 in order to foster national healing after human rights abuses and atrocities committed under Jerry Rawlings' and previous military regimes. Witnesses in the $5 million process included ordinary Ghanaians and high-profile individuals, such as former President Rawlings. Rawlings appeared before the commission in February to answer questions about his role in specific atrocities, including murder. The NRC submitted its final report and recommendations in October 2004. The government accepted many of the commission's recommendations through a White Paper that was produced in April 2005, including establishment of a Reparation and Rehabilitation Fund for victims of abuse, training and much-needed reform in operation of the security forces.

John Agyekum Kufour won a mandate for a second term at the polls held on 7 December 2004. Kufour defeated NDC's Atta Mills, winning 52.45% of the vote to Mills' 44.64%. Grand Coalition's Edward Mahama and the Convention People's Party (NPP) George Aggudey, polled 1.92 % and 1 %, respectively. Government claims of a coup attempt raised fears of unrest. One month before the elections the government arrested and questioned a group of people, including seven former soldiers, who were allegedly found with military helmets, body armor, a firearm and ammunition. However, the Electoral Commission reported a remarkable turnout of 85.1%, about 8.5 million Ghanaians, credited to an aggressive voter registration campaign mounted by the Electoral Commission. For the first time registration included issue of picture identity cards and sought to eliminate fraud and build confidence in the electoral process. Both domestic and international observers pronounced the elections generally free, fair, and peaceful. There were a few incidents of intimidation and violence in which three people were reported killed. Eight political parties contested parliamentary elections that were run concurrently and four fielded presidential candidates. The 2004 election saw 30 new parliamentary constituencies added to the 2000 election, making a 230-member parliament. In the parliamentary elections, the ruling New Patriotic Party (NPP) won 128 seats, the National Democratic Congress (NDC), 94; the People's National Convention (PNC), 4; the Convention People's Party (CPP), 3; and an independent won 1 seat.

GOVERNMENT

Since independence, Ghana has experienced four military coups and ten changes of government. The military ruled Ghana by decree from 1972 to 1979, when an elected constituent assembly adopted a new constitution establishing a unicameral parliament and an executive branch headed by a president. On 31 December 1981, a military coup installed the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) as the supreme power; the constitution was suspended and the national assembly dissolved.

A consultative assembly, convened late in 1991 to draw up a new constitution, completed its work in March 1992. The government inserted a controversial amendment indemnifying officials of the PNDC from future prosecution for all acts of commission and omission during their term in office. In an April 1992 referendum, the constitution was approved by 92.5% of voters in a low turnout (58% of those eligible). It provides for a presidential system and a legislature (national assembly) of 200 members. Since the 1992 referendum, the government introduced multiparty competition, with the 1996 and 2000–2001 and 2004 elections receiving high marks for fairness from international observers. In March 2004 Kufour's government averted a crisis by shelving an attempt to fast-track a bill seeking to allow all Ghanaians living abroad to register for the 2004 general elections. This action followed an outcry from opposition, which claimed the amendment was designed and timed to give the NPP an unfair electoral advantage in the 2004 elections, and threatened street protests if the bill was rushed through parliament.

Rawlings was both chief of state and head of government until his second term expired in December 2000. The president is elected for a four-year term, and the constitution bars a third term. John Agyekum Kufour was elected president in 2000 over Rawlings's vice president and hand-picked would-be successor, John Atta Mills. Kufour defeated Mills again in the 2004 elections winning a second and final term based on the country's constitution. Earlier, the opposition had supported the move to increase the number of seats in the national assembly from 200 in the 2000 elections to 230 for the 2004 elections.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) was established in 1947 with the declared aim of working for self-government at the earliest possible date. In 1949, as most of the UGCC leadership came to accept constitutional reform as an alternative to immediate self-government, the party secretary, Kwame Nkrumah, broke away and formed his own group, the Convention People's Party (CPP). In January 1950, Nkrumah announced a program of "positive action" for which he and the main leaders of the party were prosecuted and sentenced for sedition. At the first elections held in 1951 under a new constitution, the CPP obtained 71 of the 104 seats, and Nkrumah and his colleagues were released from prison to enter the new government. In May 1952, KofiA. Busia, of the University College, founded the Ghana Congress Party (GCP), which continued the UGCC position of trying to form alliances with traditional chiefs. The GCP's leadership was a mixture of dissatisfied former CPP members and the professional-oriented leadership of the UGCC. In 1953, Nkrumah was elected life chairman and leader of the CPP.

In 1954, the assembly and cabinet became all African. A new party, the Ashanti-based National Liberation Movement (NLM), was formed to fight the general centralizing tendencies of the CPP and also to maintain the position of the traditional rulers; the NLM leadership, except for Busia, consisted of former CPP members. In the elections held in 1956, however, the CPP retained its predominant position, winning 72 of 108 seats in the Legislative Assembly.

One of the first acts of independent Ghana under Nkrumah was the Avoidance of Discrimination Act (1957), prohibiting sectional parties based on racial, regional, or religious differences. This led the opposition parties to amalgamate into the new United Party (UP), opposing the government's centralization policies and the declining power of the traditional rulers. The effectiveness of the opposition was reduced following the 1960 election by the withdrawal of official recognition of the opposition as such and by the detention of several leading opposition members under the Preventive Detention Act (1958). In September 1962, the National Assembly passed by an overwhelming majority a resolution calling for the creation of a one-party state; this was approved by referendum in January 1964.

After the military takeover of February 1966, the National Liberation Council outlawed the CPP along with all other political organizations. The ban on political activities was lifted on 1 May 1969, and several parties participated in the August 1969 balloting. The two major parties contesting the election were the Progress Party (PP), led by Busia, which was perceived as an Akandominated party composed of former members of the opposition UP; and the National Alliance of Liberals (NAL), a Ewe- and CPPdominated group under the leadership of the former CPP minister Komla Gbedemah. The PP won 105 seats in the 140-member National Assembly; 29 seats were captured by the NAL, and 6 by the five minor parties. In October 1970, the NAL merged with two of the smaller groups to form the Justice Party.

All political parties in Ghana were again disbanded following the January 1972 military coup led by Col. Acheampong. When political activities resumed in 1979, five parties contested the elections. The People's National Party (PNP), which won 71 of 140 seats at stake, claimed to represent the Nkrumah heritage; the Popular Front Party (PFP) and the United National Convention (UNC), which traced their lineage back to Busia's Progress Party, won 43 and 13, respectively. The Action Congress Party (ACP), drawing primary support from the Fanti tribe, won 10 seats, while the leftist Social Democratic Front won 3. After the elections, the PNP formed an alliance with the UNC. In October 1980, however, the UNC left the governing coalition, and in June joined with three other parties to form the All People's Party. The coup of December 1981 brought yet another dissolution of Ghana's political party structure. Opposition to the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) was carried on by the Ghana Democratic Movement (organized in London in 1983) and a number of other groups.

With adoption of a new constitution in April 1992, the longstanding ban on political activity was lifted on 18 May 1992. Ghanaians prepared for the presidential and legislative elections to be held in November and December. The parties that emerged could be grouped into three clusters. The center-right group was the most cohesive and it consisted of followers of KofiBusia. They formed the New Patriotic Party (NPP) and chose Adu Boaheu as their presidential candidate. The center-left group was Nkrumahists. Ideological and leadership differences kept them divided into five separate parties, of which the People's National Convention, a party led by ex-President Limann, was best organized. PNDC supporters comprised the third grouping. They favored continuity and, after forming the National Democratic Congress (NDC), were able to draft Rawlings as their candidate.

Rawlings eventually defeated Boaheu (58% to 30%) for the presidency. Opposition parties boycotted the December 1992 legislation elections, and the NDC carried 190 of the 200 seats. But the fear of one-party control prompted a split in the NDC. The official opposition in parliament was a faction of the ruling NDC.

Meanwhile, the NPP provided the most serious challenge to the NDC. It sees itself as defender of the new constitution. The NPP broke away from the opposition, the Inter-Party Coordinating Committee, by announcing in August 1993 its recognition of the 1992 election results, which the ICC had refused to accept.

On 7 December 1996, parliamentary elections were again held and while Rawlings's NDC maintained a majority, it fell from 190 seats in 1992 to 133 seats. The NPP, leading the opposition, won 60 seats. The People's Convention held 5 seats and the People's National Convention held 1. The elections were preceded by a massive voter registration drive and judged to be free and fair by international observers.

Leading up to the 2000 elections, the four main opposition parties formed the Joint Action Committee (JAC) to monitor the electoral register and campaign activities to ensure transparency. The elections for the National Assembly were held on 7 December 2000 and 3 January 2001. The NPP emerged the winner by a slim margin, taking 100 seats to the NDC's 92. The socialist People's National Convention took three seats, the socialist Convention People's Party took one seat, and independents won four seats. In the 7 and 28 December 2000 presidential elections, in addition to the NPP's candidate John Kufour and the NDC's candidate John Atta Mills, the following five parties put presidential candidates forward: the People's National Convention, the Convention People's Party, the National Reform Party, the Great Consolidated Popular Party, and the United Ghana Movement.

On 7 December 2004, presidential and parliamentary elections were held simultaneously. Eight political parties competed in the parliamentary elections and four parties fielded candidates in the presidential elections. John Kufour won a second four-year term as president in elections which had an turnout of 85.1% of registered voters, and was judged to be generally free, fair, and peaceful by both domestic and international observers. For a second time, Kufour standing for the ruling NPP defeated his main challenger, NDC's Atta Mills. Kufour won 52.45% of the vote to Mills' 44.64%. Grand Coalition's Edward Mahama and the Convention People's Party (NPP) George Aggudey, won 1.92% and 1%, respectively.

In the parliamentary elections, only half of the eight parties contesting won seats in parliament. The ruling New Patriotic Party (NPP) won 128 seats, the National Democratic Congress (NDC), 94; the People's National Convention (PNC), 4; the Convention People's Party (CPP), 3; and independent, 1. The next elections were scheduled for December 2008.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

As of early 2003, Ghana was divided into 10 regions: Eastern, Western, Ashanti, Northern, Volta, Central, Upper East, Upper West, Brong-Ahafo, and Greater Accra. In 1994, the 10 regions were further subdivided into 267 local administrative units. Local government in Ghana has traditionally been subject to the central government because responsibilities between the two were not well-defined. In late 1982, the government announced that town and village councils, which had been dissolved after the 1981 coup, would be run by peopl's and workers' defense committees. They were replaced by Committees for the Defense of the Revolution in 1984. The Local Government Law of 1988 and the Local Government Act of 1993 further empowered local governments, and set the stage for efforts to assist them with development planning, working with civil society, and less dependence on central government for resources.

Elections for 103 district assemblies, 4 municipal assemblies, and 3 metropolitan assemblies were conducted in March 1994. In April 2000, the World Bank approved a us$11-million credit for infrastructure development in Ghana's smaller cities. The Urban 5 Project is intended to support Ghana's decentralization program through capacity building, improvement of urban infrastructure, and delivery of services at the levels of the district assemblies. The project is part of an 11-year program. Local assembly elections were held in August 2002; 14,079 candidates competed in the elections, which were peaceful but marked by low voter turnout. The next local assembly elections were scheduled for 2006.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The 1992 constitution established an independent judiciary and a number of autonomous institutions such as the Commission for Human Rights to investigate and take actions to remedy alleged violations of human rights. The new system is based largely on British legal procedures. The new court system consists of two levels: superior courts and lower courts. The superior courts include the Supreme Court, the Appeals Court, the High Court, and regional tribunals. Parliament has the authority to create a system of lower courts. The old public tribunals are being phased out as they clear their dockets.

The 1971 Chieftaincy Act gives the traditional courts powers to mediate local matters. Traditional courts in which village chiefs enforce customary tribal laws in resolving local divorce, child custody, and property disputes continue to operate alongside the new courts.

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. However, in practice the judiciary is influenced on occasion by the executive branch, and is hampered by a lack of staff and financial resources. The government nominates any number beyond a minimum of nine members to the Supreme Court, subject to parliament's approval.

Defendants have the right to have a public trial, to be presumed innocent, to have an attorney, and to cross-examine witnesses. Under Kufour's office there were improvements in human rights, freedom of expression, freedom of the press and independence of the judiciary from the executive.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Ghana's active defense forces numbered 7,000 personnel. The Army had 5,000 members including the Presidential Guard. The 1,000-member Navy operated six patrol/coastal vessels. The Air Force had 1,000 personnel. Equipment included 19 combat capable aircraft, including 3 fighter ground attack aircraft and another 16 that were also used as training aircraft. The Ghanaian military provides support to UN and peacekeeping missions in eight countries or regions. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $49.5 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

On 8 March 1957, Ghana was admitted to the United Nations; the nation belongs to ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies. Ghana is also a member of the African Development Bank, the ACP Group, Commonwealth of Nations, G-24, G-77, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and African Union. The nation is also a member of the WTO and holds observer status in the OAS.

In November 1974, Ghana was admitted as a member of the International Bauxite Association and in June 1975 it ratified the treaty creating ECOWAS. From 2003–05, President John Agyekum Kufuor served as the chairperson of ECOWAS heads of state. In this capacity, he lead the country in taking on a strong role in the Côte d'Ivoire and Liberian peace process. The government is participating in efforts to establish a West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) that would include The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.

In 2003, Ghana sent troops to Côte d'Ivoire as part of the ECOWAS stabilization force. Ghana has also offered support to UN missions and operations in Kosovo (est. 1999), Lebanon (est. 1978), the Western Sahara (est. 1991), Ethiopia and Eritrea (est. 2000), Liberia (est. 2003), Sierra Leone (est. 1999), Burundi (est. 2004), Côte d'Ivoire (est. 2004), and the DROC (est. 1999). Ghana is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Ghana is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, International Tropical Timber Agreements, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Ghana's economy is led by the agricultural sector, which accounted for about 35% of GDP and employed 65% of the labor force in 2001. Its key crops are cassava, coco-yams (taro), plantains, and yams. Maize, millet, sorghum, rice, and groundnuts are also important staple crops. Agricultural crops which are sold for export include coffee, bananas, palm nuts, copra, limes, kola nuts, shea nuts, rubber, cotton, and kenaf. Cocoa, however, is the dominant export crop; in 2000–2001, cocoa production was estimated to be around 400,000 metric tons. The civil war in Côte d'Ivoire that began in 2002 contributed to a marked rise in cocoa prices, but it was unknown if this development would result in a long-term shift in the cocoa market.

Ghana produces meat, but not enough to satisfy local demand. The fishing industry, likewise, produces only about half of local demand.

Ghana has significant deposits of gold, and important new investments were made in this sector in 1992. In that year, earnings from gold exports exceeded those of cocoa for the first time, and continued to do so as of 2003. Industrial diamonds are also produced. Ghana is a modest oil producer and refines petroleum products. Bauxite deposits are substantial but largely unexploited: the aluminum smelter at Tema uses bauxite imported from Jamaica. Significant manganese production occurs at Nsuta.

In addition, tourism and timber are growth areas. Timber reserves, however, are declining due to large-scale deforestation that is both legally approved and illegal. With respect to tourism, infrastructure and communications outside the main cities are poor, but tourism has become the country's third-largest source of foreign currency.

Prior to 1990, the economy was dominated by over 300 stateowned enterprises. Although over 150 of these firms had been privatized by 1996, the overall pace of privatization has been slow. The economy is also hampered by poor roads and an inadequate telecommunications sector. Inflation has also been a problem peaking at 70% in 1995 before receding to about 21% by the end of 2001. Inflation has been fueled by undisciplined spending by parastatals and large public sector wage increases, which have added substantially to the government's budget deficit. In an attempt to contain inflation, the government has pursued a high interest rate policy. The economy grew at 4.5% in 1995, up from 3.8% in 1994, due to increased gold production and a good cocoa harvest. The economy continued at a growth rate of 4.2% in 2001. Ghana remains heavily reliant on international assistance from the World Bank, its largest donor. Most aid is tied to progress in the privatization program. Ghana in 2001 applied for a debt reduction package under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative set up by the World Bank and the IMF; Ghana was to receive $875 million over three years.

The 600 km (373 mi) West Africa Gas Pipeline, for which Ghana will provide a supply point in Tema, was to be constructed in 2003, with an estimated capacity of 11 million cu m (400 million cu ft) a day.

The government under John Agyekum Kufuor that came to power in 2000 was dedicated to privatization and encouraging foreign investment. Kufuor declared his administration to usher in the "Golden Age of Business."

In 2004, the economy expanded by a significant 5.8%, up from 5.2% in 2003, and 4.5% in 2002; the GDP growth rate was expected to be 4.8% in 2005. This economic upsurge was sustained by a booming gold sector. Also there was a higher demand for cocoa as a result of political turmoil in neighboring Côte d'Ivoire (the world's biggest cocoa producer prior to 2002). Inflation, although on a downward spiral (it decreased from 26.7% in 2003 to 12.6% in 2004), remained a problem and was expected to grow again in coming years.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Ghana's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $51.8 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,500. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.3%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 15%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 35.5% of GDP, industry 25.6%, and services 39%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $65 million or about $3 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.9% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $907 million or about $44 per capita and accounted for approximately 12.2% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Ghana totaled $6.17 billion or about $298 per capita based on a GDP of $7.6 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 1.7%. It was estimated that in 1999 about 39.5% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, Ghana's workforce was estimated at 10.62 million. As of 2000 (the latest year for which data was available), agriculture accounted for 55% of the workforce, with 14% in industry, and 31.1% in services. According to a survey conducted in 2000 (the latest year for which data was available), Ghana's unemployment rate was estimated at 8.2%.

Although freedom of association is provided by law, the government controls the right to unionize. Government has not, however, prevented the formation of unions. Less than 9% of workers in the formal economy are union members partially due to the weak economy. More workers, up to 86%, are entering the informal sector which is not organized. The law protects the right to strike after mandatory arbitration, but this has not been utilized. Workers are also permitted to engage in collective bargaining.

The minimum working age is 15, but local custom and economic necessity encourage many children to work at much younger ages. The government, labor, and employers set a daily minimum wage of $.78 which was still in effect in 2002. This amount does not provide a living wage for a family. The legal maximum workweek is set at 45 hours, but most collective bargaining agreements allow for a 40-hour week. Health and safety regulations are difficult to enforce due to lack of resources.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture, especially cocoa, forms the basis of Ghana's economy, accounting for 36% of GDP in 2003. Cocoa exports in 2004 contributed 35% ($812.6 million) to total exports. About 28% of the total area, or 6,385,000 hectares (15,777,000 acres), was cultivated in 2003. About 85% of all agricultural land holders in Ghana are small scale operators who primarily farm with hand tools.

Cocoa beans were first introduced to Ghana in 1878 by Tettah Quarshie. Thereafter, the cultivation of cocoa increased steadily until Ghana became the world's largest cocoa producer, supplying more than one-third of world production by the mid-1960s. By the early 1980s, production was less than half that of two decades before; market conditions were aggravated by a drop of nearly 75% in world cocoa prices between 1977 and 1982. In 1983/84, cocoa production totaled 158,000 tons, the lowest since independence; by 2004, production had rebounded to about 736,000 tons (second highest after Côte d'Ivoire). The Ghana Cocoa Marketing Board purchases and (at least in theory) exports the entire cocoa crop, as well as coffee and shea nuts. Cocoa smuggling was made punishable by death in 1982.

Ghana continued to be a net food importer. Ghana's Ministry of Food and Agriculture estimated that Ghanaian agriculture may be operating at just 20% of its potential. The grain harvest in 2004 included corn, 1,157,600 tons; paddy rice, 241,800 tons; sorghum, 399,000 tons; and millet, 144,000 tons. Other crops were cassava, 9,738,000 tons; plantains, 2,380,000 tons; coco-yams (taro), 1,800,000 tons; yams, 3,892,000 tons; peanuts, 389,000 tons; tomatoes, 200,000 tons; sugarcane, 140,000 tons; coconuts, 315,000 tons; chilies and peppers, 270,000 tons; oranges, 300,000 tons; palm kernels, 37,000 tons; and palm oil, 114,000 tons. Considerable potential exists for the development of agricultural exports including pineapples, tomatoes, soybeans, and cut flowers.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Livestock can be raised only in the tsetse-free areas, mainly in the Northern Region and along the coastal plains from Accra to the eastern frontier. Ghana's indigenous West African shorthorn is one of the oldest cattle breeds in Africa. Ghanaian livestock farms which can be termed ranches are few; average livestock population for these outfits is about 400 animals. The elimination of deadly epizootic diseases by prophylactic inoculation of cattle (especially with the help of mobile immunization centers) resulted in a rise of the cattle population from 100,000 head in 1930 to 662,000 in 1968 and 1,385,000 in 2005. There were also about 3,631,000 goats, 3,211,000 sheep, 305,000 hogs, and 30,000,000 poultry. Total meat production in 2005 was 177,450 tons. Many live animals and much meat are imported (mainly from Nigeria) to satisfy local demand. A serious problem for the livestock industry continues to be the provision of adequate feed for animals during the dry season. Almost every household in Ghana rears a few animals for home consumption and as capital saving in case of crop failures.

FISHING

In 2003, the total marine fish catch was 315,756 tons, and the freshwater catch (not including subsistence fishing) about 75,938 tons. Round sardinella and European anchovies together accounted for 41% of the total catch. Exports of fish products amounted to $118.4 million in 2003. In 1973, an industrial fishing complex at Tema began production of canned pilchards and sardines. Lake Volta accounts for about half the freshwater catch. Considerable potential exists for the development of shrimp and fish exports.

FORESTRY

The forest area (primarily in the south) covers about 28% of the country. Since October 1972, the government has acquired a majority share in a number of foreign-owned timber companies. The Timber Marketing Board has a monopoly on the export of timber and timber products.

Among the roughly 300 timber-producing species are the warwa obech, mahogany, utile, baku, and kokrodua; species such as avodire, sapale, and makuri are considered the best in Africa. A ban on the export of 21 species was established in 1979 in order to encourage the production of sawn timber and timber products. The total production of roundwood in 2004 was 22,078,000 cu m (779,353,000 cu ft), with 95% burned as fuel. Sawn wood production was 496,000 cu m (17,500,000 cu ft), with exports of $104.9 million. Total exports of forest products in 2004 amounted to $190.6 million. After cocoa and minerals, sawn timber and logs constitute the third-largest export item. The government is encouraging a shift to value-added timber exports in order to strengthen Ghana's position in the global market, create more employment, and bring in more foreign revenue.

MINING

Ghana's mining and quarrying sector in 2003, accounted for about 25% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) and around 10% of the government's revenues. Employment in this sector is about 14,000 workers or under 1% of the country's labor force. Ghana was Africa's second-largest gold producer, behind South Africa, and was the continent's third-largest producer of aluminum metal and manganese ore. In 2003, exports of gold accounted for $830 million out of total exports valued at $2.471 billion. Extensive smuggling of gold, the top export of the Gold Coast, and of diamonds through the years has cut into government revenues, as well as high energy costs, which negated increased prices for gold and cocoa. In 2003, Ghana also produced hydraulic cement, salt, diamonds, silver, and bauxite.

Gold production in 2003, not including smuggled or undocumented production was 68,700 kg, down from 69,271 kg in 2002.

Production of processed manganese ore, all from the NsutaWassaw open-pit mine, was 1,509,000 metric tons in 2003, up from 1,136,000 metric tons in 2002. Only one relatively small bauxite deposit was worked, at Awaso. The site has been in production since 1941 by Ghana Bauxite Company (20% government owned); reserves have been estimated to last 30 years, and other ore reserves nearby were adequate to support mine life for a century. In 2003, production amounted to 495,000 metric tons, down from 684,000 metric tons in 2002. Akwatia, was the only formal operating diamond mine. However, over two-thirds of the diamonds produced were recovered by artisanal miners from alluvial and raised terrace gravel workings in the Birim Valley. Total production in 2003 (gem and industrial), and not including unreported artisanal production, amounted to 927,000 carats, down from 963,000 carats in 2002; total formal-sector production peaked in the 1970s at more than 2.5 million carats.

ENERGY AND POWER

Output of electricity totaled 5.858 million kWh in 2002, of which 89% was from hydroelectric sources and 11% was from fossil fuels. As of 2002 total installed capacity was 1,200 MW. The greatest single source of power is the Volta River Project, begun in 1962 and based on a hydroelectric installation at Akosombo, about 100 km (60 mi) northeast of Accra. Work on the Akosombo (or Volta River) Dam was finished in 1965. The first stage of the electrification project was completed in mid-1967 and had a capacity of 512,000 kW; by 1990, the plant's capacity had been expanded to 912 MW. Ghana's other major hydroelectric plant is at Kpong (160 MW). The Volta River Authority supplies 99% of the total national electricity consumption, 50–60% of which is absorbed by aluminum refining. Excess electricity is sold to Togo, Benin, and Côte d'Ivoire. A $150 million project to extend the main grid to northern Ghana was completed in 1991.

Beginning in the 1970s, oil exploration was conducted offshore and in the Volta River Basin. In 1979, an offshore field developed by Agri-Petco, a US company, began operations; it was later taken over by Primary Fuel, also a US company, but production ceased in 1986. The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, which was established in 1984, reported production of oil at the rate of 6,000 barrels per day at the South Tano Basin in 1991. By 1994, total Ghanaian crude oil production totaled only 1,400 barrels per day, but it rose to 7,000 barrels per day by 2002, compared with consumption totaling at 40,490 barrels per day in the same year. Nigerian oil accounts for the bulk of petroleum imports. Recoverable oil reserves were estimated at 16.2 million barrels, with refining capacity at 45,000 barrels per day, as of 1 January 2002. Refinery production in 2002 was put at 26,370 barrels per day. Natural gas reserves, located primarily in the Tano fields, were estimated as of 1 January 2003 at 23.7 billion cu m (840 billion cu ft).

INDUSTRY

Food, cocoa, and timber processing plants lead a list of industries that include an oil refinery, textiles, vehicles, cement, paper, chemicals, soap, beverages, and shoes. As part of its chemicals industry, Ghana produces rubber, aluminum, and pharmaceuticals. Much of Ghana's industrial base was nationalized over the years. Encouraged by the IMF, however, Ghana has largely ended its parastatal era. Between 1991 and 1999, more than two-thirds of the 300 public sector companies were divested, and the government decided to speed up privatization by contracting private consultants to manage the process.

In 2000, industry annually accounted for about 25% of GDP. Recent industrial activity has included a reopened glass factory, a new palm oil mill, a locally supplied cement plant, and facilities for milling rice, distilling citronella, and producing alcohol. Industry in Ghana is now oriented towards the fabrication of value-added semi-manufactured and finished products rather than just primary commodities for export—items such as furniture, jewelry, beer bottles, aluminum cooking utensils, fruit juice, and chocolate bars. The Tema industrial estate includes the Tema Food Complex, comprised of a fish cannery, flour and feed mills, a tincan factory, and other facilities. The aluminum smelter at Tema is owned by Kaiser Aluminum and is one of Ghana's largest manufacturing enterprises.

The construction industry in 2002 included projects geared toward the building of roads, bridges, coastal works, and residential housing.

Ghana produces no oil or natural gas, but it has an oil refinery with a capacity of 45,000 barrels per day. The Tema refinery operates on crude oil imported from Nigeria. Ghana has natural gas reserves of 24 billion cu m (847 billion cu ft). The 600 km (373 mi) West African Gas Pipeline was due to be completed in 2003, with a supply point in Tema. The pipeline was to have an estimated capacity of 11.33 cu m (400 cu ft) a day.

In 2004, industry made up 24.2% of the economy and employed and estimated 15% of the working population; the service sector was the most important contributor to the GDP, while the agriculture sector was the biggest employer.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research founded in 1958 at Accra, advises the government on scientific matters, coordinates the national research effort, and disseminates research results. Attached to the council are 14 research institutes, many of which deal with land and water resources. Other learned societies and research institutions include the Ghana Institution of Engineers, the Pharmaceutical Society of Ghana, and the Geological Survey of Ghana, all at Accra; and the Ghana Science Association, the Ghana Meteorological Services Department, and the West African Science Association, all at Legon; and the Cocoa Research Institute at Tafo-Akimo. The Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences was founded in 1959.

The University of Ghana, at Legon, has faculties of agriculture and science, a medical school, and institutes for medical research and for Volta River Basin studies. The University of Cape Coast has a faculty of science and a school of agriculture. The University of Science and Technology at Kumasim has faculties of agriculture, environmental and development studies, pharmacy and science, and schools of engineering and medical science. The country also has a computer science institute in Accra and eight technical institutes and polytechnics in various cities. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 32% of college and university enrollments.

In 2002, high technology exports totaled $3 million, or 3% of manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Subsistence farming is still the primary basis of the domestic economy, with nearly 60% of the work force employed in agriculture. Although there are retail stores in all towns and main trading centers, most retail trade, particularly of food products, is still carried on in local markets, mainly by women. Larger wholesale and retail outlets (including supermarkets) are primarily located in Accra. The overseas marketing of primary agricultural products is effected through governmental marketing boards, which use trading companies and cooperatives as agents to purchase commodities from the producers. A value added tax of 12.5% applies to all consumer goods and services. An excise tax applies for certain products such as cigarettes and alcohol.

Normal business hours are from 8 am to noon and 2 to 4:30 or 5 pm, Monday through Friday; some companies also open on Saturday morning. Banks are open from 8:30 am to 2 pm, Monday through Thursday, and to 3 pm on Friday. English is widely spoken.

FOREIGN TRADE

Cocoa exports from Ghana produce almost a fifth of commodity export revenues (18%), and a competitive percentage of world cocoa exports (7.8%). The mining industry receives the largest percentage of export money, by selling gold, diamonds, base metals (37%), and aluminum (9.1%). Wood exports were also substantial (5.6%). Imports included capital equipment, petroleum, consumer goods, and foods, most notably rice.

In 2004, exports reached $3.01 billion (FOB—free on board), while imports grew to $3.7 billion (FOB). The bulk of exports went to Mexico (69.8%), the Netherlands (3.7%), and the United Kingdom (3%). Imports mainly came from Nigeria (12.6%), China (11.4%), the United Kingdom (6.6%), the United States (6.4%), France (4.9%), and the Netherlands (4.2%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Ghana's exports was $1.94 billion while imports totaled $2.83 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $890 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2000 Ghana had exports of goods totaling $1.9 billion and imports totaling $2.74 billion. The services credit totaled $504 million and debit $597 million.

Exports of goods and services reached $3.3 billion in 2004, up from $3.1 billion in 2003. Imports grew from $4 billion in 2003, to $5 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, reaching -$905 million in 2003, and -$1.6 billion in 2004. The current account balance was positive, slightly decreasing from $124 million in 2003, to $107 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) grew to $1.5 billion in 2004, covering less than four months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Bank of Ghana, established in 1957, is the central bank. Commercial banking services are rendered mainly by the Commercial Bank of Ghana (worth approximately $30 million in 1999); and SSB Bank Limited (worth about $80 million in 1999). Two British banks, Barclays Bank of Ghana Ltd. and the Standard Chartered Bank of Ghana Africa Ltd. (both 40% state-owned), together had 67 branches in 1993. Other commercial banks include The Trust Bank Limited, The Agricultural Development Bank, Agricultural Bank Limited, Bank for Housing and Construction Limited, National Investment Bank Limited, Cooperative Bank Limited, Prudential Bank Limited, and International Commercial Bank Limited.

Merchant banks include the Merchant Bank of Ghana Limited, Ecobank Ghana Limited, CAL Merchant Bank Limited, First Atlantic Merchant Bank Limited, and Metropolitan and Allied Bank Limited.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2000, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $478.0 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $975.6 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 27%.

A stock exchange was opened in Accra in 1987. By 1994, the tiny exchange was up nearly 300%. International mutual fund managers and other foreign investors have shown increasing interest in Ghana, and in 1998, the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) was judged the best performing bourse in emerging markets. In 2004, a total of 29 companies were listed on the GSE, which had a market capitalization that same year of $2.644 billion. The GSE rose 91.3% from the previous year in 2004 to 6,798.5.

INSURANCE

In 1962, the government set up the State Insurance Corp. (SIC) with the primary aims of tightening control over the activities of insurance companies (including their investment policies) and providing insurance coverage for the government and governmental bodies. In 1972, the SIC started a new subsidiary, the Ghana Reinsurance Organization, to curb the outflow of reinsurance premiums from the country. Insurance services were available as of 1997 through 16 companies, five of them classified as foreign (although a 1976 law required the latter to distribute 20% of equity to the government and 40% to Ghanaian partners). In 1999, there were 21 insurance companies operating in Ghana.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Ghana turned to the IMF as the economy approached bankruptcy in 1983. The IMF-sponsored stabilization program, known as the ERP (Economic Recovery Program), was pursued vigorously through its several phases, and borrowing from the IMF came to a temporary end in 1992. Many changes took place in the ten years of the program. The currency was devalued repeatedly; foreign exchange was auctioned. The cocoa sector was revamped, starting with higher producer prices, and privatized. Ghana's civil service was one of Africa's largest, therefore the number of civil service employees was reduced; and the state attempted to unburden itself of its parastatals. A systematic program removed government subsidies, and tax collection procedures were strengthened. From 1995 to 1997, another IMF-backed structural adjustment program continued privatization, but public sector wage increases and defense spending countered austerity measures. Ghana's budgets have habitually been in deficit, financed mainly through the domestic banking system, with consequent rapid increases in the money supply and the rate of inflation. The third phase of the IMF program began in 1998, focusing on financial transparency and macroeconomic stability. In 2001, Ghana sought debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) program and reached decision point in early 2002.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Ghana's central government took in revenues of approximately $3.2 billion and had expenditures of $3.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$290 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 80.1% of GDP. Total external debt was $7.084 billion.

TAXATION

The basic corporate tax rate is 30% for all companies. However, companies that are listed for the first time on the Ghana Stock Exchange are given a 25% rate for three years. The 25% rate also is applied to hotels. Income from nontraditional exports is taxed at an 8% rate. Dividends and capital-gains are each taxed at 10%. A personal income tax ranging from 5%, to 35% for foreign nationals and rich citizens is also levied. As of 30 December 1998, Ghana's sales tax of 15% was replaced by value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 10%. As of 6 January 2000, the standard VAT rate was increased to 12.5%. Exempt from the VAT are vaccines, other specified drugs, and salt. A salary tax of 5% on employees and 12.5% on employers finances the Social Security and National Insurance Trust pension program. There are also property (.05%) and excise taxes, a 0-15% gift tax, and a 2.5% national Health Insurance levy on all goods and services except those that are exempted.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Ghana uses the Harmonized Commodity Coding System (HS) to classify goods. The ad valorem tax is assessed with the Customs Valuation Code (CVC) formulated by the World Trade Organization. In 1999, duty on most machinery and capital goods was 0%, the duty for raw materials and intermediate goods 10%, and the duty on most consumer goods 20%. The 12.5% VAT is also applied to imports on the basis of cost, insurance and freight (CIF) plus the duty. There are import restrictions on cigarettes, narcotics, mercuric medicated soap, toxic waste, contaminated goods, foreign soil, and counterfeit notes and coins of any country. The import license system was abolished in 1989, but a permit is still required for the import of drugs, communications equipment, mercury, gambling machines, handcuffs, arms and ammunition, and live plants and animals. There are no controls on exports.

Ghana is a member of ECOWAS. The country also created free zones in May 1996, one located in the Greater Accra Region and two other sites at Mpintsin and Ashiem. The seaports and airport also qualify as free zones, as do companies that export more than 70% of products. These companies receive a ten-year corporate tax holiday and zero import tax.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Before the 1983 Economic Recovery Program, nationalized enterprise was the cornerstone of Ghanaian investment policy. Under the supervision of the IMF and World Bank, the government styled its policies on the model of a number of Asian countries where encouragement of the private sector and foreign direct investment (FDI) are considered essential to sustained economic growth. The principal law on FDI is the Ghana Investment Promotion Center (GIPC) Law of 1994, which governs investments in all sectors except minerals and mining (under the Minerals and Mining Act of 1986 as amended in 1994 and administered by the Minerals Commission), oil and gas (under the Petroleum Exploration and Production Law of 1984 administered by the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation—GNOC), and the free trade zones, established in 1996. The 1994 investment code guarantees the free transferability of dividends, loan repayments, licensing fees, and the repatriation of capital; provides guarantees against expropriation; and provides for dispute arbitration. Foreign investors are not subject to differential treatment on taxes, prices, or access to foreign exchange, imports, and credit.

The GIPC is responsible for promoting direct investment in Ghana. The only performance requirements are that a foreign investor must have at least $10,000 in capital for joint ventures, $50,000 for wholly foreign-owned ventures, and $300,000 for trading companies, and that the latter must employ at least 10 Ghanaians. The free trade zone consists of land near the seaports of Tema and Takoradi and the Kotoka Airport. To qualify for free zone incentives—a year corporate tax holiday and zero duty on imports—the business must export at least 70% of its output. Small enterprises—petty trading, taxi services with less than 10-car fleets, beauty and barber shops, small scale mining, pool betting businesses, and lotteries besides soccer—are reserved for Ghanaians.

Since 2000, the government has transformed its general foreign investment promotion strategy to specific firm target promotion directed at production centers of Europe and Asia. The objectives of the program are to attract firms that seek to local and sub-regional markets and which contribute to value-added production using raw materials available in Ghana.

Because a number of different agencies are involved in the promotion and monitoring of FDI in Ghana, published statistics tend to be unreliable and unreconciled. For the period 2000 to 2002, the GIPC reported it had licensed 510 projects representing a total investment of $351.2 million, $297.9 million of which was FDI and $53.3 million local funds. Of these, 342 were joint ventures and 169 wholly foreign-owned. From 1997 to 1999, FDI averaged $66.7 million a year (UNCTAD estimates), compared to the $100 million a year 2000 to 2002. In the first quarter of 2003, FDI was reported at a record-setting pace of $56.7 million, $49.7 million of which was for projects in the service sector. By the end of the year, capital inflows reached $88 million. In the first three quarters of 2004, FDI levels jumped to $85 million.

The major foreign investment projects in Ghana have been in mining and manufacturing. The United Kingdom has been the largest foreign investor, with investments exceeding $750 million, primarily through Lonmin Plc's 32% stake in the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation, In 2003, Lonmin was in the process of selling its stake to Anglogold of South Africa, which was negotiating taking over the Ashanti Goldfields. The largest firm operating in Ghana is Valco, operated by the American company, Kaiser and Reynolds Aluminum, whose guaranteed use of electric power for aluminum refining made possible the building of the Volta Dam and its hydroelectric generating plant. In early 2003, a drought caused an energy crisis in Ghana and brought Valco's operations to a near standstill. Other American companies operating in Ghana include Teberebie Golfields Limited, CMS Generation (independent power producer), Affiliated Computer Services (since 2000, involved in developing offshore business process outsourcing projects), Regimanuel-Gray Limited (construction), CocaCola Company, Phyto-Riker (pharmaceuticals), Westel (ICT company formed by the partnership of Western Wireless International and Ghana National Petroleum Company), Pioneer Foods (Star-Kist Tuna), Union Carbide, Amoco, ChevronTexaco, and ExxonMobile.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Recent economic policy has aimed at correcting basic problems in every phase of the economy: unemployment (20% in 1997), low productivity, high production costs, the large foreign debt ($5.96 billion in 2001), low savings and investing, inflation (25% in 2001), and high private and government consumption. The country relies heavily on financial assistance from international lenders including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Conditions of the loans include progress in privatizing state-owned enterprises and achieving macroeconomic performance targets.

The government's recently launched Vision 2020 plan aims at making Ghana a middle-income country through free-market reforms over the course of the next 25 years. Key elements of the plan include increased privatization of parastatals, a friendlier environment for foreign investment, renewed efforts to facilitate private-sector growth, and improvements in infrastructure and social welfare. By 2003, about two-thirds of 300 state-owned enterprises had been sold to private owners. During 1999, Japan announced the donation of $16.5 million to import machinery, spare parts, and industrial materials. The US energy firm CMS announced planned to build a new electric generating unit, alleviating fears of further power outages.

In 2002, Ghana reached decision point on the IMF/World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, and was to receive $3.7 billion in debt relief. The relief will allow Ghana to increase spending on education, health, programs to benefit rural areas, and improved governance. Ghana raised electricity, fuel, and municipal water rates, and raised taxes to stabilize its fiscal position, as part of the agreed-upon debt relief plan. In 2003, Ghana negotiated a three-year $258 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement with the IMF, to support the government's economic reform program for 2003–05.

The economic growth from previous years was expected to continue in coming years. Agricultural production was expected to pick up, particularly in cocoa and food crops. The service sector was also anticipated to expand with improvements in the telecommunications, transport, and tourist sectors. The mining sector will benefit from increased investments in the gold production. The manufacturing sector, on the other hand, will continue to suffer because of the high inflation, increasing imports, and the strong exchange rate.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system, initiated in 1965, covers all employed persons, with a special system for the military. There is voluntary coverage for the self-employed. Pensions are funded by 5% contributions from employees and 12.5% contributions from employers. The minimum pension is set at 50% of the average annual salary. There are no sickness or maternity benefits provided, however, employed persons receive worker's compensation. Agricultural workers and subsistence farmers are excluded from coverage in these programs.

Women play a prominent role in agriculture and domestic trade, and are represented at the highest levels of political life. Traditional courts, however, often deny women inheritance or property rights. Traditional customs also violate the human rights of children, including facial scarring and female genital mutilation. Violence against women is common and seldom reported. Among the Ewe ethnic group, a traditional practice called trokosi allows an individual or family to enslave a virgin daughter to a local priest or shrine for as long as three years as a means of assuring atonement for crimes committed by members of the family. In 2004 there were reports of 100 girls enslaved in that tradition. Child labor and forced marriage continue.

Ethnic tensions and violence continue in the northern region. Some human right abuses continue, although significant improvements were made. Discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS remains a problem, thus discouraging people from seeking testing.

HEALTH

Waterborne parasitic diseases are a widespread health hazard and the creation of Lake Volta and related irrigation systems has led to an increase in malaria, sleeping sickness, and schistosomiasis. The upper reaches of the Volta basin are seriously afflicted with onchocerciasis, a filarial worm disease transmitted by biting flies. Lymphatic filians in some remote villages of Ghana affect between 9.2 to 25.4% of the population. Control of filariasis in remote areas has been difficult. In 1997, efforts were made to vaccinate children up to one year old against tuberculosis, 72%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 60%; polio, 61%; and measles, 59%. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.7% of GDP. In 2000, 64 % of the population had access to safe drinking water and 63% had adequate sanitation.

As of 2004, there were an estimated 9 physicians, 64 nurses, and 20 midwives per 100,000 people. Approximately 60% of the population had access to health care services.

In 2002, Ghana's estimated birth rate was 28 per 1,000 people. About 22% of Ghana's married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception as of 2000. The total fertility rate in 2000 was 4.2 children for each woman's childbearing years. An estimated 8% of all births in 1999 were low birth weight. In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 56.36 per 1,000 live births, and the overall death rate in 2002 was estimated at 10.3 per 1,000 people. Life expectancy in Ghana was estimated at 58.47 years in 2005.

Twenty-six percent of all children under five were malnourished in 2000. Goiter was present in 33% of school-age children. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 3.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 350,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 30,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003. Two other common diseases were tuberculosis and measles. Cholera is still prevalent.

Thirty percent of all women in Ghana have undergone female genital mutation. Currently, Ghana's government has prohibited this under specific laws.

HOUSING

About 72% of all housing in Ghana are traditional compound houses, which consist of a large U-shaped structure with a shared central courtyard. There are usually seven or more rooms per structure. There are some flats and other types of housing in urban areas. In rural areas, wood, mud, or cement huts with sheet iron or mud roofs are more common. Overcrowding, defined as 2.5 persons or more per room, affects about 44.5% of all households. In rural areas, about 52% of the population use latrine sewage systems; 47% have no specific sewage systems. About 51% of rural dwellings are owner occupied. These are typically mud or mud brick huts. In urban areas, less than 20% of all housing units are owner occupied. As of 2001, about 76% of urban and 46% of rural households had access to adequate water supplies. According to the latest available information, housing units in the 1980s numbered 2,458,000, with 5.2 people per dwelling.

Ghana's housing needs have been increasing as the main towns grow in population. In 1982, the government established the State Housing Construction Co. to help supply new low-cost dwelling units. The Bank for Housing and Construction finances private housing schemes on a mortgage basis. Under another housing ownership scheme, civil servants may acquire accommodations on purchase-lease terms. The Cocoa Marketing Board, the Social Security and National Insurance Trust, and other organizations have also invested in housing projects; nevertheless, most houses continue to be built without government assistance. Foreign mining companies provide housing for all their overseas employees and many of their African workers.

Recognizing that most private homes are too expensive for many citizens, the government has been working on programs addressing land and material costs and long-term financing for constructions. From 2001–2004, the government had planned to build about 20,000 housing units.

EDUCATION

Most of the older schools, started by Christian missions, have received substantial financial help from the government, but the state is increasingly responsible for the construction and maintenance of new schools. Primary education has been free since 1952 and compulsory since 1961. Primary school lasts six years and is followed by six years of secondary schooling (at junior and senior levels). At the upper secondary level, students may choose to attend a three-year technical school. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 41% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 63% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 33% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 62% of all students complete their primary education. The student-toteacher ratio for primary school was at about 32:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 19:1. In 2003, private schools accounted for about 18% of primary school enrollment and 11% of secondary enrollment.

Ghana has three main universities: the University of Ghana, in Legon, outside Accra; the University of Science and Technology in Kumasi; and the University of Cape Coast. In 2003, about 3% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 54%, with 62.9% for men and 45.7% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.1% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Ghana Library Board maintains the Accra Central Library, 13 regional libraries, 47 branch libraries, mobile units, and children's libraries, with combined holdings of over three million volumes in 2002. The University of Ghana (Balme Library) in Legon has holdings of around 362,000 volumes and is the largest research library in Ghana. The University of Science and Technology Library has 310,000 volumes. The Research Library on African Affairs (formerly the George Padmore Memorial Library), which opened in Accra in 1961, maintains a collection of publications on various aspects of Africa.

The Ghana National Museum, in Accra, founded by the University College of Ghana and now operated by the Museum and Monuments Board, contains hundreds of exhibits illustrating the culture, history, and arts and crafts of Ghana and West Africa. The West African Historical Museum at Cape Coast, sponsored by the Museum and Monuments Board and the University of Cape Coast, opened in 1971. The Ghana National Museum of Science and Technology is at Accra. There are regional museums at Ho and Kumasi, which is also home to the Ghana Armed Forces Museum. The University of Ghana has several museums in Legon, maintained by the departments of geology and archaeology, and a teaching museum run by the Institute of African Studies.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 13 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 154,800 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 35 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The National Communications Authority (NCA) is responsible for broadcast media licensing. The government-owned Ghana Broadcasting Corp. makes radio services available throughout the country in English and six other languages; an international radio service beams programs in English, French, and Hausa to all parts of Africa. A government-owned television service was established in 1965. In 2004, there was a total of 12 state-owned and 117 privately owned radio stations nationwide. There were 3 semiprivate television stations, 1 government station, and 3 cable networks. In 2003, there were an estimated 695 radios and 53 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 3.8 personal computers for every 1,000 people and eight of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There was one secure Internet server in the country in 2004.

In 2004, there were 50 newspapers throughout the country including 3 government-owned dailies, 2 government-owned weeklies, and many smaller privately owned newspapers. Most newspapers circulated only in regional capitals. The most prominent papers, with 2002 circulation figures, were The Daily Graphic (circulation 100,000) and Ghanaian Times (40,000), both government owned. The Daily Telegraph (10,000) is independent. Weeklies, with their 2002 circulation, include the Weekly Spectator (165,000), The Mirror (90,000), The Ghanaian Chronicle (60,000), Graphic Sports (60,000), Echo (40,000), and Evening News (30,000). All papers are printed in English.

The government dominates all media, and though it is said to tolerate the small independent print media, it is reported to repress dissenting opinions during election times. The constitution does provide for free speech and press.

ORGANIZATIONS

Cooperatives have played an important role in marketing agricultural produce, especially cocoa. The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana promotes growth and development in the national cocoa industry and sponsors research in techniques for processing cocoa, coffee, shea, and kola. Their work is extended through the Ghana Cocoa Marketing Board. The National Chamber of Commerce, with headquarters in Accra, has 13 district chambers. The Ghana Employers' Association strives to promote better relations between workers and business owners. There are unions for a variety of occupations.

There are professional organizations for a number of careers and many of these are dedicated to research and education within their field, such as the Ghana Medical Association. National cultural associations—including associations of writers, musicians, artists, dancers, and dramatists—have been established. The Ghana Science Association was founded in 1958. The Ghana Academy of Arts and Science was founded in 1959.

National youth organizations include the Agricultural Youth Association, the Democratic Youth League of Ghana, the Ghana Scout Association, National Union of Ghanaian Students, Presbyterian Young People's Guild of Ghana, Student Christian Movement of Ghana, Green Earth Youth Organization, and groups of the YMCA/YWCA. There are several sports associations promoting amateur competition in such pastimes as tennis, squash, baseball and track and field.

Ghana Wildlife Society is active in matters of conservation and environmental protection. The Environmental Protection Association of Ghana supports conservation and resource management efforts, but also serves as an advocate for community health and rural development issues.

Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs and Kiwanis International, are also present. Ghana has active chapters of the Red Cross, Habitat for Humanity, and Amnesty International.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tourism has become a leading industry in Ghana due to the support of the government. Attractions include casinos, fine beaches, game reserves, and old British, Dutch, and Portuguese trading forts and castles. Indigenous dance forms and folk music thrive in rural areas, and there are many cultural festivals. The National Cultural Center is in Kumasi, the capital of the Ashanti region, an area rich in traditional Ghanaian crafts. There is an Arts Center in Accra, as well as the National Museum, the Alwri Botanical Gardens, and the burial place of W.E.B. Du Bois. Football (soccer) is the main sport of Ghana, although cricket, boxing, body building, golf, basketball, and track and field are also popular. Visas, proof of sufficient funds, and an onward/return ticket are required of all visitors, as well as proof of yellow fever vaccination. In 2002, about 483,000 tourists arrived in Ghana. There were 15,453 hotel rooms with 19,648 beds. Tourism expenditure receipts totaled $441 million in 2003.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Accra at $171 per day. Daily expenses in Kumasi and other areas were less at $132.

FAMOUS GHANAIANS

J. E. Casely Hayford (1867–1930), for 13 years a member of the Legislative Assembly, is remembered as a leading public-spirited citizen. Dr. J. E. K. Wegyir Aggrey (1875–1927), noted educational reformer, played a large part in the development of secondary education. Sir Henley Coussey (1891–1958) and Sir Emmanuel Quist (1882–1959) were distinguished jurists.

Persons from overseas who played a great part in the progress of Ghana were the Rev. Alexander Gordon Fraser (1873–1962), the first principal of Achimota School; Sir (Frederick) Gordon Guggisberg (1869–1930), who took the first steps toward Africanization of the public service and was instrumental in founding Achimota School; and Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke (1898–1962), who was governor of the Gold Coast during the preparatory years of independence (1948–57) and the first governor-general of Ghana. The writer, sociologist, and civil rights leader W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt) Du Bois (b.US, 1868–1963) settled in Ghana in 1961 and is buried in Accra.

Kwame Nkrumah (1909–72), the first president of the republic, served in that capacity until the military coup of February 1966; he died in exile in Guinea. J. B. Danquah (1895–1965), a lawyer, was named vice-president of the UGCC at the time of its founding in 1947. Detained along with Nkrumah after the Accra riots in 1948, he later helped to found the GCP. Arrested by Nkrumah in 1961, and again in 1964, he died in prison in 1965. KofiAbrefa Busia (1913–78), a noted sociologist, was prime minister from October 1969 to January 1972. Flight-Lieut. Jerry (John) Rawlings (b.1947), the son of a Scottish father and a Ghanaian mother, led successful military coups in 1979 and 1981. He was elected president in 1992, and reelected in 1996. John Kufuor (b.1938) became president in 2001. KofiAnnan (b.1938) became secretary general of the United Nations in 1996.

DEPENDENCIES

Ghana has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bowditch, Nathaniel H. The Last Emerging Market: from Asian Tigers to African Lions?: The Ghana File. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1999.

Conrad, David C. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File, 2005.

Edgerton, Robert B. The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundredyear War for Africa's Gold Coast. New York: The Free Press, 1995.

Greene, Sandra E. Sacred Sites and the Colonial Encounter: A History of Meaning and Memory in Ghana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.

Kamoche, Ken M. (ed.). Managing Human Resources in Africa. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Lentz, Carola and Paul Nugent (eds.). Ethnicity in Ghana: The Limits of Invention. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000.

Newell, Stephanie. Literary Culture in Colonial Ghana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.

Osei, Akwasi P. Ghana: Recurrence and Change in a Post-Independence African State. New York: P. Lang, 1999.

Owusu-Ansah, David. Historical Dictionary of Ghana. 3rd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2005.

——. Historical Dictionary of Ghana. [computer file] Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Salm, Steven J. Culture and Customs of Ghana. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Zuboff, Shoshana. The Support Economy: Why Corporations Are Failing Individuals and the Next Episode of Capitalism. New York: Viking, 2002.

Ghana

With a population of over eighteen million people, Ghana is the second largest country in West Africa. Since the 1960s, Ghana's population has been growing at an annual rate of about 2 to 3 percent (GSS 2000). This increase is a reflection of high birth rates at a time of declining mortality. One consequence of previous decades of high fertility of Ghanaians is that the country's population is quite young, with about 43 percent under fifteen years old (PRB 2000). These patterns of high birth rates, a youthful age structure, and declining mortality (the result of improvements in curative and preventive medicine, advances in sanitation, hygiene, and improved nutrition) indicate momentum for further population growth.

Culturally speaking, the people of modern Ghana comprise more than fifty different ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest of these groups are the Akans, who represent about 50 percent or more of the population and speak a variety of Twirelated dialects. Other major ethnic groups are the Ga-Adangbe, Ewe, and the Mossi-Dagbani. Alhough a variety of local languages are spoken throughout the country, English is the language used for official communication.

Ghana's contact with the outside world began in the late fifteenth century when the Portuguese arrived on the shores of the country. Over the years, the British ultimately became the dominant power in the area now called Ghana (Gold Coast). British colonial rule lasted more than a century until Ghana became politically independent in 1957, making it the first Black African nation to forgo centuries of British domination. At independence, Ghana was consolidated with the former British trust territory of Togoland, which before then was a German protectorate.

The social and political history of Ghana since its independence has been characterized by turmoil. First, the country's economy deteriorated over the years. Second, beginning in 1966 the country came under a succession of military regimes (briefly interrupted by two civilian administrations). As part of a new democratization process, the country reverted to civilian rule in the early 1990s. In January 2001, a newly elected civilian government was sworn in, making Ghana one of the few African nations with a Western-style democratic government. Although reliable data about the religious composition of the country are not readily available, it has been estimated that more than fifty percent of the people identify themselves as Christians (La Verle 1994) with the rest being either Muslims or believers of African traditional religions.

Family Structure, Family Formation, and Family Life

At the center of Ghanaian society is the institution of family. Sustained through a series of kinship networks and marriages, the family is acknowledged as the bedrock of all social life. The family is not only the basis of Ghanaian social organizations, but is also the main source of social security in old age (emotionally and financially) and the primary or sole caretaker for the young. The family is the basic unit of production and distribution and serves as the main agent for social control. More important, marriage continues to be the main locus of reproduction in a region where marriage is virtually universal (van de Walle and Meekers 1994).

Although the family may be the cornerstone of Ghanaian social life, very little consensus exists on its boundaries. The traditional Ghanaian family is more than the nuclear (conjugal) unit. In everyday usage, the term family is used to refer to both the nuclear unit and the extended family. In Ghana, the latter is often based on kinship or lineage ties. On the basis of lineage ties, two main family systems can be identified in Ghana: the matrilineal family and the patrilineal family. Among the matrilineal Akans, a man's immediate family would include his mother, his own brothers and sisters, and the children of his sisters (maternal nephews and nieces), and his mother's brothers and sisters (maternal uncles and aunts). For a woman, this includes her own children and grandchildren plus all those mentioned above. Apart from the wife's contribution to the household, members of this maternal family traditionally inherited the property of a deceased husband. In contrast to the patrilineal system, under the matrilineal kinship system, children belong to the mother and her family. Thus, kinship ties are more than a system of classification; they involve rights, obligations, and relationships.

As Matthew Lockwood (1995) points out, in many parts of Africa, lineage ties often determine a wide range of behavior, from marriage to the transmission of property. Given its centrality to the lives of many Ghanaians, some researchers have suggested that lineage ties tend to weaken the conjugal family unit (Caldwell and Caldwell 1987). Oppong (1983a, 1983b) has also noted that as a result of the various ways in which family is defined, members of the conjugal unit often do not pool their resources. Some researchers suggest that in Ghana, relatives look askance at a marriage in which the husband and wife develop a close relationship because such a practice tends to reduce the loyalty of the marriage partners to their respective lineage.

Marriage, Family Formation, and Childbearing

Studies of African societies generally indicate that within the whole subregion, men and women are expected to marry. As a result, some researchers indicate that in Africa, marriage is nearly universal. Married life is important to many Africans, including Ghanaians, because it is the basis for assigning reproductive, economic, and noneconomic roles to individuals. Voluntary celibacy is quite rare in traditional African societies. The pro-family and marriage ideology that exists in Ghana also has implications for social relations. Among the various ethnic and linguistic groups, unmarried women are often viewed differently from the married (Takyi and Oheneba-Sakyi 1994). This may explain why by age twenty, a significant proportion of women in Ghana are married (Cohen 1998; GSS, 1999).

As shown in Table 1, the proportion of women who have never been married (single) in Ghana ranged from a high of 24 percent in 1998 to a low of 17 percent in 1971. Although a higher proportion of Ghanaians marry, numbers also suggest a new development, changing family processes in the country. For example, since the 1970s, the proportion of women currently married has declined from 72 percent in 1971 to 52 percent by 1998. Accompanying the decline in the number of married people has been a corresponding increase in alternative or nontraditional family forms, especially consensual unions, and single status. Similarly, the proportion of women reporting a divorce or separation is also on the rise, a trend some researchers attribute to the disruptive effects of modernization and Westernization (Amoateng and Heaton 1989; Boateng 1995). Similarly, it has been reported that women headed about 29 percent of all households in Ghana during the mid-1980s (Bruce, Lloyd, and Leonard 1995).

Childbearing and Childrearing

Not only are Ghanaians expected to marry, but it is unthinkable for married couples to be childless (except for health reasons). In addition, studies show that because Africans value childbearing, they tend to have larger families (Caldwell 1982). Surveys conducted in Ghana indicate that women there bear many children. Between 1960 and the early 1990s, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (number of children born per woman aged fifteen to forty-four) averaged six or more. Only during the late 1990s did researchers observe a reduction in fertility levels. Even so, the average family size of nearly five children is considerably higher than what is found in other parts of the world. However, family size varies considerably among women of different social groupings.

Several factors appear to explain why parents in Ghana have more children. One such interpretation is that marriage is nearly universal and also most women marry at an early age. Some also suggest that high fertility is the result of deep-rooted cultural values, norms, and practices that support the existence of large families. In this view, African parents receive more rewards from reproduction than do parents in any other society. Moreover, these upward-wealth flows are guaranteed by interwoven social and religious sanctions. Because children are the main source of old age support, labor, prestige, and marital stability, John Caldwell (1982) and Baffour K. Takyi (2001) suggest that it is suicidal for parents to have no children. Also, parents may want more children because it costs them very little to raise a child; other people help in the provision of childcare through fostering arrangements (Isiugo-Abanihe 1985). After analyzing data from the 1971 post-enumeration survey, Uche C. Isiugo-Abanihe (1985) found that about 20 percent of all children aged ten years and younger were not living with their biological parents. Similarly, the 1998-99 DHS found that about 16 percent of all households included a fostered child.

One important determinant of family size is contraceptive use. In Ghana, because women are

expected to have many children, few use contraceptives, although this changed in the late twentieth century. Between 1979 and 1999, the proportion of married women using any form of contraceptives increased from 12 percent to about 18 percent for the period (GSS 1999). Some studies also point to the low status of women in the country, while others argue that men's influence and behavior reduce women's ability to make decisions about their reproductive behavior, including their use of contraceptives (Ezeh 1993; Takyi and Oheneba-Sakyi 1997; Dodoo 1993, 1998).

Marital Processes and Types of Marriage

The marriage process itself varies among ethnic groups. Also, the type of marriage consummated by a couple often depends on a host of factors, including their socioeconomic status (e.g., formal education, occupation, income, wealth, place of residence), and their family, religious, and ethnic backgrounds. Ghanaian family law recognizes a plurality of marital forms. Throughout the country, customary law marriages, consensual unions, marriages contracted under Islamic rules, and those contracted under the ordinance (civil or church) are all recognized as legal. Of these four types of marriages, marriage under customary or traditional law accounts for most marriage contracts in the country (Table 2).

Although national-level data on type of marriage are not readily available, evidence from small-scale surveys conducted throughout the country indicate that most marriages in Ghana are the traditional type (Gaisie and de Graft Johnson

1976; Awusabo-Asare 1990; Oheneba-Sakyi et al. 1992; Ardayfio-Schandorf 1995). As indicated in Table 2, although the number of marriages performed under traditional law is declining, they still account for the bulk of all marriages in Ghana. In part, customary law marriages are popular because they are based on traditional norms and beliefs and are often less expensive to contract. Also, unlike marriage under the law, traditional marriage does not have to be monogamous. As a marriage form, the incidence of polygyny varies from somewhere between 20 to 50 percent in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa (Timaues and Reynar 1998). In Ghana during the late 1970s, about one-third of all currently married women were in polygynous unions (Aryee 1985; Gage and Njogu 1994). By the late 1990s, the proportion of women in plural marriages had declined to about 23 percent (Table 3).

Partner Choice

In traditional Ghanaian society, different ethnic and lineage groups built alliances through the institution of marriage. Marriage contracts were supposed to serve the needs of the larger extended family members as well. As a result, the choice of a marriage partner was not left to the bride and groom alone. In some cases, the marriage was arranged to satisfy the needs of the extended family. Arranged marriages in this context could take any form, including betrothals or marrying someone considered the preferred type. For example, among the matrilineal Akans, who tend to inherit property from the maternal line, marriage between cross-cousins (one's father's sister's child or mother's brother's child) was preferred because it reduced the conflict and tensions that often arose over the distribution of family property. The family's involvement in the marriage negotiations and decision making was also aimed at establishing a series of networks that were viewed as essential to the stability of the relationship. It was assumed that if the partners were compatible, they were less likely to divorce. The evidence on marital trends showed, though, that an increasing number of marriages were being dissolved (Takyi 2001; see Table 1). Similarly, in the urban areas and among the educated elite, parental involvement in mate selection is waning (Takyi et al. 2000; Aryee 1985).

Trends in Family and Marital Processes

Since the 1960s, the Ghanaian family has come under intense stress as a result of contact with the outside world. For example, with increasing levels of education and urbanization has come an increase in the nuclear form of marriage common in North America (Oppong 1983b). Takyi and colleagues (2000) also find that mate selection is increasingly becoming an individual, rather than a family, matter, as it used to be. In terms of property rights, legislation on Intestate Succession (PNDC III) has helped to challenge the existing status quo. Under the law passed in 1985, the majority of marital property (even in the absence of a will) now goes to the nuclear, rather than the extended, family. Increasing urbanization has also been followed by more marriage dissolutions, and it appears that divorce rates in Ghana are on the rise (see Table 1). In terms of household structure, studies increasingly point to an increase in the number of households headed or principally maintained by women (GSS 1989; Lloyd and Gage-Brandon 1993).

Conclusion

As with all institutions, families in Africa have undergone significant transformations over the years (Bledsoe 1990), and the family in Ghana has gone through a series of transformations. For example, HIV/AIDS posed a challenge to the working-age population and fostering and living arrangements. The infection also compromises the family support systems as young adults become afflicted and die before their parents. Also, economic hardship brought a rise in international migration, thus further destabilizing the family. More important, family size will continue to decline as the economy weakens and contraceptive use rises. These changing conditions all represent a challenge to which the Ghanaian family of the twenty-first century must respond.

See also:Extended Families; Kinship

Bibliography

Amoateng, Y., and Heaton, T. (1989). "The Socio-Demographic Correlates of the Timing of Divorce in Ghana." Journal of Comparative Family Studies 20:79–96.

Ardayfio-Schandorf, E., ed. (1995). The Changing Family in Ghana. Proceedings of the National Conference, Accra, Ghana, January 25–27. Ghana Universities Press.

Aryee, F. "Nuptiality Patterns in Ghana." In DemographicPatterns in Ghana: Evidence from the Ghana FertilitySurvey, ed. S. Singh, J. Owusu, and I. Shah. Voorburg, Netherlands: International Statistical Institute.

Bledsoe, C. (1990). "Transformations in Sub-Saharan African Marriage and Fertility." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 510:115–125.

Boateng, D. (1995). "The Changing Family and National Development in Ghana." In The Changing Family, ed. E. Ardayfio-Schandorf. Ghana Universities Press.

Bruce, J.; Lloyd, C.; and Leonard, A. (1995). Families inFocus: New Perspectives on Mothers, Fathers and Children. New York: The Population Council.

Caldwell, J. (1982). A Theory of Fertility Decline. Canberra: Australian National University Press.

Caldwell, J., and Caldwell, P. (1987). "The Cultural Context of High Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa." Population and Development Review 13(3):409–438.

Cohen, B. (1998). "The Emerging Fertility Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa." World Development 26(8):1431-1461.

Dodoo, F. (1993). "Insights into Spousal Differences in Reproductive Dis/agreement." Sociological Focus 26(3):257–270.

Dodoo, F. (1998). "Marriage Type and Reproductive Decisions: A Comparative Study in Sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Marriage and the Family 60(1):232–242.

Ezeh, A. (1993). "The Influence of Spouses' Over Each Other's Contraceptive Attitudes in Ghana." Studies in Family Planning 24:163–174.

Gage, A., and Njogu, W. (1994). Gender Inequalities andDemographic Behavior. New York: The Population Council.

Gaisie, S., and de Graft Johnson, K. (1976). The Population of Ghana. Committee for International Coordination of National Research in Demography (CIRCRED) Series.

Ghana Statistical Service. (1999). Ghana: Demographic and Health Survey: A Summary Report, 1998. Accra, Ghana.

Ghana Statistical Service (2000). 2000 Population andHousing Census. Provisional Results. Accra, Ghana.

Ghana Statistical Service and Macro International, Inc. (1994). Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 1993. Accra, Ghana, and Calverton, MD.

Isiugo-Abanihe, U. (1985). "Child Fosterage in West Africa." Population and Development Review 11(1):53–73.

Lloyd, C., and Gage-Brandon, A. (1993). "Women's Role in Maintaining Households: Family Welfare and Sexual Inequality in Ghana." Population Studies 47(1):115–131.

Lockwood, M. (1995). "Structure and Behavior in the Social Demography of Africa." Population and Development Review 21(1):1–32.

Oheneba-Sakyi, Y.; Awusabo-Asare, K.; Gbortsu, E.; and Aryee, F. (1995). Female Autonomy, Decision Making, and Demographic Behavior Among Couples in Ghana. Potsdam, NY and Accra, Ghana.

Oheneba-Sakyi, Y., and Takyi, B. (1991). "Sociodemographic Correlates of Breastfeeding in Ghana." Human Biology 63(3):389-402. Oppong, C. (1983a). "Women's Roles, Opportunity Costs and Fertility." In Determinants of Fertility in Developing Countries, ed. R. Bulatao and R. Lee. New York: Academic Press.

Oppong, C., ed. (1983b). Female and Male in West Africa. London: George Allen and Unwin.

Takyi, B. (2001). "Marital Stability in an African Society: Exploring the Factors that Influence Divorce Processes in Ghana." Sociological Focus 34 (1):77–96.

Takyi, B.; Kitson, G.; Miller, N.; and Oheneba-Sakyi, Y. (2000). "Reconsidering the Mate Selection Processes in Ghana." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council on Family Relations. Minneapolis, MN, November 11.

Takyi B., and Oheneba-Sakyi, Y. (1994). "Customs, Practices, Family Life and Marriage in Contemporary Ghana, West Africa." Family Perspectives 28(4):257–281.

Takyi, B., and Oheneba-Sakyi, Y. (1997). "Gender Differentials in Family Size among Ghanaian Couples." Journal of African and Asian Studies 32(3–4):1–11.

Timaeus, I., and Reynar, A. (1998). "Polygynists and Their Wives in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Analysis of Five Demographic and Health Surveys." Population Studies 52:(2)145-162.

van de Walle, E., and Meekers, D. (1994). "Marriage Drinks and Kola Nuts." In Nuptiality in Sub-Saharan Africa: Contemporary Anthropological and Demographic Perspectives, ed. C. Bledsoe and G. Pison. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

baffour k. takyi

Ghana officially Republic of Ghana, republic (2005 est. pop. 21,030,000), 92,099 sq mi (238,536 sq km), W Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital and largest city is Accra .

Land and People

Modern Ghana comprises the former British colony of the Gold Coast and the former mandated territory of British Togoland. It is bordered by the Côte d'Ivoire on the west, Burkina Faso on the north, and Togo on the east. The coastal region and the far north of Ghana are savanna areas; in between is a forest zone. The country's largest river is the Volta; the damming of the river for a hydroelectric station at Akosombo (1964) created the enormous Lake Volta. In addition to the capital (Accra), other important cities are Kumasi , Tema , Sekondi-Takoradi , Cape Coast , and Tamale .

Ghana's population is composed of many ethnolinguistic groups, the principal of which are the Akan (Ashanti and Fanti), Mole-Dagbani, Ewe, and Ga-Adangme. English is the official language. Some 69% of the population is Christian (Pentecostal and other Protestant churches, and Roman Catholic) and 16% is Muslim (living mainly in the north), with the remainder following traditional religions.

Economy

Ghana's economy is predominantly agricultural, with 60% of the population engaged in subsistence agriculture. The biggest cash crop is cocoa. Rice, coffee, cassava, peanuts, corn, shea nuts, and bananas are also widely grown. Fishing and lumbering are important, although inadequate roads and facilities have hindered the development of the timber industry.

Minerals (most importantly gold, but also industrial diamonds, bauxite, and manganese) are found in the north, south, and coastal regions. There are offshore petroleum deposits, and commercial exploitation began in 2010.

The major industries in Ghana are mining, lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminum smelting, cocoa and other food processing, and shipbuilding. The major exports are gold and other minerals, cocoa, timber, and tuna. Imports include capital equipment, petroleum, and foodstuffs. The Netherlands, Nigeria, Great Britain, the United States, and China are Ghana's major trade partners. The country has a large but poorly maintained road system; rail lines connect the major centers in the south.

Government

Ghana is governed under the constitution of 1992. The executive branch is headed by a president, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The unicameral legislature consists of a 230-seat Parliament. Both the president and the legislature are popularly elected for four-year terms; the president's tenure is limited to two terms. Administratively, the country is divided into ten regions.

History

Early History to Independence

In precolonial times the area of present-day Ghana comprised a number of independent kingdoms, including Gonja and Dagomba in the north, Ashanti in the interior, and the Fanti states along the coast. In 1482 the first European fort was established by the Portuguese at Elmina . Trade was begun, largely in gold and slaves, and intense competition developed among many European nations for trading advantages. With the decline of the slave trade in the 19th cent., only the British, Danes, and Dutch still maintained forts on the Gold Coast. The Danes (1850) and Dutch (1872) withdrew in the face of expansionist activities by the Ashanti kingdom; the British, however, remained and allied themselves with the Fanti states against Ashanti.

In 1874 the British defeated Ashanti and organized the coastal region as the colony of the Gold Coast. There was fighting between British and Ashanti again in 1896, and in 1901 the British made the kingdom a colony. In the same year the Northern Territories, a region north of Ashanti, were declared a British protectorate. After World War I part of the German colony of Togoland was mandated to the British, who linked it administratively with the Gold Coast colony. In the Gold Coast, nationalist activity, which began in the interwar period, intensified after World War II. Kwame Nkrumah of the Convention People's Party (CPP) emerged as the leading nationalist figure. In 1951, Britain granted a new constitution, which had been drawn up by Africans, and general elections were held. The CPP won overwhelmingly and Nkrumah became premier.

Struggles of an Independent Nation

On Mar. 6, 1957, the state of Ghana, named after the medieval W African empire, became an independent country within the Commonwealth of Nations. At the same time the people of British Togoland chose to become part of Ghana. In 1960, Nkrumah transformed Ghana into a republic, with himself as president for life. By a 1964 referendum, all opposition parties were outlawed, and many critics of the government were subsequently imprisoned. Nkrumah followed an anticolonial, pan-African policy and grew increasingly less friendly to the West. Falling cocoa prices and poorly financed large development projects led to chaotic economic conditions, and in 1966 Nkrumah was overthrown by a military-police coup. A National Liberation Council (NLC) was set up to rule until the restoration of civilian government.

Relations with the Western powers improved, and in 1969 the NLC transferred power to the government of K. A. Busia, who had been elected under a new constitution. Busia's government was undermined by labor problems, an unpopular currency devaluation, and serious inflation, and in 1972 it too was overthrown in a bloodless coup led by Col. I. K. Acheampong. The constitution was suspended and a National Redemption Council (NRC) set up to govern; it pursued a more neutralist course in foreign affairs and concentrated on developing Ghana's economy. The country's large foreign debt was brought under control; imports were curtailed; and the state took controlling interests in foreign-owned mining and timber firms.

However, in 1978, Acheampong was forced out of office by a group of military officers. Low wages and high unemployment led to a series of strikes that further disrupted the economy. Formerly one of the most prosperous nations in W Africa, Ghana's economy was in severe decline. The government lifted a ban on political parties in 1979 but denied potential leaders the right to participate.

The Rawlings Years and the Reestablishment of Democracy

In 1979, Flight Lt. J. J. Rawlings overthrew the government and purged the country of opposition, then turned the government over to an elected president, Dr. Hilla Limann . The international community disapproved of Rawlings's tactics, and Nigeria cut Ghana's crude oil supply. Poor economic conditions, restrictions on the press, and allegations of corruption led to popular discontent.

Rawlings seized power again in 1981 and tightened his political control throughout the 1980s. He enlisted economic help from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, and in the late 1980s the economy began to show significant growth. In 1992 the government promulgated a new constitution and lifted the ban on opposition parties. Later that year, Rawlings easily won a disputed presidential election. In 1994 several thousand people were killed and many more displaced in ethnic fighting in northern Ghana. In the 1996 elections, which were generally termed fair, Rawlings was returned to power.

Ghana's economic recovery continued into the late 1990s. Under the constitution, Rawlings could not run for reelection in 2000. In the December elections, the candidate of the opposition New Patriotic party (NPP), John Agyekum Kufuor , was elected president; the NPP also won a near majority in the parliament. The governing National Democratic Congress (NDC) was hurt by the declining economy. Kufuor oversaw improvement in the economy, although poverty remained widespread in Ghana, and in Dec., 2004, he won reelection and the NPP secured a majority in the parliament. N Ghana experienced some of its worst flooding in decades in Sept., 2007, especially along the White Volta. In the Dec., 2008, elections, John Atta Mills , who had twice lost to Kufuor, finally won the presidency after a runoff; Atta Mills's NDC also won the largest bloc of seats in the parliament.

Bibliography

See D. Kimble, A Political History of Ghana, 1850–1928 (1963); D. Austin, Politics in Ghana, 1946–1960 (1970); E. A. Boateng, A Geography of Ghana (1970); I. Kaplan et al., Area Handbook for Ghana (2d ed. 1971); D. M. McFarland, Historical Dictionary of Ghana (1985); M. M. Huq, The Economy of Ghana (1989); D. Rothchild, ed., Ghana: The Political Economy of Recovery (1991); R. A. Myers, Ghana (1991).

Ghana The first British Black African colony to gain independence in 1957 and thus a model of decolonization, and the first African country to adopt capitalist economic reform in 1983. A West African state under European influence since 1471, it came under British rule in 1850 and was declared the British Colony of the Gold Coast in 1874. After 30 years of warfare against the rebellious Asante people, it was finally pacified in 1900. After 1920 economic growth, based on mining and cocoa-farming, combined with high standards of education, produced demands for home rule. Achimota College, one of the first secondary schools for Africa, was founded in Accra in 1925. (A university college was established in 1948.) In 1946, Ghana became the first British colony in Africa whose legislative assembly consisted mostly of Africans. Serious rioting in 1948 caused the British to speed up the drafting of a new Constitution, though Nkrumah demanded self-government and independence. Nkrumah was elected Prime Minister in 1952, and led the country to independence on 6 March 1957.

Foreshadowing the developments in most other newly independent African colonies, Ghana soon degenerated into a showcase of postcolonial instability. A Western-style democracy upon independence, it became a socialist dictatorship until the overthrow of Nkrumah in 1966. He was replaced by an anti-socialist, pro-capitalist military regime, which in turn was replaced in 1969 by a civilian government led by the conservative Busia. The latter was deposed by the military in 1972, which governed through a National Redemption Council (Supreme Military Council as from 1975), and tried to establish its nationalist credentials through promoting the country's economic and cultural self-sufficiency. In 1979 a military coup was led by Jerry John Rawlings. He subsequently purged the military and government administration of corruption, executing three former leaders ( I. K. Acheampong, A. A. Afrifa, F. W. K. Akuffo) and other senior officers. He introduced civilian rule, but when he was beaten in the elections he soon re-established his own authority in a coup on 31 December 1981. By this time, the once-prosperous colony was all but bankrupt. In 1970–82, Gross Domestic Product declined by 30 per cent per capita, export revenues declined by 50 per cent, and average real income declined by 80 per cent. Revenues from its main export staple, cocoa, declined almost fourfold. Education and literacy levels declined, and the state social security system withered away.

Rawlings appealed to the World Bank for help, and in 1983 introduced a series of economic reforms. These produced one of the highest rates of economic growth in Africa, though this was achieved at an immense social cost of unemployment and poverty. In the early 1990s, therefore, it appeared as though the prescriptions of the IMF and the World Bank to overcome the indebtedness of developing countries were working. However, it was soon apparent that economic and political liberalization, far from complementing each other, appeared to be mutually exclusive. After devising a new democratic constitution in 1992, Rawlings was only able to win the ensuing elections by ‘bribing’ the electorate with large government spending. The economic damage which this caused lasted until the 1996 elections. Creditors were again faced with the choice of supporting the destructive pre-election government spending, to enable the re-election of the market-oriented Rawlings, or risk his defeat against socialist rivals. In late 2000 the oppositional New Patriotic Party won both the parliamentary and the presidential elections, with John Kufuor becoming President in 2001.

Ghana A West African country with a south-facing coast, bounded by the Côte d'Ivoire on the west, Burkina Faso on the north, and Togo on the east.

Physical

Ghana's flat and sandy coast is backed by a rolling plain of scrub and grass, except in the west, where moderate rains produce thick forest. The forest extends northward to the Ashanti plateau, which produces cocoa and tropical hardwoods, as well as manganese, bauxite, and gold.

Economy

The Ghanaian economy is mainly agricultural. Exports are cocoa, gold, and timber. Off-shore oil deposits await development; other mineral extraction includes gold, manganese, diamonds and bauxite. There is some light industry and manufacturing of aluminium. Hydraulic power accounts for much of the country's electricity production.

History

The area now covered by Ghana was composed of several kingdoms in the middle ages. From the late 15th century, the Portuguese and other Europeans began trading with the area, which they called the Gold Coast. It became a centre of the slave trade from the 16th century onwards. British influence gradually predominated. In 1850 the British Colonial Office purchased residual Danish interests in the region and gave some protection to the FANTI Confederation. Inland the area was dominated throughout the 19th century by the ASANTE Confederation. Britain occupied the capital Kumasi after wars with the Ashanti in 1824 and 1874, when the colony of the Gold Coast was established. Further wars against the Ashanti followed in 1896 and 1900. After 1920 economic growth based on mining and the cocoa industry, combined with high standards of mission schooling, produced a sophisticated people demanding home rule. Following World War II, in which many Ghanaians served, there were serious riots in Accra (1948) leading to constitutional discussions. In 1957 the Gold Coast and British Togoland to the east were combined to become the independent Republic of Ghana, under the leadership of Kwame NKRUMAH, the first British African colony to be granted independence. Nkrumah transformed the country into a one-party state. Economic problems and resentment over political repression and mismanagement led to his overthrow by the army in 1966. Since his fall continuing economic and political problems have unbalanced Ghana. After a succession of coups, a group of junior officers under Flight-Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings (1942– ) took power in 1979, executed three former heads of state, and installed a civilian government. When this failed, Rawlings again seized power (December 1981), suspending the constitution and establishing a Provisional National Defence Council, with himself as Chairman. During the 1980s with IMF support it regained some economic and political stability, but western aid donors demanded a move to restore democracy. A Movement for Freedom and Justice developed, and a new Constitution was adopted in April 1992, legalizing political parties. In November 1992 Rawlings was victorious in multiparty presidential elections, but opposition parties contested the result. In 1993 Rawlings was sworn in as President; he was re-elected in 1996.

Ghana

Climate and Vegetation

Accra has a tropical climate, yet is cooler than many equatorial areas. Rain falls throughout the year, especially heavily in the sw. The n is warmer than the s. The winter months (November–March) have a low average rainfall. Tropical savanna dominates the coastal region and the far n. Rainforest covers most of the central region.

History and Politics

Various African kingdoms existed in the region before the arrival of Portuguese explorers in 1471, who named it the Gold Coast after its precious mineral resource. In 1642, the Dutch gained control, and the Gold Coast became a centre of the 17th-century slave trade. Following the abolition of slavery (1860s), the European powers withdrew with the advance of Ashanti. In 1874, Britain colonized the region excluding Ashanti, which fell in 1901. The British began to develop the cacao plantations.

After World War II, nationalist demands intensified and Kwame Nkrumah became prime minister in 1951 elections. In 1957, Ghana became the first African colony to gain full independence. British Togoland was incorporated into the new state. The country was renamed Ghana after a powerful, medieval West African kingdom.

In 1960, Ghana became a republic with Nkrumah as its president. In 1964, it became a one-party state. The economy slumped, burdened by debt, corruption, and the falling cacao price. In 1966, a military coup deposed Nkrumah. From 1969 to 1972, Ghana briefly returned to civilian rule under Kufi Busa.

In 1972 Colonel Ignatius Acheampong overthrew Busa and re-established military rule. In 1978 General Frederick Akuffo replaced Acheampong. In 1979, Flight-Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings overthrew the NRC, and executed Acheampong and Akuffo on charges of corruption. Hilla Limann formed a civilian administration, but weak government and economic recession led Rawlings to overthrow Limann in 1981. Rawlings privatized many state industries.

Rawlings became president in multiparty elections in 1992. In 1994, more than 1000 people died in ethnic clashes between the Konkomba and Nanumba in Ghana's Northern Region. Rawlings was re-elected in 1996, but defeated in 2000 elections by John Kufuor, leader of the New Patriotic Party.

Economy

Ghana is a low-income developing country (2000 GDP per capita, US$1900). Agriculture employs 59% of the workforce and accounts for more than 66% of exports. Ghana is the world's fifth-largest producer of cocoa beans. Other cash crops include coffee, coconuts, and palm kernels. Minerals are the second-largest export. Ghana is the world's tenth-largest producer of manganese. The Ashanti Goldfields Corporation is one of the world's largest producers. Timber is also an important export. Ghana's economy grew significantly at the end of the 20th century.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.ghana.gov.gh

Ghana Gold Coast The Republic of Ghana since 1960, the name Ghana being adopted in 1957 when the Gold Coast became independent, the first of the UK's African colonies to become so. At this time British Togoland (the western third of German Togoland, which had become separate British and French League of Nations mandates in 1919) joined the new Ghana. The Gold Coast, named Costa do Ouro by the Portuguese when they established trading posts along the coast at the end of the 15th century, became a British crown colony in 1874; Ashanti became a crown colony in 1902 while the Northern Territories became a protectorate on the same day. The name comes from an old and extensive empire, Ghana, to the north of modern Ghana, now Mali and Mauritania. This disintegrated in the 13th century and the clans migrated southwards. The actual word Ghana may be the title assumed by a tribal chieftain of the old empire, meaning ‘king’ or ‘sovereign’.

Ghana. Formerly the Gold Coast, British west African colony and protectorate. British traders became interested in the Gold Coast in the second half of the 17th cent., attracted by the trade in gold and, increasingly, in slaves for the Americas. As the campaign against the slave trade strengthened in the 19th cent., British policy towards the Gold Coast vacillated until, in the face of competition from other European countries, it was decided to establish a crown colony in 1874. Friction between the ethnic groups within the colony and those in the interior induced Britain to declare a protectorate over the hinterland in 1901. The development of cocoa as an export crop brought prosperity to the country and made possible the expansion of European education there. The Gold Coast then became the leader in the nationalist movement in the British African dependencies and gained its independence, as Ghana, in 1957.

Kenneth Ingham

Ghana

Culture Name

Ghanaian

Alternative Name

Formally known as the Republic of Ghana

Orientation

Identification. Ghana, formerly the British colony of the Gold Coast, assumes a special prominence as the first African country to acquire independence from European rule. Ghanaian politicians marked this important transition by replacing the territory's colonial label with the name of a great indigenous civilization of the past. While somewhat mythical, these evocations of noble origins, in combination with a rich cultural heritage and a militant nationalist movement, have provided this ethnically diverse country with unifying symbols and a sense of common identity and destiny. Over forty years of political and economic setbacks since independence have tempered national pride and optimism. Yet, the Ghanaian people have maintained a society free from serious internal conflict and continue to develop their considerable natural, human, and cultural resources.

Location and Geography. Ghana is located on the west coast of Africa, approximately midway between Senegal and Cameroon. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Burkina Faso, Togo, and the Atlantic Ocean. The land surface of 92,100 square miles (238,540 square kilometers) is dominated by the ancient Precambrian shield, which is rich in mineral resources, such as gold and diamonds. The land rises gradually to the north and does not reach an altitude of more than 3,000 feet (915 meters). The Volta River and its basin forms the major drainage feature; it originates in the north along two widely dispersed branches and flows into the sea in the eastern part of the country near the Togolese border. The Volta has been dammed at Akosombo, in the south, as part of a major hydroelectric project, to form the Lake Volta. Several smaller rivers, including the Pra and the Tano, drain the regions to the west. Highland areas occur as river escarpments, the most extensive of which are the Akwapim-Togo ranges in the east, the Kwahu escarpment in the Ashanti region, and the Gambaga escarpment in the north.

Ghana's subequatorial climate is warm and humid, with distinct alternations between rainy summer and dry winters. The duration and amount of rainfall decreases toward the north, resulting in a broad differentiation between two regions— southern rain forest and northern savanna—which form distinct environmental, economic, and cultural zones. The southern forest is interrupted by a low-rainfall coastal savanna that extends from Accra eastward into Togo.

Demography. The population in 2000 was approximately 20 million and was growing at a rate of 3 percent per year. Approximately two-thirds of the people live in the rural regions and are involved in agriculture. Settlement is concentrated within the "golden triangle," defined by the major southern cities of Accra (the capital), Kumasi, and Sekondi-Takoradi. Additional concentrations occur in the northernmost districts, especially in the northeast. The population is almost exclusively African, as Ghana has no history of intensive European settlement. There is a small Lebanese community, whose members settled in the country as traders. Immigration from other African countries, notably Burkina Faso, Togo, Liberia, and Nigeria, is significant. Some of the better established immigrant groups include many Ghanaian-born members, who are nevertheless classified as "foreign" according to Ghana's citizenship laws.

Linguistic Affiliation. Ghana's national language is English, a heritage of its former colonial status. It is the main language of government and instruction. Ghanaians speak a distinctive West African version of English as a standard form, involving such usages as chop (eat) and dash (gift). English is invariably a second language. Mother tongues include over sixty indigenous languages. Akan is the most widely spoken and has acquired informal national language status. In addition to the large number of native speakers, many members of other groups learn Akan as a second language and use it fluently for intergroup communication. Ga-Adangme and Ewe are the next major languages. Hausa, a Nigerian language, is spoken as a trade language among peoples from the north. Many Ghanaians are multilingual, speaking one or two indigenous languages beside their native dialects and English. Although Ghana is bounded by francophone nations on all sides, few Ghanaians are proficient in French.

Symbolism. As a relatively new nation, Ghana has not developed an extensive tradition of collective symbols. Its most distinctive emblems originated in the nationalist movement. The most prominent is the black star, which evokes black pride and power and a commitment to pan-African unity, which were central themes for mobilizing resistance against British rule. It is featured on the flag and the national coat of arms, and in the national anthem. It is also the name of Ghana's soccer team and is proudly displayed in Black Star Square, a central meeting point in the capital. Other important symbols derive from Akan traditions that have become incorporated into the national culture. These include the ceremonial sword, the linguist's staff, the chief's stool, and the talking drum. Ghanaian national dress, kente cloth, is another source of common identity and pride. It is handwoven into intricate patterns from brilliantly colored silk. Men drape it around their bodies and women wear it as a two-pieced outfit. The main exports—gold and cocoa—also stand as identifying symbols.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. Ghana is a colonial creation, pieced together from numerous indigenous societies arbitrarily consolidated, and sometimes divided, according to European interests. There is no written documentation of the region's past prior to European contact. By the time the Portuguese first established themselves on the coast in the fifteenth century, kingdoms had developed among various Akan-speaking and neighboring groups and were expanding their wealth, size, and power. The Portuguese quickly opened a sea route for the gold trade, and the emergence of the "Gold Coast" quickly attracted competition from Holland, England, France, and other European countries. With the development of American plantation systems, slaves were added to the list of exports and the volume of trade expanded. The Ashanti kingdom emerged as the preeminent Akan political force and established its rule over several neighboring groups and into the northern savanna. Some indigenous states on the margins of Ashanti expansion, such as Akim and Akwapem, retained their independence. Coastal peoples were able to resist conquest through alliances with European powers.

In the nineteenth century, England assumed dominance on the coast and developed a protectorate over the local African communities. England came into conflict with Ashanti over coastal expansion and the continuation of the slave trade. At the end of the nineteenth century, it defeated Ashanti and established the colony of the Gold Coast, including the coastal regions, Ashanti, and the Northern Territories beyond. The boundaries of this consolidation, which included many previously separate and independent kingdoms and tribal communities, were negotiated by the European powers to suit their strategic and economic interests. After 1918, England further complicated this arrangement by annexing the trans-Volta region from German Togoland as a spoil of World War I.

The colony was administered under the system of indirect rule, in which the British controlled affairs at the national level but organized local control through indigenous rulers under the supervision of colonial district commissioners. Western investment, infrastructure, and institutional development were concentrated in the urban complexes that emerged within the coastal ports. Educational and employment opportunities were created for Africans, mostly from coastal communities, but only for the purpose of staffing the lower echelons of the public and commercial sectors. The rural masses were disadvantaged by the colonial regime and the exactions of their chiefs but gained some degree of wealth and local development through the growth of a lucrative export trade in cocoa, especially in the forest zone. The north received little attention.

Resistance to British rule and calls for independence were initiated from the onset of colonial rule. Indigenous rulers formed the initial core of opposition, but were soon co-opted. The educated Westernized coastal elite soon took up the cause, and the independence movement remained under their control until the end of World War II. After the war, nationalists formed the United Gold Coast Convention and tried to broaden their base and take advantage of mass unrest that was fed by demobilization, unemployment, and poor commodity prices. They brought in Kwame Nkrumah, a former student activist, to lead this campaign. Nkrumah soon broke ranks with his associates and formed a more radical movement though the Convention People's Party. He gained mass support from all parts of the colony and initiated strikes and public demonstrations that landed him in jail but finally forced the British to grant independence. The Gold Coast achieved home rule in 1951. On 6 March 1957 it became the self-governing country of Ghana, the first sub-Saharan colony to gain independence. In the succeeding decades, Ghana experienced a lot of political instability, with a series of coups and an alternation between civilian and military regimes.

National Identity. In spite of its disparate origins and arbitrary boundaries, Ghana has developed a modest degree of national coherence. British rule in itself provided a number of unifying influences, such as the use of English as a national language and a core of political, economic, and service institutions. Since independence, Ghanaian leaders have strengthened national integration, especially through the expansion of the educational system and the reduction of regional inequalities. They have also introduced new goals and values through the rhetoric of the independence movement, opposition to "neo-colonialist" forces, and advocacy of pan-Africanism. A second set of common traditions stem from indigenous cultures, especially from the diffusion of Akan institutions and symbols to neighboring groups.

Ethnic Relations. Ghana contains great diversity of ethnic groups. The Akan are the most numerous, consisting of over 40 percent of the population. They are followed by the Ewe, Ga, Adangme, Guan, and Kyerepong in the south. The largest northern groups are the Gonja, Dagomba, and Mamprussi, but the region contains many small decentralized communities, such as the Talensi, Konkomba, and Lowiili. In addition, significant numbers of Mossi from Burkina Faso have immigrated as agricultural and municipal workers. Nigerian Hausa are widely present as traders.

Intergroup relations are usually affable and Ghana has avoided major ethnic hostilities and pressure for regional secession. A small Ewe separatist movement is present and some localized ethnic skirmishes have occurred among small communities in the north, mostly over boundary issues. There is, however, a major cultural divide between north and south. The north is poorer and has received less educational and infrastructural investment. Migrants from the region, and from adjoining areas of Burkina Faso, Togo, and Nigeria typically take on menial employment or are involved in trading roles in the south, where they occupy segregated residential wards called zongos. Various forms of discrimination are apparent.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Although Ghana is primarily a rural country, urbanization has a long tradition within indigenous and modern society. In the south the traditional settlement was a nucleated townsite that served as a king's or a chief's administrative base and housed the agricultural population, political elite, and occupational specialists. In precolonial times, populations in these centers ranged from a few hundred to several thousand in a major royal capital, such as Kumasi, which is now Ghana's second largest city. Traditional political nodes also served economic functions concentrated in open-air marketplaces, which still constitute a central feature of traditional and modern towns. Housing consists of a one-story group of connected rooms arranged in a square around a central courtyard, which serves as the primary focus of domestic activity. The chief's or king's palace is an enlarged version of the basic household. Settlement in the north follows a very different pattern of dispersed farmsteads.

The British administration introduced Western urban infrastructures, mainly in the coastal ports, such as Accra, Takoradi, and Cape Coast, a pattern that postcolonial governments have followed. Thus central districts are dominated by European-style buildings, modified for tropical conditions. Neither regime devoted much attention to urban planning or beautification, and city parks or other public spaces are rare. Accra contains two notable monuments: Black Star Square and the Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum, symbols of Ghana's commitment to independence and African unity.

Much of the vibrancy of urban life is due to the incorporation of indigenous institutions, especially within the commercial sector. Commerce is dominated by open-air markets, such as the huge Markola market in Accra, where thousands of traders offer local and imported goods for sale. Although the very wealthy have adopted Western housing styles, most urban Ghanaians live in traditional dwellings, in which renters from a variety of backgrounds mingle in central courtyards in much the same way that family members do in traditional households. Accordingly, marketplaces and housing compounds provide the predominant settings for public interaction.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. The basic diet consists of a starchy staple eaten with a soup or stew. Forest crops, such as plantain, cassava, cocoyam (taro), and tropical yams, predominate in the south. Corn is significant, especially among the Ga, and rice is also popular. The main dish is fufu, pounded plantain or tubers in combination with cassava. Soup ingredients include common vegetables and some animal protein, usually fish, and invariably, hot peppers. Palm nut and peanut soups are special favorites. The main cooking oil is locally produced red palm oil. The northern staple is millet, which is processed into a paste and eaten with a soup as well. Indigenous diets are eaten at all social levels, even by the Westernized elite. Bread is the only major European introduction and is often eaten at breakfast. Restaurants are not common outside of urban business districts, but most local "chop bars" offer a range of indigenous dishes to workers and bachelors. People frequently snack on goods offered for sale by street hawkers.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Most households raise chickens and dwarf goats, which are reserved for special occasions, such as christenings, weddings, traditional festivals, and Christmas. Among the Akan, the main indigenous celebration is odwira, a harvest rite, in which new yams are presented to the chief and eaten in public and domestic feasts. The Ga celebrate homowo, another harvest festival, which is marked by eating kpekpele, made from mashed corn and palm oil. Popular drinks include palm wine, made from the fermented sap of the oil palm, and home-brewed millet beer. Bottled European-style beer is widely consumed. Imported schnapps and whiskey have important ceremonial uses as libations for royal and family ancestors.

Basic Economy. Ghana's position in the international economy reflects a heavy dependence on primary product exports, especially cocoa, gold, and timber. International trade accounts for one-third of gross domestic product (GDP), and 70 percent of export income is still derived from the three major commodities. The domestic economy is primarily agricultural with a substantial service and trading sector. Industrial production comprises only 10 percent of national output, and consumers are heavily dependent upon imported manufactures as well as petroleum imports.

Land Tenure and Property. Traditional land use patterns were organized around a slash-and-burn system in which crops were grown for two or three years and then fallowed for much longer periods. This system fostered communal land tenure systems, in which a large group, usually the lineage, held the land in trust for its members and allocated usufruct rights on demand. In the south, reserved lands, known as stool lands, were held by the chief for the wider community. The stool also held residual rights in lineage-owned land, for instance a claim on any gold found. In the north, communal rights were invested in a ritual figure, the tendana, who assumed the ultimate responsibility for agriculture rituals and land allocation.

In modern times, land tenure has been widely affected by cocoa farming and other commercial uses, which involve a permanent use of the land and a substantial expansion in demand for new plots. Land sales and long-term leases have developed in some areas, often on stool reserves. Purchased lands are considered private rather than family or communal property and activate a different inheritance pattern, since they can be donated or willed without reference to the standard inheritance rule.

Government regulation of land title has normally deferred to traditional arrangements. Currently, a formally constituted Lands Commission manages government-owned lands and gold and timber reserve leases and theoretically has the right to approve all land transfers. Nevertheless, most transactions are still handled informally according to traditional practice.

Commercial Activities. While strongly export oriented, Ghanaian farmers also produce local foods for home consumption and for a marketing system that has developed around the main urban centers. Rural household activities also include some food processing, including palm oil production. The fishery is quite important. A modern trawler fleet organizes the offshore catch and supplies both the domestic and overseas markets. Small-scale indigenous canoe crews dominate the inshore harvest and supply the local markets. Traditional crafts have also had a long tradition of importance for items such as pottery, handwoven cloth, carved stools, raffia baskets, and gold jewelry. There are also many tailors and cabinetmakers.

Major Industries. Manufactured goods are dominated by foreign imports, but some local industries have developed, including palm oil milling, aluminum smelting, beer and soft drink bottling, and furniture manufacturing. The service sector is dominated by the government on the high end and the small-scale sector, sometimes referred to as the "informal sector," on the low end. Education and health care are the most important public services. Transport is organized by small-scale owner-operators. Construction is handled by the public, private, or small-scale sector depending upon the nature of the project.

Trade. Cocoa is grown by relatively small-scale indigenous farmers in the forest zone and is exclusively a commercial crop. It is locally marketed through private licensed traders and exported through a public marketing board. Gold is produced by international conglomerates with some Ghanaian partnership. Much of the income from this trade is invested outside the country. Timber is also a large-scale formal-sector enterprise, but there is a trend toward developing a furniture export industry among indigenous artisans. Other exports include fish, palm oil, rubber, manganese, aluminum, and fruits and vegetables. Internal trade and marketing is dominated by small-scale operations and provides a major source of employment, especially for women.

Division of Labor. Formal sector jobs, especially within the public service, are strictly allocated on the basis of educational attainment and paper qualifications. Nevertheless, some ethnic divisions are noticeable. Northerners, especially Mossi, and Togolese hold the more menial positions. Hausa are associated with trade. Kwahu are also heavily engaged in trade and also are the main shopkeepers. Ga and Fante form the main fishing communities, even along the lakes and rivers removed from their coastal homelands. Age divisions are of some importance in the rural economy. Extended family heads can expect their junior brothers, sons, and nephews to assume the major burdens of manual labor.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Ghana's stratification system follows both precolonial and modern patterns. Most traditional kingdoms were divided into three hereditary classes: royals, commoners, and slaves. The royals maintained exclusive rights to fill the central offices of king and, for Akan groups, queen mother. Incumbents acquired political and economic privileges, based on state control over foreign trade. Unlike European nobilities, however, special status was given only to office-holders and not their extended families, and no special monopoly over land was present. Moreover, royals regularly married commoners, a consequence of a rule of lineage out-marriage. Freemen held a wide variety of rights, including unhampered control over farm land and control over subordinate political positions. Slavery occurred mainly as domestic bondage, in which a slave could command some rights, including the ability to marry a nonslave and acquire property. Slaves were also used by the state for menial work such as porterage and mining.

Slavery is no longer significant. Traditional royalties are still recognized but have been superseded by Westernized elites. Contemporary stratification is based on education and, to a lesser degree, wealth, both of which have led to significant social mobility since independence. Marked wealth differences have also emerged, but have been moderated by extended family support obligations and the communal rights that most Ghanaians hold in land. Northerners, however, form a noticeable underclass, occupying low status jobs. Bukinabe and Togolese are especially disadvantaged because, as foreigners, they cannot acquire land.

Symbols of Social Stratification. In traditional practice, kings and other hereditary officials marked their status through the use of regalia, such as umbrellas and staves, and the exclusive right to wear expensive clothing, such as kente cloth, and to consume and distribute special imported goods. In modern times, expenditure on Western consumer items has become the dominant status marker. Clothing, both expensive Western and traditional items, is an important symbol of education and wealth. Luxury cars are also significant—a Mercedes-Benz is the most dominant marker of high rank. Status must also be demonstrated in public display, especially in lavish funerals that acclaim both the deceased and their descendants.

Political Life

Government. Although Ghana's national government was originally founded on a British parliamentary model, the current constitution follows an American tricameral system. The country is a multiparty democracy organized under an elected president, a legislature, and an independent judiciary. It is divided into ten administrative regions, exclusively staffed from the central government. Regions are further subdivided into local districts, organized under district assemblies. The majority of assembly members are elected, but some seats are allocated to traditional hereditary rulers. Chiefs also assume the major responsibility for traditional affairs, including stool land transfers, and are significant actors in local political rituals. They are also represented in the National House of Chiefs, which formulates general policies on traditional issues.

Leadership and Political Officials. Indigenous leaders assume hereditary positions but still must cultivate family and popular support, since several candidates within a descent line normally compete for leadership positions. Chiefs can also be deposed. On the national level, Ghana has been under military rule for a good part of its history, and army leadership has been determined by both rank and internal politics. Civilian leaders have drawn support from a variety of fronts. The first president, Nkrumah, developed a dramatic charisma and gave voice to many unrepresented groups in colonial society. K. A. Busia, who followed him after a military interregnum, represented the old guard and also appealed to Ashanti nationalism. Hillal Limann, the third president, identified himself as an Nkrumahist, acquiring power mainly through the application of his professional diplomatic skills. Jerry Rawlings, who led Ghana for 19 years, acquired power initially through the military and was able to capitalize on his position to prevail in civil elections in 1992 and 1996. He stepped down in 2000, and his party was defeated by the opposition, led by John Kufuor.

Ghana has seven political parties. Rawlings National Democratic Party is philosophically leftist and advocates strong central government, nationalism and pan-Africanism. However, during the major portion of its rule it followed a cautious economic approach and initiated a World Bank structural adjustment, liberalization, and privatization program. The current ruling party (as of 2001) is the New Patriotic Party. It has assumed the mantle of the Busia regime and intends to pursue a more conservative political and economic agenda than the previous regime.

Secular politicians are dependent upon the electorate and are easily approachable without elaborate ceremony. Administrators in the public service, however, can be quite aloof. Traditional Akan chiefs and kings are formally invested with quasi-religious status. Their subjects must greet them by prostrating themselves and may talk to them only indirectly through the chief's "linguist."

Social Problems and Control. The Ghanaian legal system is a mixture of British law, applicable to criminal cases, and indigenous custom for civil cases. The formal system is organized under an independent judiciary headed by a supreme court. Its independence, however, has sometimes been compromised by political interference, and, during Rawling's military rule, by the establishment of separate public tribunals for special cases involving political figures. These excesses have since been moderated, although the tribunal system remains in place under the control of the Chief Justice. Civil cases that concern customary matters, such as land, inheritance, and marriage, are usually heard by a traditional chief. Both criminal and civil laws are enforced by a national police force.

People are generally wary of the judicial system, which can involve substantial costs and unpredictable outcomes. They usually attempt to handle infractions and resolve disputes informally through personal appeal and mediation. Strong extended family ties tend to exercise a restraint on deviant behavior, and family meetings are often called to settle problems before they become public. Marital disputes are normally resolved by having the couple meet with the wife's uncle or father, who will take on the role of a marriage counselor and reunite the parties.

Partially because of the effective informal controls, the level of violent crime is low. Theft is the most common infraction. Smuggling is also rampant, but is not often prosecuted since smugglers regularly bribe police or customs agents.

Military Activity. Ghana's military, composed of about eight thousand members, includes an army and a subordinate navy and air force. There is also the People's Militia, responsible for controlling civil disturbances, and a presidential guard. Government support for these services is maintained at approximately 1 percent of GDP. The army leadership has demonstrated a consistent history of coups and formed the national government for approximately half of the time that the country has been independent. Ghana has not been involved in any wars since World War II and has not suffered any civil violence except for a few localized ethnic and sectarian skirmishes. It has participated in peacekeeping operations, though the United Nations, the Organization of African Unity, and the West African Community. The most recent interventions have been in Liberia and Sierra Leone.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Ghana is a low income country with a per capita GDP of only $400 (U.S.) per year. It has many economic and social problems especially in the areas of employment, housing, health, and sanitation. The major thrust of development policy since 1985 has the World Bank–supported Economic Recovery Program, a structural adjustment strategy to liberalize macroeconomic policy. The core initiatives have been expansion and diversification of export production, reduction of government expenditures, especially in the public service, and privatization of state industries. As part of this program, the government instituted a special project to address the attendant social costs of these policies. It involved attempts to increase employment through public works and private-sector expansion, supported by business loans to small-scale entrepreneurs and laid-off public servants. Women were particularly targeted as beneficiaries.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Ghana has an active Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) sector, with over 900 registered organizations that participate in welfare and development projects in health, education, microfinancing, women's status, family planning, child care, and numerous other areas. The longest standing groups have been church-based organizations and the Red Cross. Most are supported by foreign donors. Urban voluntary associations, such as ethnic and occupational unions, also offer important social and economic assistance.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Gender division varies across different ethnic groups. Among the Akan, women assume the basic domestic and childcare roles. Both genders assume responsibility for basic agriculture production, although men undertake the more laborious tasks and women the more repetitive ones. Women will work on their husbands' farms but will also farm on their own. Traditional craft production is divided according to gender. Men are weavers, carvers, and metalworkers. Women make pottery and engage in food processing. Petty trade, which is a pervasive economic activity, is almost exclusively a woman's occupation. Women independently control any money that they receive from their own endeavors, even though their husbands normally provide the capital funding. Wives, however, assume the main work and financial responsibility for feeding their husbands and children and for other child-care expenses.

Akan women also assume important social, political, and ritual roles. Within the lineage and extended family, female elders assume authority, predominantly over other women. The oldest women are considered to be the ablest advisers and the repositories of family histories.

Among the Ga and Adangme, women are similarly responsible for domestic chores. They do not do any farmwork, however, and are heavily engaged in petty trade. Ga women are especially prominent traders as they control a major portion of the domestic fish industry and the general wholesale trade for Accra, a Ga homeland. Northern and Ewe women, on the other hand, have fewer commercial opportunities and assume heavier agricultural responsibilities in addition to their housekeeping chores.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. In traditional society, women had considerable economic and political powers which derived in part from their ability to control their own income and property without male oversight. Among the matrilineal Akan they also regularly assumed high statuses within the lineage and the kingdom, even though their authority was often confined to women's affairs. Colonialism and modernization has changed women's position in complex ways. Women have retained and expanded their trading opportunities and can sometimes acquire great wealth through their businesses. Men have received wider educational opportunities, however, and are better represented in government and formal sector employment. A modest women's movement has developed to address gender differences and advance women's causes.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Tradition dictates that family elders arrange the marriages of their dependents. People are not allow to marry within their lineages, or for the Akan, their wider clan groups. There is a preference, however, for marriage between cross-cousins (children of a brother and sister). The groom's family is expected to pay a bride-price. Polygyny is allowed and attests to the wealth and power of men who can support more than one wife. Chiefs mark their status by marrying dozens of women. Having children is the most important focus of marriage and a husband will normally divorce an infertile wife. Divorce is easily obtained and widespread, as is remarriage. Upon a husband's death, his wife is expected to marry his brother, who also assumes responsibility for any children.

The spread of Western values and a cash economy have modified customary marriage patterns. Christians are expected to have only one wife. Monogamy is further supported by the ability of men to marry earlier than they could in traditional society because of employment and income opportunities in the modern sector. Young men and women have also been granted greater latitude to choose whom they marry. Accordingly, the incidence of both polygyny and cousin marriage is low. There is, however, a preference for marriages within ethnic groups, especially between people from the same town of origin.

Domestic Unit. The basic household group is formed on a complex set of traditional and contemporary forces. Akan custom allows for a variety of forms. The standard seems to have been natalocal, a system in which each spouse remained with his or her family of origin after marriage. Children would remain with their mothers and residential units would consist of generations of brothers, sisters, and sisters' children. Wives, however, would be linked to their husbands economically. Men were supposed to provide support funds and women were supposed to cook for their husbands. Alternative forms were also present including avunculocal residence, in which a man would reside with his mother's brother upon adulthood, and patrilocality, in which children would simply remain with their fathers upon adulthood. In all of these arrangements men would assume the basic role of household head, but women had some power especially if they were elderly and had many younger women under their authority.

The Akan domestic arrangements are based on matrilineal principles. All other Ghanaian ethnic groups are patrilineal and tend toward patrilocal residence. The Ga, however, have developed an interesting pattern of gender separation. Men within a lineage would live in one structure, and their wives and unmarried female relatives would live in a nearby one. In the north, patrilocal forms were complicated by a high incidence of polygynous marriage. A man would assign a separate hut to each of his wives, and, after their sons married, to each of their wives. The man would act has household head but delegate much of the domestic management to his wives, especially senior wives with several daughters-in-law.

Modern forces have influenced changes in domestic forms. Western values, wage employment, and geographical mobility have led to smaller and more flexible households. Nuclear families are now more numerous. Extended family units are still the rule, but they tend to include relatives on an ad hoc basis rather than according to a fixed residence rule. Sibling bonds are strong, and household heads will often include younger brothers and sisters and nieces and nephews from either side of the family within their domestic units. They may also engage resident domestic help, who are often relatives but may come from other families. Important economic bonds continue to unite extended kin who live in separate physical dwellings but still share responsibilities to assist one another and sometimes engage in joint enterprises.

Inheritance. Most Ghanaian inheritance systems share two features: a distinction between family and individual property and a preference for siblings over children as heirs. Among the matrilineal Akan, family property is inherited without subdivision, in the first instance by the oldest surviving brother. When the whole generation of siblings dies out, the estate then goes to the eldest sister's eldest son. Women can also inherit, but there is a preference for men's property to pass on to other men and women's to other women. Private property can be passed on to wives and children of the deceased through an oral or written will. In most cases, it will be divided equally among wives, children, and matrilineal family members. Private property passed on to a child remains private. If it is inherited within the matrilineage, it becomes family property. Among patrilineal groups, sibling inheritance applies as well, but the heir will be expected to support the children of the deceased. If he assumes responsibility for several adult nephews he will invariably share the estate with them.

Kin Groups. Localized, corporate lineage groups are the basic units of settlement, resource ownership, and social control. Among the Akan, towns and villages are comprised of distinct wards in which matrilineal descendants (abusua ) of the same ancestress reside. Members of this group jointly own a block of farmland in which they hold hereditary tenure rights. They usually also own the rights to fill an office in the settlement's wider administration. The royal lineage holds title to the chief's and queen mother's position. Lineages have an internal authority structure under the male lineage elder (abusua panyin ), who decides on joint affairs with the assistance of other male and female elders. The lineage is also a ritual unit, holding observances and sacrifices for its important ancestors. Patrilineal groups in Ghana attach similar economic, political, and ritual importance to the lineage system.

Socialization

Infant Care. Young children are treated with affection and indulgence. An infant is constantly with its mother, who carries it on her back wrapped in a shawl throughout the day. At night it sleeps with its parents. Breast-feeding occurs on demand and may continue until the age of two. Toilet training and early discipline are relaxed. Babies receive a good deal of stimulation, especially in social contexts. Siblings, aunts, uncles, and other relatives take a keen interest in the child and often assume caretaking responsibilities, sometimes on an extended basis.

Child Rearing and Education. Older children receive considerably less pampering and occupy the bottom of an age hierarchy. Both boys and girls are expected to be respectful and obedient and, more essentially, to take significant responsibilities for domestic chores, including tending their younger siblings. They are also expected to defer to adults in a variety of situations.

Coming of age is marked within many Ghanaian cultures by puberty ceremonies for girls that must be completed before marriage or childbirth. These are celebrated on an individual rather than a group basis. Boys have no corresponding initiation or puberty rites. Most children attend primary school, but secondary school places are in short supply. The secondary system is based mainly on boarding schools in the British tradition and resulting fees are inhibitive. Most adolescents are engaged in helping on the farm or in the family business in preparation for adult responsibilities. Many enter apprenticeships in small business operations in order to learn a trade. The less fortunate take on menial employment, such as portering, domestic service, or roadside hawking.

Higher Education. Only a tiny percentage of the population has the opportunity to enter a university or similar institution. University students occupy a high status and actively campaign, sometimes through strikes, to maintain their privileges. Graduates can normally expect high-paying jobs, especially in the public sector. Attendance at overseas institutions is considered particularly prestigious.

Etiquette

Ghanaians place great emphasis on politeness, hospitality, and formality. Upon meeting, acquaintances must shake hands and ask about each other's health and families. Visitors to a house must greet and shake hands with each family member. They are then seated and greeted in turn by all present. Hosts must normally provide their guests with something to eat and drink, even if the visit does not occur at a mealtime. If a person is returning from or undertaking a long journey, a libation to the ancestors is usually poured. If someone is eating, he or she must invite an unexpected visitor to join him or her. Normally, an invitation to eat cannot be refused.

Friends of the same age and gender hold hands while walking. Great respect is attached to age and social status. A younger person addresses a senior as father or mother and must show appropriate deference. It is rude to offer or take an object or wave with the left hand. It is also rude to stare or point at people in public. Such English words as "fool(ish)," "silly," or "nonsense," are highly offensive and are used only in extreme anger.

Religion

Religious Beliefs. Christianity, Islam, and traditional African religions claim a roughly equal number of adherents. Christians and Muslims, however, often follow some forms of indigenous practice, especially in areas that do not directly conflict with orthodox belief. Moreover, some Christian sects incorporate African elements, such as drumming, dancing, and possession.

Traditional supernatural belief differs according to ethnic group. Akan religion acknowledges many spiritual beings, including the supreme being, the earth goddess, the higher gods (abosom ), the ancestors, and a host of spirits and fetishes. The ancestors are perhaps the most significant spiritual force. Each lineage reveres its important deceased members both individually and collectively. They are believed to exist in the afterlife and benefit or punish their descendants, who must pray and sacrifice to them and lead virtuous lives. Ancestral beliefs are also built into political rites, as the ancestors of the royal lineage, especially deceased kings and chiefs, serve as major foci for general public observance.

Religious Practitioners. The abosom are served by priests and priestess (akomfo ), who become possessed by the god's spirit. In this state, they are able to divine the causes of illnesses and misfortunes and to recommend sacrifices and treatments to remedy them. They have also played an important role in Akan history. Okomfo Anokye was a priest who brought down the golden stool, the embodiment of the Ashanti nation, from heaven. Lesser priests and priestesses serve the shrines of fetishes, minor spirits, and focus on cures and magic charms. Family elders also assume religious functions in their capacity as organizers of ancestral rites. Chiefs form the focus of rituals for the royal ancestors and assume sacred importance in their own right as quasi-divine beings.

Other ethnic groups also worship through the intercession of priests and chiefs. Ga observances focus on the wulomei, the priests of the ocean, inlets, and lagoons. Their prayers and sacrifices are essential for successful fishing and they serve as advisers to Ga chiefs. In the modern context, the Nai Wulomo, the chief priest, assumes national importance because of his responsibility for traditional ritual in Accra, Ghana's capital. In the north, the tendana, priests of the earth shrines, have been the key figures of indigenous religion. They are responsible for making sacrifices for offenses against the earth, including murder, for rituals to maintain land productivity, and for allocating unowned land.

Rituals and Holy Places. The most important rituals revolve around the cycle of ancestral and royal observances. The main form is the adae ceremony, in which prayers are made to the ancestors through the medium of carved stools that they owned in their lifetimes. These objects are kept in a family stool house and brought out every six weeks, when libations are poured and animals sacrificed. Royal stools are afforded special attention. The adae sequence culminates in the annual odwira festival, when the first fruits of the harvest are given to the abosom and the royal ancestors in large public ceremonies lasting several days. Royal installations and funerals also assume special ritual importance and are marked by sacrifices, drumming, and dancing.

Death and the Afterlife. Death is one of the most important events in society and is marked by most ethnic groups and religions by elaborate and lengthy funeral observances that involve the whole community. People were traditionally buried beneath the floors of their houses, but this custom is now practiced only by traditional rulers, and most people are interred in cemeteries. After death, the soul joins the ancestors in the afterworld to be revered and fed by descendants within the family. Eventually the soul will be reborn within the same lineage to which it belonged in its past life. People sometimes see a resemblance to a former member in an infant and name it accordingly. They may even apply the relevant kinship term, such as mother or uncle, to the returnee.

Medicine and Health Care

Ghana has a modern medical system funded and administered by the government with some participation by church groups, international agencies, and NGOs. Facilities are scarce and are predominantly located in the cities and large towns. Some dispensaries staffed by nurses or pharmacists have been established in rural areas and have been effective in treating common diseases such as malaria.

Traditional medicine and medical practitioners remain important because of the dearth of public facilities and the tendency for Ghanaians to patronize indigenous and modern systems simultaneously. Customary treatments for disease focus equally on supernatural causes, the psychosociological environment, and medicinal plants. Abosom priests and priestesses deal with illness through prayer, sacrifice, divination, and herbal cures. Keepers of fetish shrines focus more heavily on magical charms and herbs, which are cultivated in a garden adjoining the god's inclosure. More secularly oriented herbalists focus primarily on medicinal plants that they grow, gather from the forest, or purchase in the marketplace. Some members of this profession specialize in a narrow range of conditions, for example, bonesetters, who make casts and medicines for broken limbs.

Some interconnections between the modern and traditional systems have developed. Western trained doctors generally adopt a preference for injections in response to the local belief that medicines for the most serious diseases must be introduced into the blood. They have also been investigating the possible curative efficacy of indigenous herbs, and several projects for developing new drugs from these sources have been initiated.

Secular Celebrations

Aside from the major Christian and Islamic holidays, Ghana celebrates New Year's Day, Independence Day (6 March), Worker's Day (1 May), Republic Day (1 July), and Revolution Day (31 December). New Year's Day follows the usually western pattern of partying. Independence Day is the main national holiday celebrating freedom from colonial rule and is marked by parades and political speeches. The remaining holidays are also highly politicized and provide forums for speeches by the major national leaders. Revolution Day is especially important for the ruling party as it marks the anniversary of Rawlings' coup.

The Arts and the Humanities

Support for the Arts. The arts are primarily self supporting, but there are some avenues of government financing and sponsorship. The publically funded University of Ghana, through the Institute for African Studies, provides a training ground for artists, especially in traditional music and dance, and hosts an annual series of public performances. The government also regularly hosts pan-African arts festivals, such as PANAFEST, and sends Ghanaian artists and performers to similar celebrations in other African countries.

Literature. While there is a small body of written literature in indigenous languages, Ghanaians maintain a rich oral tradition, both through glorification of past chiefs and folktales enjoyed by popular audiences. Kwaku Ananse, the spider, is an especially well-known folk character, and his clever and sometimes self-defeating exploits have been sources of delight across generations. Literature in English is well developed and at least three authors, Ayi Kwei Armah, and Efua Sutherland, and Ama Ata Aiddo, have reached international audiences.

Graphic Arts. Ghana is known for a rich tradition of graphic arts. Wood carving is perhaps the most important. The focus of the craft is on the production of stools that are carved whole from large logs to assume the form of abstract designs or animals. These motifs generally represent proverbial sayings. The stools are not merely mundane items, but become the repositories of the souls of their owners after death and objects of family veneration. Carving is also applied to the production of staves of traditional office, drums, dolls, and game boards. Sculpting in metal is also important and bronze and iron casting techniques are used to produce gold weights and ceremonial swords. Ghanaians do not make or use masks, but there are some funerary effigies in clay. Pottery is otherwise devoted to producing simple domestic items. Textiles are well developed, especially handwoven kente, and stamped adinkra cloths.

Most of the traditional crafts involve artists who work according to standardized motifs to produce practical or ceremonial items. Purely aesthetic art is a modern development and there is only a small community of sculptors and painters who follow Western models of artistic production.

Performance Arts. Most performances occur in the context of traditional religious and political rites, which involve intricate drumming and dancing. While these are organized by trained performers, a strong emphasis on audience participation prevails. Modern developments have encouraged the formation of professional troupes, who perform on public occasions, at international festivals, and in theaters and hotel lounges. The University of Ghana houses the Ghana Dance Ensemble, a national institution with an international reputation. More popular modern forms focus on high life music, a samba-like dance style, which is played in most urban nightclubs.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Ghana's economy is not able to support a robust research and development infrastructure. Scientific developments are modest and focus on the most critical practical concerns. The major research establishment is located in Ghana's three universities and in government departments and public corporations. Research in the physical sciences is heavily focused on agriculture, particularly cocoa. The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi concentrates on civil and industrial engineering and medicine. The Ministry of Health also has an active research agenda, which is complemented by World Health Organization activities. Social sciences focus on economic and development issues. The Institute for Statistical, Social, and Economic Research at the University of Ghana has conducted numerous surveys on rural and urban production and income patterns and on household economies and child welfare. The government statistical service carries out demographic and economic research into such areas as income distribution and poverty. Demographic issues are also investigated through the Population Impact Project at the University of Ghana. Education research and development forms another major concern and is the focus for activities at Ghana's third higher education facility, the University of Cape Coast.

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Web Sites

Aryeetey, Ernest. "A Diagnostic Study of Research and Technology Development in Ghana," 2000. http://www.oneworld.org/thinktank/rtd/ghana1.htm

—Brian Schwimmer

Ghana , ancient empire, W Africa, in the savanna region of what is now E Senegal, SW Mali, and S Mauritania. The empire was founded c.6th cent. by Soninke peoples and lay astride the trans-Saharan caravan routes. Its capital was Kumbi Salih (in present-day SE Mauritania). It prospered from trade—particularly in salt and gold—and tribute. Internal divisions and an Almoravid invasion (1076) contributed to Ghana's decline, and by the 13th cent. it had disintegrated. Modern Ghana takes its name from the former empire.

Bibliography: See N. Levtzion, Ancient Ghana and Mali 1973).

Ghana Formerly the Gold Coast, British west African colony and protectorate. British traders became interested in the Gold Coast in the second half of the 17th cent., attracted by the trade in gold and, increasingly, in slaves for the Americas. It was decided to establish a crown colony in 1874. The development of cocoa as an export crop brought prosperity to the country and made possible the expansion of European education there. The Gold Coast then became the leader in the nationalist movement in British African dependencies and gained its independence, as Ghana, in 1957.

Ghana

The people of Ghana are called Ghanaians. There are more than twenty-five different languages spoken by the different groups in Ghana. The people who speak Akan people make up more than 50 percent of the population. East of the Volta River, the country was formerly called Togoland and was controlled by the British.

Ghana •Alana, Anna, bandanna, banner, Branagh, canna, canner, Diana, fanner, Fermanagh, Guyana, Hannah, Havana, hosanna, Indiana, Joanna, lanner, Louisiana, manna, manner, manor, Montana, nana, planner, Pollyanna, Rosanna, savannah, scanner, spanner, Susanna, tanner •Abner • Jaffna • Patna • caravanner •Africana, Afrikaner, Americana, ana, banana, Botswana, bwana, cabana, caragana, Christiana, Dana, darner, Edwardiana, garner, Georgiana, Ghana, Gloriana, Guiana, gymkhana, Haryana, iguana, Lana, lantana, liana, Lipizzaner, Ljubljana, Mahayana, mana, mañana, marijuana, nirvana, Oriana, pacarana, piranha, prana, Purana, Rosh Hashana, Santayana, Setswana, sultana, Tatiana, Tijuana, Tirana, tramontana, Tswana, varna, Victoriana, zenana •Gardner • partner •antenna, Avicenna, duenna, henna, Jenna, Jenner, Morwenna, Ravenna, senna, Siena, sienna, tenner, tenor, Vienna •Edna • interregna • Etna • Pevsner