Washington, D.C.

Introduction
Getting There
Getting Around
People
Neighborhoods
History
Government
Public Safety
Economy
Environment
Shoppping
Education
Health Care
Media
Sports
Parks and Recreation
Performing Arts
Libraries and Museums
Tourism
Holidays and Festivals
Famous Citizens
For Further Study

Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America, North America

Founded: 1790; Incorporated: 1790
Location: Potomac and Anacostia Rivers, United States, North America
Motto: Justitia omnibus ("Justice for all")
Flower: American Beauty rose
Time Zone: 7 am Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
Ethnic Composition: White, 32.2%; Black, 65.8%; Asian/Pacific Islander, 1.8%
Elevation: 7–128 m (25–420 ft) above sea level
Latitude and Longitude: 38°89'N, 77°03'W
Climate: Mild winters; hot, muggy summers with high humidity; pleasant fall and spring weather
Annual Mean Temperature: 12.2°C (54.0°F); January 2.0°C (35.6°F); July 25.9°C (78.7°F)
Seasonal Average Snowfall: 5 cm (2 in)
Average Annual Precipitation (total rainfall and melted snow): 99 cm (39 in)
Government: Mayor-council
Weights and Measures: Standard U.S.
Monetary Units: Standard U.S.
Telephone Area Codes: 202
Postal Codes: 20001–99; 20101–04; 20201–99; 20301–34; 20336; 20501–99

1. Introduction

Washington, D.C., the nation's capital, is located on the bank of the Potomac River, between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay. Although it has been the seat of the United States government since 1800, it took over a century until the dream of the city's late-eighteenth-century planners—a sophisticated capital with gracious avenues and classic architecture—was realized. In the twentieth century, Washington became a major nexus of national power and influence. At the dawn of the twenty-first century, it is also a cosmopolitan cultural center that draws millions of visitors annually to such sites as the Smithsonian museums, the Library of Congress, and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, as well as to its historic monuments and government buildings.

2. Getting There

Washington, D.C., is situated along the Potomac River, on the Atlantic coastal plain between the Chesapeake Bay and the Blue Ridge Mountains. It is bordered by Maryland on three sides and by Virginia on the fourth.

Highways

Major interstate routes that access Washington, D.C., include Routes 540 and 50/301 from the east; Routes 7, 50, I-66, and 29/211 from the west; I-270 and I-295 from the north; and Routes 301 and 1 from the south. All other highways reach the city through the Beltway (I-459 and I-95). This heavily traveled and often congested 106-kilometer (66-mile) highway encircling Washington has led to the popular practice of describing events or trends in the capital as "inside the Beltway."

Bus and Railroad Service

With its terminal at First Street N.E. and L Street, Greyhound offers bus service to Washington from almost any point in the nation. Amtrak trains arrive in Washington daily from New York, Boston, Chicago, and Los Angeles (via Chicago). The capital's train depot, the historic and stately Union Station on Massachusetts Avenue, underwent an elaborate restoration in the 1980s and is the site of a three-level mall featuring a variety of shops and restaurants.

Airports

Three airports serve the Washington area—Washington Dulles International Airport, Washington National Airport, and Baltimore-Washington International Airport. Washington National and Baltimore-Washington have recently been renovated, and Dulles airport is in the midst of a major long-term expansion project that will add an underground "people mover" system to transport passengers to and from terminals. All of the major domestic carriers and international carriers, including Air Canada, Air France, British Airways, KLM, Lufthanse, Swissair, and Virgin Atlantic, serve the Washington, D.C., airports. Both Delta Airlines and US Airways operate shuttle flights between Washington and New York City. Frequent weekday service is also available to Boston and Chicago.

Washington D.C. Population Profile

City Proper

Population: 567,000
Area: 159 sq km (61.4 sq mi)
Ethnic composition: 32.2% white; 65.8% black; 1.8% Asian/Pacific Islander
Nicknames: The Capital; The Beltway; The City of Trees

Metropolitan Area

Population: 3,927,000
Description: The District of Columbia and surrounding communities
Area: 16,861 sq km (6,510 sq mi)
World population rank ¹: 61
Percentage of national population ²: 1.4%
Average yearly growth rate: 1.3%
Ethnic composition: 68.1% white; 25.4% black; 6.2% Asian/Pacific Islander

1. The Washington D.C. metropolitan area's rank among the world's urban areas.
2. The percent of the United States' total population living in the Washington D.C. metropolitan area.

Shipping

All three of Washington's airports handle air freight, and the city has a shipping port on the Anacostia and Potomac rivers. Most of its shipping is done, however, through ports in the neighboring states of Maryland and Virginia, in the cities of Baltimore, Norfolk, and Alexandria.

3. Getting Around

Laid out by engineer Pierre L'Enfant (1754–1825), Washington, D.C., was planned as a network of east-west and north-south streets intersected diagonally by wide avenues named for the states. The east-west streets are designated by letters of the alphabet; north-south streets by numbers. The Capitol Building is the central point from which the city is divided into quadrants (Northeast, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest). The 1.6-kilometer-(one-mile-) long National Mall runs westward from the Capitol, bounded by Constitution Avenue on the north and Independence Avenue on the south. Traffic circles, graced by monuments, fountains, and statues, are located at various intersections, with streets radiating outward diagonally from each one.

Bus and Commuter Rail Service

Regional rail and bus service in the Washington area is operated by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA), created in 1967. Ridership in 1998–99 averaged 383,000 rail, 214,000 bus, and 156,000 combined rail-bus trips. The Metrorail commuter rail service operates on 149 kilometers (92.4) miles of rail line and has 78 stations. The bus system operates a fleet 1,314 buses, with 12,000 bus stops and 1,000 bus shelters.

Sightseeing

Organized sightseeing tours of Washington are available on every conceivable mode of transportation—including bus, trolley, helicopter, boat, and even "duck" tours on amphibious vehicles—and including a variety of specific theme tours, such as historic houses and even a popular "Scandal Tour." Some tours include sights somewhat further afield, such as Mount Vernon, Alexandria, and Arlington National Cemetery. A number of boat companies offer cruises of the Potomac River that include narrated tours of the famous sights visible on shore. In addition, many of the capital's historic sights can be toured on foot.

4. People

In 1990, the population of Washington, D.C., was 697,000, with the following racial composition: 65.8 percent black, 32.2 percent white, and 1.8 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, with other groups accounting for percentages of less than one percent. Hispanics (an ethnic rather than a racial designation) accounted for 5.4 percent of the population. The 1994 population estimate was 567,000. The population of the Washington, D.C., Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area was estimated at 4,603,030 as of 1997. The region's racial composition was listed by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1996 as 68.1 percent white, 25.4 percent black, and 6.2 percent Asian/Pacific Islander. Hispanics accounted for 6.8 percent of the metropolitan area population.

5. Neighborhoods

The Adams-Morgan neighborhood, clustered around Eighteenth Street and Columbia Road N.W., is a colorful multi-ethnic community, one of the first in the country to integrate its public schools. With its distinctly Latin atmosphere, it is known for its ethnic grocery stores, street vendors, galleries, shops, and boutiques, and its restaurants feature a wide variety of ethnic cuisine.

Capitol Hill, or "the Hill," includes not just the Capitol itself but also the Library of Congress, the Senate and House Office Buildings, the Folger Shakespeare Library, Union Station, and the Supreme Court Building. Surrounding these buildings is a quiet residential neighborhood of Federal and Civil Warperiod homes, as well as many art galleries, shops, cafes, and restaurants, as well as a farmer's market. Washington's "downtown" is its business district. In addition to the White House and Lafayette Park, it includes government office buildings, shops, restaurants, theaters, hotels, and Washington's Chinatown.

DuPont Circle, located at the intersection of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire avenues, is a popular cultural hot spot that is home to museums, galleries, bookstores (including some open 24 hours a day), and movie theaters, in an atmosphere of aristocratic rowhouses. Historic Georgetown—settled c. 1665, during the Colonial era, before the city of Washington itself—has long been one of the Capital's most upscale neighborhoods and the residence of many leading government figures and other prominent Washingtonians.

The Foggy Bottom area, between the White House and Georgetown, gets its name from the marshlands that were formerly located there. Today it is the site of the State Department, the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, and George Washington University.

The historic Brookland and Shaw communities have been home to many prominent African Americans, including jazz musician Edward "Duke" Ellington (1899–1974), singer Pearl Bailey (1918–1990), and Nobel Peace Prize winner Ralph Bunche (1904–1971).

Embassy Row, on Massachusetts Avenue, is home to most of the capital's 150 foreign embassies, many housed in palatial mansions that are former homes of the Washington social elite.

6. History

In the early years of the Republic, Congress met in more than half a dozen cities before arrangements were made for a permanent capital. The nation's lawmakers eventually proposed the construction of an entirely new city, to be built expressly for the purpose of serving as capital of the fledgling country. The choice of a location necessitated compromises between the different regions of the new country. The Potomac River was settled on as the general region, and George Washington was appointed to select the exact site, to be no larger than 26 square kilometers (ten square miles) in area.

French military engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant was hired to design the city, and in 1791 he laid out the capital's pattern of broad avenues radiating outward from central circles and squares graced by monuments and fountains. Unfortunately, L'Enfant proved difficult to work with; the Frenchman was fired after one year, and his plans were completed by surveyor Andrew Ellicott, with the aid of Benjamin Banneker, an African-American mathematician and astronomer. By 1800 one wing of the Capitol building had been completed. Abandoning the previous capital site in Philadelphia, the Congress moved into its new quarters, and President John Adams moved into the Executive Mansion.

The city was incorporated in 1802, and a local government—whose structure and operations were to change many times over the years—was formed. However, it took many years until the muddy swampland on the shores of the Potomac conformed to the dreams of the city's founders. The city received a major setback soon after its founding when many of its buildings—including the Capitol building and the executive mansion—were burned down by the British in the War of 1812. Citizens were determined to rebuild, however, and the charred walls of the executive residence were painted white, giving the building its present name, the White House.

Development of the region remained slow in the first half of the nineteenth century, and foreign diplomats and other visitors regularly chided the Americans for the provincial nature of their capital city. During the Civil War (1861–65), the capital became an important supply center for the Union army, as well as a medical base and a refuge for former slaves. Wartime traffic doubled the city's population, from 60,000 to 120,000. At the war's end, Washington was also the scene of one of our great national tragedies, as President Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865; president 1860–65) was assassinated while attending a performance at Ford's Theatre in April 1865.

Washington underwent significant improvement in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, thanks largely to the efforts of two men. Alexander "Boss" Shepherd, an influential political figure during the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885; president 1868–77), and governor of the District of Columbia from 1873, was the driving force behind major infrastructure improvements, including street paving and lighting, sewer construction, and the creation of city parks. In the early 1900s, Michigan Senator James McMillan was instrumental in establishing a commission charged with completing the great monuments and public spaces envisioned a century earlier by the city's original planners. The McMillan Commission (which included noted landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted [1822–1903] and architect Charles McKim [1847–1909], among others—was responsible for numerous improvements. The city's park system was expanded; the Lincoln Memorial and other buildings were designed; the Mall was improved; and Union Station was designed and built. In 1910 President William Howard Taft (1857–1930; president 1909–13) appointed a Commission of Fine Arts to design the monuments and fountains called for in the initial plans drawn up by L'Enfant. The construction of public buildings in the capital received a further boost from the creation of the Works Progress Administration during the 1930s.

World War II (1939–45) brought further expansion to the capital, and as the postwar decades unfolded, Washington, now a major urban center, began to experience some of the same problems as its counterparts—crime, budget problems, and flight to the surrounding suburbs. The capital also became a focal point for major public controversies. Thousands marched on Washington to protest racial inequality in 1963 when the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–68) delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech at the Lincoln Memorial; race riots erupted after the assassination of King in 1968; and the city became the scene of massive public demonstrations against the Vietnam War (1954–1975).

Washington's local government has been attended by scandal and controversy with the mayoral terms of Marion Barry, Jr., who was returned to office in 1994 after serving time in prison for drug possession. The city's financial woes, which have brought it to the brink of bankruptcy, have resulted in federal control of its finances since 1995. However, in spite of its problems, Washington remains a vital and much-visited city. It added the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum and the Korean War Veterans Memorial to its roster of major public commemorative sites in the 1990s.

7. Government

The District of Columbia is unique in that it is governed as a city, county, and state all at the same time. Since 1790 the government of the district has alternated between federal and local control. Under the terms of a 1973 charter, the capital is currently governed by a mayor and a 13-member council, both popularly elected. Eight council members are elected from specific wards and the rest at large. However, Congress must still approve all laws passed by the local government, as well as its budget. Residents of Washington, D.C., won the right to vote in presidential elections in 1961 and the right to a single non-voting Congressional delegate in 1970.

8. Public Safety

In 1995, violent crimes reported to police (per 100,000 population) totaled 2,662 and included 65 murders, 53 rapes, 1,239 robberies, and 1,305 aggravated assaults. Property crimes totaled 9,505 and included 1,838 burglaries, 5,827 cases of larceny/theft, and 1,840 motor vehicle thefts.

The District of Columbia Fire Department is composed of 32 engine companies, 16 truck companies, and three heavy-duty rescue squads. The department also operates a hazardous materials unit, an air unit, and two fireboats. Its six battalions protect an area of 179 square kilometers (69 square miles) and a daytime population of more than one million.

9. Economy

In recent decades the private sector has played a growing role in Washington's economy. In the 1990s less than 20 percent of the capital's work force was employed by the federal government. Important contributors to the District's economy include the service sector (which employs one out of every three workers), high-technology companies (for whom the federal government provides the world's largest market), financial institutions, printing and publishing, and telecommunications. The largest non-government employers are George Washington University, the Potomac Electric Power Company, Georgetown University, Howard University, The Washington Post, Bell Atlantic Washington, and the Federal National Mortgage Association. In addition, a substantial segment of the capital's business is conducted by the 1,000-plus special-interest groups and national associations who maintain headquarters there.

10. Environment

The Chesapeake Bay, which dominates the ecology of the Washington, D.C., area, is an estuary (a meeting place for freshwater and saltwater). It occupies a delta composed of some 48 navigable rivers and numerous streams known collectively as the Tidewater. Pollution of the bay has long posed a threat to the regional environment. Historically, the major contaminant was raw sewage; today agricultural runoff and industrial pollutants are causes for concern. Since the 1970s environmental groups, notably Save the Bay and the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, have led the fight to preserve the quality of the Bay's water and the ecological balance of the region.

11. Shopping

The Washington area has a wide variety of stores. The city's major shopping venue is the refurbished Union Station, whose three-level arcade abounds in stores of all kinds, as well as numerous restaurants. During the week, Connecticut Avenue N.W. is also a bustling retail center featuring many major chain stores, from Brooks Brothers and Talbot's to Filene's Basement. Other areas popular with shoppers are Adams-Morgan, with its multicultural atmosphere, fashionable Georgetown, and the shopping district on Upper Wisconsin Avenue N.W., in the residential district known as Friendship Heights (and Chevy Chase on the Maryland side), which features upscale stores including Saks Fifth Avenue, Lord & Taylor, Neiman-Marcus, Tiffany's, and Gianni Versace.

12. Education

Washington, D.C., has a well-educated population—more than 25 percent of the population 25-years-old and over have at least an undergraduate college education. In the fall of 1996 the District of Columbia Public School System enrolled 78,648 students in grades K through 12; 3.9 percent were white, and 96.1 percent belonged to minorities. The school system operated 184 schools with 5,288 teachers; pupil-teacher ratio stood at 14.9 to one, and staff totaled 9,318.

Washington, D.C., is home to a number of well-known colleges and universities, including Georgetown University, the country's oldest Roman Catholic university, renowned for its school of international affairs and other departments; Howard University, which has a distinguished tradition as an educational institution for African Americans; Gallaudet, the world's only liberal arts college for the deaf and hearing impaired; and Johns Hopkins University, known for academic excellence in medicine and other fields.

Other well-known colleges and universities in the Washington, D.C., area include American University, George Washington University, Catholic University, Mount Vernon and Trinity colleges, and the University of the District of Columbia. The capital is also home to a number of licensed technical and trade schools. Nearby Maryland is home to the U.S. Naval Academy and the unique St. John's College, the "Great Books School," which offers a rigorous and unorthodox curriculum of Greek and Latin classics studied in their original languages, as well as great works from later eras.

13. Health Care

The major health-care institution in the Washington, D.C., area is Georgetown University Medical Center, which encompasses a hospital, a physician practice, research facilities, a nursing school, a cancer center, and an institute for neuroscience research. In its centenary year, the university hospital, founded in 1898, had 335 staffed beds and recorded 14,603 admissions and 175,322 outpatient visits. More than 2,000 persons were employed at the facility. Altogether, the healthcare system affiliated with the university offers services by 1,500 providers at 18 facilities in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia.

Children's National Medical Center, an integrated health-care system dedicated solely to treating children, is recognized internationally as a leader in pediatric care. Its medical staff of more than 200 consists of faculty members at the George Washington University School of Medicine.

Washington, D.C., is also home to the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, the U.S. army's largest health-care facility.

In 1995, the Washington, D.C., metropolitan statistical area was served by 9,627 office-based physicians and 42 community hospitals, with a total of 9,836 beds.

14. Media

The capital's major newspaper is the nationally influential Pulitzer Prizewinning Washington Post, which combines local articles with coverage of federal government activities and national issues. In 1998 it had a circulation of 709,578 daily and 1,080,082 on Sunday. Also published daily is the smaller and more conservative Washington Times. The national daily newspaper USA Today is published in nearby Arlington, Virginia. Hundreds of specialized periodicals are published in the Washington, D.C., area. The major regional-interest monthly publication is Washingtonian Magazine.

The capital has six television stations and more than a dozen AM and FM stations. Washington is also the site of National Public Radio's headquarters, from which major news programs, such as Morning Edition and All Things Considered, are broadcast.

15. Sports

The popular Washington Redskins of the National Football League played at Robert F. Kennedy Stadium until 1997 when they moved to the newly completed 78,600-seat Jack Kent Cooke Stadium in suburban Maryland. Washington, D.C., has not had its own major league baseball team since the Senators left for Texas two decades ago, so the area's baseball fans have transferred their allegiance to the Baltimore Orioles of the American League, who play at the historic Camden Yards ball park. In basketball, the Washington Wizards (formerly the Washington Bullets) play at the modern MCI Center in downtown Washington, which is also home to the Washington Capitals hockey team of the NHL.

Georgetown University's basketball team, the Hoyas, has a loyal following among Washingtonians. Washington also has a major league soccer team, DC United, which won the first U.S. national soccer championship in 1996.

16. Parks and Recreation

The Washington, D.C., area has thousands of acres of parkland. East and West Potomac Parks, located on either side of the Tidal Basin, are famous for their cherry trees, which bloom in early spring every year. Altogether, the two parks have more than 3,000 of these trees. The parks also offer facilities for hiking, bicycling, tennis, golf, swimming, and picnicking. Located in West Potomac Park are the Lincoln, Jefferson, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Korean, and Vietnam memorials, a reflecting pool, and a small island inhabited by ducks.

The 708-hectare (1,750-acre) Rock Creek Park, also located within the District of Columbia, stretches from the Potomac River to the Maryland border. The park offers hiking trails, a variety of sports facilities, playgrounds, an amphitheater, and a nature center. Another outdoor venue popular with Washington's residents and visitors is Theodore Roosevelt Island, a wilderness preserve covering 36 hectares (88 acres). The C&O Canal features a 296-kilometer (184-mile) towpath and is used by walkers, joggers, cyclists, picnickers, and boaters.

In addition to its parks, Washington's scenic attractions include several exceptional gardens that are open to the public. The Enid A. Haupt Garden has two underground museums and features elaborate plantings of trees and flowers. The historic United States Botanic Garden, planned by George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison and opened in 1820, offers greenhouses, a conservatory, and other buildings. The 180-hectare (444-acre) United States National Arboretum, geared primarily toward education and research, includes the National Bonsai and Penjing Museum featuring miniature trees from Japan; the nation's largest planting of azaleas; a Japanese garden; and an herbarium and herb garden.

17. Performing Arts

The Washington Symphony Orchestra, declared the official symphony orchestra of Washington, D.C., in 1993, has a history dating back to 1934, when the ensemble was formed under the name Washington Civic Symphony. In the past decade, under music director Martin Piecuch, the orchestra has attracted increasing audiences and performed with a number of internationally known soloists, including Robert Merrill and Victor Borge. The group has also continued to evolve its mission of community outreach, with both philanthropic and audience support. The orchestra performs in the concert hall of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. The Kennedy Center's opera house is the home of the Washington Opera, which stages its smaller-scale productions in the center's Eisenhower Theater.

The capital has a lively and varied theater scene, which includes previews of many Broadway productions, as well as performances by local repertory companies. The Arena State, the area's oldest theater ensemble, gives eight subscription performances a year on two stages. In addition to performing classic dramas, the troupe is committed to the advancement of multicultural and contemporary theater. The Shakespeare Theatre, which formerly performed at the Folger Shakespeare Library, performs Shakespeare and modern theater classics and offers free summer productions at the Carter Barron Amphitheatre in Rock Creek Park. The Source Theatre Company performs both standard and new plays, with a special focus on new plays. Two more groups that specialize in contemporary theater are the Studio Theatre and the Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company.

After being closed for more than a century, Ford's Theatre—where President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated in 1865—was reopened in 1868, refurbished in a style intended to duplicate its original nineteenth-century furnishings, down to the presidential box in which the president was shot. Original productions are presented most of the year, and there is a performance of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens at Christmas time.

18. Libraries and Museums

Founded in 1896, the District of Columbia Public Library System serves 543,000 people, with an annual circulation of 1,476,935. Its book holdings total approximately 2,863,296 volumes. The library system also operates 25 neighborhood branches. The areas in which it holds special collections include Illustrators of Early English and American Children's Books, Local History and Local Authors, and the Washington Star Newspaper Collection.

The Library of Congress, which celebrated the bicentennial of its founding in 2000, is the world's largest library, with approximately 17 million books, 12 million photographs, two million recordings, and a multitude of other items housed on some 853 kilometers (530 miles) of shelves. Early in its history, the museum purchased the contents of Thomas Jefferson's personal library; much of this great treasure was lost, however, in 1851, when two-thirds of the collection was destroyed by fire (the museum's second major fire; most of its original holdings had been incinerated in an 1814 conflagration). Today the library owns books and periodicals published in some 460 different languages. Included within its collections are the world's largest law library; the largest rare book collection in North America; the papers of 23 presidents; the largest comic book collection in existence; the world's largest collection of American music; and the world's most extensive collection of films and television broadcasts produced both in the United States and abroad.

The Folger Shakespeare Library, a privately funded institution established in 1932, is home to the world's largest collection of the printed works of English playwright-poet William Shakespeare (1564–1616). Its 280,000 books and manuscripts also include thousands of other Renaissance books and manuscripts, and the library functions as a major academic research center for scholars and graduate students throughout the world. Every year the museum is opened to the public in April when Shakespeare's birthday is commemorated. The Folger also serves as a performing arts venue, with concerts and plays presented in its Great Hall and Elizabethan Theatre.

The Smithsonian Institution, established by the federal government in 1846, operates 14 museums in the nation's capital, nine of them located on the Mall, including the National Air and Space Museum; the Joseph H. Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, which is dedicated to modern and contemporary art; the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, a museum of Asian art; and the National Museum of African Art. Among the museums located off the Mall are the National Portrait Gallery, which features portraits of persons who have made significant contributions to the country; the Renwick Gallery, which displays American crafts; the Anacostia Neighborhood Museum; and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, a memorial to the millions of Jews and non-Jews killed by the Nazis during World War II, and an international center for study and documentation of the Holocaust.

The privately operated Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington's oldest art museum, features American paintings but also includes European artworks dating as far back as the Middle Ages. Other private museums in the capital include the National Museum of Women in the Arts, the National Building Museum, and the Textile Museum.

19. Tourism

Washington, D.C., is one of the nation's most popular tourist destinations, attracting nearly 20 million visitors annually. The busiest tourist season runs from April (when the cherry blossoms bloom) to September, and April is the single most popular month to visit the capital.

In 1995 approximately 1,589,000 foreign travelers visited the city, ranking it eighth nationally in this category.

20. Holidays and Festivals

January
Martin Luther King, Jr., birthday observance

February
Chinese New Year Parade

February-March
Washington Boat Show
Washington International Flower & Garden Show

March
D.C. Spring Antiques Fair
Harambee Carnival
Patuxent Wildlife Art Show & Sale
Smithsonian Kite Festival
St. Patrick's Day Parade
Washington Flower & Garden Show

March-April
National Cherry Blossom Festival
Spring Flower Show

April
Dulles International Antiques Show & Sale
National Cherry Blossom Parade
Smithsonian's Craft Show
White House Easter Egg Roll
White House Spring Garden Tours

April-May
Washington International Filmfest

May
Candlelight Vigil
Goodwill Embassy Tour
International Gem & Jewelry Show
Memorial Day Ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery
Washington National Cathedral Flower Mart

June-July
Festival of American Folklife

June-August
Jazz Art Festival

July
Founder's Day Water Lily Festival
Independence Day Parade

July-August
Washington Theatre Festival

September
Adams-Morgan Day

October
Marine Corps Marathon
Taste of D.C.

December
D.C. Winter Antiques Fair
National Christmas Tree Lighting/Pageant of Peace
Washington Craft Show
White House Christmas Tours

December-January
Capital Area Auto Show
Christmas on "S" Street
Victorian Holiday Festival in Historic Georgetown

21. Famous Citizens

Humor columnist Art Buchwald (b. 1925).

Escaped slave and abolitionist Frederick Douglass (1818–1895).

Jazz legend Edward "Duke" Ellington (1899–1974).

Newspaper publisher Katharine Graham (b. 1917).

Actress Helen Hayes (1900–93).

French-born architect Pierre Charles L'Enfant (1754–1825), who de signed the plan for the nation's capital.

First Lady Dolley Madison (1769–1849).

Socialite Perle Mesta (1891–1975).

Englishman James Smithson (1765–1829), who donated the funds for the founding of the Smithsonian Institution.

Composer John Philip Sousa (1854–1932).

Poet Walt Whitman (1819–1892).

22. For Further Study

Websites

District of Columbia. [Online] Available http://www.dc.thelinks.com/ (accessed October 14, 1999).

Washington DC City Pages. [Online] Available http://www.dcpages.com/ (accessed October 14, 1999).

Washington DC Home Page. [Online] Available http://www.ci.washington.dc.us (accessed October 14, 1999).

Washington Web. [Online] Available http://wwwwashweb.net/(accessed October 14, 1999).

Government Offices

Mayor's Office
441 4th St. NW
Washington, D.C. 20001
(202) 727-2980

Washington City Council
441 4th St. NW
Washington, D.C. 20001
(202) 724-8000

Washington Economic Development Dept.
441 4th St. NW, Rm. 1140 N
Washington, D.C. 20001
(202) 727-6365

Tourist and Convention Bureaus

Washington Convention Center
900 9th St. NW
Washington, D.C. 20001
(202) 789-1600

Washington D.C. Convention &
Visitors Association
1212 New York Ave. NW, Suite 600
Washington, D.C. 20005
(202) 789-7000

Publications

Washington Post
1150 15th St. NW
Washington, D.C. 20071

Washington Times
3600 New York Ave. NE
Washington, D.C. 20002

Books

Abbott, Carl. Political Terrain: Washington, D.C., from Tidewater Town to Global Metropolis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.

Alsop, Stewart. The Center: People and Power in Political Washington. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.

Bernstein, Carl, and Bob Woodward. All the President's Men. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974.

Brinkley, David. Washington Goes to War. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1988.

Butler, J. George. Simpler Times: Stories of Early Twentieth Century City Life. Arlington, VA: Vandamere Press, 1997.

Caroli, Betty Boyd. Inside the White House: America's Most Famous Home. Pleasantville, NY: Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1999.

Cary, Francine Curro, ed . Urban Odyssey: A Multi-cultural History of Washington, DC. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996.

Cutler, David. Literary Washington: A Complete Guide to the Literary Life in the Nation's Capital. Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1992.

Evelyn, Douglas E., and Paul A. Dickson. On This Spot:Pinpointing the Past in Washington, D.C. Washington, DC: Farragut Pub. Co, 1992.

Fitzpatrick, Sandra, and Maria R. Goodwin. The Guide to Black Washington: Places and Events of Historical and Cultural Significance in the Nation's Capital. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1999.

Graham, Katharine. Personal History. New York: Knopf, 1997.

Lewis, Roger K. Shaping the City. Washington, DC: AIA Press, 1987.

Seidenberg, Robert. Discover the Sidewalks of Washington, D.C. Photography by Kevin Vandiver and Joe Viesti. New York: Gallery Books, 1989.

Styron, William. The Confessions of Nat Turner. New York: Random House, 1967.

WASHINGTON, D.C

WASHINGTON, D.C. Most Americans think of Washington, D.C., their national capital, as either a marble-columned theme park for visiting high-school civics classes or a cluster of government palaces housing activities so corrupt that aspirants to federal office regularly seek advantage over their incumbent rivals by accusing them of having spent too much time in Washington. To a degree, Washington is both of these things, yet

it is also a real city, home to more Americans than is Wyoming, and(with Baltimore) a nucleus of the nation's fourth-largest metropolitan area. For Washingtonians, the presence of the federal government is both a blessing and a curse, for the city's status as capital provides steady employment and unparalleled cultural institutions but strips its people of basic rights of citizenship taken for granted by the residents of the fifty states.

Founding and Early History

For most of the War of Independence, Congress met in Philadelphia, the largest city in the thirteen colonies. Fearing urban mobs and not trusting the Pennsylvania government to control them, in 1783 Congress decided to create a new capital apart from any state, and in 1787 the framers of the Constitution provided for a capital district of up to 100 square miles in which Congress would "exercise exclusive legislation." For the next three years, Congress considered promising river ports up and down the Atlantic Coast, with northerners favoring a site on the Delaware or Susquehanna while southerners heldout for the Potomac. Finally, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison brokered a deal by which the South would agree to federal assumption of state war debts in return for a southern capital. President George Washington, himself a Potomac man, chose the exact spot for the square, straddling the river and embracing the towns of George town, Maryland, and Alexandria, Virginia.

Rather than seating the federal government in either town, Washington called for a brand-new city to be built on the low land between the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers. To plan it, he turned to the thirty-six-year-old Pierre-Charles L'Enfant, a French artist and veteran of the Continental Army. L'Enfant, deeply influenced by the baroque plan of Versailles, began by emphasizing the site's topography. He reserved the most prominent hills for the Capitol and President's House (later nicknamed the White House), then gave each building a spectacular vista over an open, green Mall. To connect these and lesser nodes he drew a grand design of wide, diagonal avenues, superimposedon a practical American grid. Though L'Enfant was fired after a tiff with a local landowner, his plan provided the basic layout for Washington City (its name chosen by three presidentially appointed commissioners) within the larger territory of Columbia. In December 1800, the government arrived.

Washington and L'Enfant had hoped that the capital would grow into a major commercial city, a point of transshipment between the inland, Potomac trade, and seagoing vessels moored in an Anacostia harbor. But congressional neglect, rivalry among Georgetown, Alexandria, and Washington City, and the difficulty of opening the Potomac to navigation stifled the city's growth. When, in 1814, British troops raided the city, they found little worth torching except the White House and the Capitol. Congress did subscribe funds for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, designed to make Washington the Atlantic port for the Ohio River valley, but the city had bet on the wrong technology. Baltimore put its money into Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, outpacing the canal and making that city the dominant port of the Chesapeake. L'Enfant's enormous avenues remained unpaved and undeveloped.

Politically, the capital did not fare much better. Congress did grant elected municipal governments to Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria, but to a large degree the District remained a congressional pawn to be pushed back and forth across the board. This was particularly true in the matter of the slave trade. In the 1830s, northern abolitionists flooded Congress with petitions to abolish slavery in the District, and southern congressmen responded by ruling that such petitions would be automatically tabled. Finally, in 1846, Congress returned the portion of the District on the right bank of the Potomac to Virginia. Since this included the city of Alexandria, the District's major slave market, retrocession helped make possible the Compromise of 1850, which banned the slave trade in the remaining portion of the District, now only sixty-seven square miles.

Ten years later, as the Compromise collapsed into secession, Washington turned into an armed camp, surrounded by slave states. Northern troops rushed into the city, both to secure it for the Union and to use it as a base of operations against the Confederate capital of Richmond, only 100 miles away. The Capitol, Patent Office, and other government buildings were pressed into service, first as emergency barracks, then as emergency hospitals as wounded soldiers staggered back from Bull Run and points south. The Army of Northern Virginia threatened the city during its 1862 and 1863 invasions of the North, and in 1864 General Jubal Early actually entered the District before being repulsed at Fort Stevens.

Following the war, triumphant Midwesterners spoke of relocating the capital to the interior of the country, perhaps to St. Louis. Instead, in 1871, Congress decided to remain in Washington and modernize the city, merging the jurisdictions of Washington City, Washington County, and Georgetown, and giving the newly unified District a territorial government—the same form used by aspiring states. In just three years as vice president of the Board of Public Works and later as territorial governor, "Boss" Alexander Shepherd rebuilt the city's public spaces, paving streets, installing sewers, and planting tens of thousands of trees. But he also massively overdrew the city's Treasury account. In 1874 an appalled Congress abolished territorial government, and in 1878 it passed the Organic Act, which provided for government by three presidentially appointed commissioners, one of them an officer in the Army Corps of Engineers. To compensate District residents for their lost franchise, Congress promised to pay half of the District's budget, a promise that gradually eroded in subsequent decades.

Reinventing Washington

With the approach of the capital's centennial in 1900, a group of architects, eager to promote their profession, saw a chance to revive L'Enfant's baroque vision for the Mall, which had been cluttered with winding carriage roads and a dangerously sited train station. At the request of Senator James McMillan, the architects Daniel Burnham and Charles McKim, the landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., and the sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens proposed a City Beautiful plan of green, open spaces and white neoclassical buildings. The railroad station on the Mall was demolished and its trains rerouted to Burnham's monumental Union Station north of the Capitol. The plan was capped in 1922, with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on land reclaimed from the Potomac.

Ironically, Lincoln's temple overlooked a racially segregated city. Woodrow Wilson, the first southern-born president since Andrew Johnson, encouraged racial discrimination within the civil service. Though libraries and public transit were integrated, the city's schools, restaurants, theaters, and hotels remained rigidly segregated. Despite these restrictions, Washington was home to a thriving black community. Howard University, founded during Reconstruction, and some of the nation's top black high schools attracted African American intellectuals from across the country. Blacks built their own theaters, clubs, and hotels along U Street, north of downtown. The author Jean Toomer and the musician Duke Ellington were born and raised in the neighborhood, and the many other artists, scholars, and activists who spent time in the area made Washington second only to Harlem as a center for black culture.

The expansion of the federal government during the New Deal and World War II made Washington a boomtown. In 1942 alone, more than 70,000 new comers arrived to work in temporary buildings on the Mall, in the newly built Pentagon, or wherever they could find space for a typewriter. Thanks to the cold war, the federal government did not contract after victory, but it did disperse. Concerned about atomic attack and traffic congestion, federal planners scattered the new agencies—the Atomic Energy Commission, the Central Intelligence Agency, the National Security Agency, and the like—to suburban campuses miles from downtown. Private employers, particularly high-tech defense contractors, followed them, as did many families. These were good jobs, and by 1949 the region had the highest mean salary per family of any major metropolitan area.

Though the cold war boom turned metropolitan Washington into the nation's fastest-growing metropolitan area, the District's population, which had peaked in the 1950 census at over 800,000, fell to 764,000 by 1960. For the first time the District housedless than half of the metropolitan region's residents. The bulk of Washingtonians moving to the suburbs were white, while most new comers were black, so in 1957 Washington became the nation's first major city to be majority African American.

Home Rule

With an almost all-white Congress and a southern-dominated House District of Columbia Committee ruling over a mostly black city, the civil rights element of home rule for the District became more pressing than ever. Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon each took up the cause. Kennedy appointed the first African American district commissioner, as well as the first White House advisor on national capital affairs, while Congress approved the Twenty-third Amendment, allowing District residents to vote for presidential electors. Johnson, unable to get a home rule bill through Congress, nevertheless replaced the three commissioners with an appointed mayor, deputy mayor, and city council, a training ground for District leaders. Meanwhile, the District gained the right to send a nonvoting delegate to the House of Representatives. Finally, with Nixon's support, in 1973 Congress passed a home rule act. In 1974, the city—by now three-fourths black—held its first elections for top municipal office in a century.

The 1970s were rough on the city. Crime rates rose, downtown streets were torn up for subway construction, and the city lost its major-league baseball team. Escaping congressionally imposed height limits in Washington itself, developers took their skyscrapers, and jobs, to Virginia. In contrast, the 1980s were boom years. Metro, the flashy new regional rapid transit system, brought commuters and investors back to the center, and Mayor Marion Barry gained a reputation as a business-friendly leader. There was even talk of granting the city full representation in Congress, either through statehood or a constitutional amendment. But Republicans had no desire to let the majority-black, and overwhelmingly liberal, city send two new Democrats to the Senate. Moreover, the city's image—and its claim to political maturity—suffered when federal agents videotaped Mayor Barry smoking crack cocaine in a hotel room, amplifying criticism that he had bloated the city's bureaucracy with patronage jobs. Combined with unfinished business from home rule, Barry's misadministration left the District essentially bankrupt. In 1995, Congress established an appointed Control Board to oversee the government until the city could balance its own budget.

At the start of the twenty-first century, the city had climbed out of insolvency. Though the year 2000 census count of 572,059 was lower than the 1990 figure, it was significantly higher than projected, suggesting that the population had bottomed out in the early 1990s and was climbing again. With a respectable mayor, a healthier economy, and encouraging demographics, local activists were ready to try again to gain voting representation in Congress and an end to congressional meddling with the city's laws and budget. They even persuaded the city council to replace tourist-friendly slogans on the District license plates with the defiant motto: "Taxation without Representation." But as the newly elected president George W. Bush shrugged off their demands, it seemed unlikely that Washingtonians would become full American citizens anytime soon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbott, Carl. Political Terrain: Washington, D.C., from Tidewater Town to Global Metropolis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.

Bowling, Kenneth R. The Creation of Washington, D.C.: The Idea and Location of the American Capital. Fairfax, Va.: George Mason University Press, 1991.

Cary, Francine, ed. Urban Odyssey: A Multicultural History of Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996.

Gillette, Howard, Jr. Between Justice and Beauty: Race, Planning, and the Failure of Urban Policy in Washington, D.C. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.

Green, Constance McLaughlin. Washington. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962–1963.

Lessoff, Alan. The Nation and its City: Politics, "Corruption," and Progress in Washington, D.C., 1861–1902. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.

Reps, John William. Washington on View: The Nation's Capital Since 1790. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991.

United States National Capital Planning Commission. Worthy of the Nation: The History of Planning for the National Capital. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977.

Zachary M.Schrag

See alsoCapitol at Washington .

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

"To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States" (U.S. Const. Art. I, § 8). The U.S. Constitution, with this proclamation, left the legal formation of a national capital up to the U.S. Congress. To this day, the District of Columbia is neither a state nor a territory and remains under congressional jurisdiction.

History

The location of the national capital was born out of a political compromise between the northern and southern states after the United States had achieved its independence. The South feared that the North would have too much influence if the capital were placed in a northern city. The North demanded federal assistance in paying its Revolutionary War debt, something the South was strongly against. alexander hamilton initiated a compromise whereby the federal government would pay off the war debt in return for locating the capital between the states of Maryland and Virginia on the Potomac River.

In 1800, Virginia and Maryland ceded portions of land to the federal government. The citizens living in the new capital were required to give up all the political rights they had enjoyed as inhabitants of Maryland and Virginia. In return, Congress, which had exclusive power over the district, would allow them some form of self-government. In 1802, Congress called for an appointed mayor and an elected council in the district. By 1820, the election of the mayor was also permitted.

This form of representative government lasted in the district until 1874, when Congress abolished the citizens' right to vote for their local officials and established a three-person board of commissioners appointed by the president. For over one hundred years, the residents of the District of Columbia were denied the democratic right to elected local representation.

Although residents of the district had always been required to pay federal income tax and serve in the military, their right to vote in presidential elections was denied until the 1961 passage of the twenty-third amendment to the Constitution. This amendment granted the district a number of votes in the electoral college, not to exceed the number given to the least populous state.

Home Rule

In 1967, through an executive order (Exec. Order No. 11379, 32 FR 15625, 1967 WL 7776 [Pres.]), President lyndon b. johnson

did away with the three-member board of commissioners and appointed a mayor and a council for the district. In 1970, the district was given back its nonvoting delegate in Congress. But this still did not satisfy residents who demanded full self-determination. Congress then passed the District Home Rule Act of 1973 (Pub. L. 93-198, Dec. 24, 1973, 87 Stat. 774), and restored to the citizens their right to vote for a local government. For the first time in exactly a hundred years, the residents of the District of Columbia were able to vote for a mayor and a 13-member council.

The Constitution granted Congress complete legislative authority over the District of Columbia. Congress alone has the jurisdiction to expand the district's powers over local government affairs. It also has the jurisdiction to contract those same powers. Congress, through the Home Rule Act, dictated the legislative powers to the district council and the executive powers to the mayor. Advisory neighborhood commissions, which are groups elected by the residents, advise the council on matters of public policy. Congress still retains ultimate legislative authority through its power to veto any of the district's legislation.

Statehood

Besides the citizens of U.S. territories, district residents are the only U.S. citizens without full representation in Congress and with federal limitations on their own local government. Advocates of statehood rebel against such restrictions. They argue that because the district's congressional delegate is not allowed to vote, residents are subject to a fundamental democratic wrong, taxation without representation. They add that because Congress retains control over the city's purse strings, city officials are powerless in raising more revenue. Federal restrictions on taxation have prevented the district from taxing commuters as have some other U.S. cities, which could have given the district a huge tax windfall.

Opponents of statehood argue that the District of Columbia belongs to all U.S. citizens, and therefore all citizens should have a say in how it is managed. Constitutionally, Congress has complete authority over the district, and to have it otherwise would require a constitutional amendment (supporters dismiss this argument, pointing out that 37 states were allowed into the Union through only a simple majority vote in Congress). If the district were to become an independent state, some opponents argue, the federal government would have to abide by the laws of this new state. Opponents of statehood also maintain that the district's power needs to be checked by Congress because of the district's financial difficulties.

The push toward statehood has become a partisan issue, with the democratic party generally in favor of it and the republican party generally opposed. One reason for this division is the political makeup of the city, which is predominantly Democratic. Statehood would add more Democratic members to the House and the Senate. When the Democrats won the White House in 1992, the stage was set for the statehood issue to move forward through the 103d Congress.

On November 21, 1993, the House considered Bill 51, calling for the creation of New Columbia, the nation's fifty-first state. Democrats spoke in favor of statehood, saying it would give D.C. residents the same benefits of citizenship that are enjoyed by other U.S. citizens. Republicans spoke out against it, saying the city was unable to govern itself. Republican sentiments carried the day, defeating the bill by a vote of 277–153.

Legal Challenge to Voting Rights

After Congress rejected the idea of statehood for the district, D.C. residents felt they had exhausted their legislative options for change. They explored other ways of increasing their influence in Congress, but again the fact that their representative could not vote in Congress posed a major roadblock. A group of residents sought to overcome this limitation by filing a federal lawsuit that challenged the status quo.

Lois Adams and 75 other D.C. residents filed the lawsuit against the president and Congress, arguing that it was unjust that they pay taxes and defend the country in times of war, yet they could not send elected representatives to vote on taxes and war. They claimed that this deprived them of equal protection of the law and denied them a republican form of government. They also argued that this deprivation violated their due process rights and abridged their privileges and immunities as citizens of the United States.

A special three-judge panel heard the case but in the end rejected these arguments. In Adams v. Clinton, 90 F.Supp.2d 35 (D.C. 2000), the court addressed both jurisdictional and constitutional issues. Regarding jurisdiction, the executive and legislative branches contended that the court had no right to even hear the case because the plaintiffs raised issues that were not subject to review by the judicial branch. However, the court rejected the idea that the issues were political questions beyond its reach and reviewed the merits of the case.

The court looked at the language of the Constitution, as well as history and legal precedent, in making is decisions. It first held that Article I of the Constitution repeatedly refers to "each state," thereby demonstrating that the term did not refer generally to all the people of the United States but to citizens of individual states. Tying the right to Congressional representation to statehood was reinforced by the fact that residents of U.S. territories cannot elect voting representatives to Congress. In addition, history and precedent revealed that the District of Columbia had never been considered a "state" for constitutional purposes. Therefore, the direct constitutional challenge had no merit.

The court rejected an even more novel theory advanced by the plaintiffs that they were entitled to vote in Maryland elections because of their "residual citizenship." This theory relies on the fact that residents of the land ceded by Maryland to form the district continued to vote in Maryland elections between 1790 and 1801, when Congress assumed jurisdiction and provided for the district's government. The court dismissed this claim, noting that a 1964 court decision had rejected the concept of residual citizenship based on the fact that former residents of Maryland lost their state citizenship when the District of Columbia separated from it.

Finally, the court concluded that the equal protection clause of the fourteenth amendment could not be used to strike down another constitutional provision. Though the court found that Congress and the executive branch had failed to give a compelling reason for denying D.C. residents voting representatives, the denial was based on a provision of Article I. Unlike a statute that contains illegal classifications, the constitution cannot be ruled unconstitutional. Therefore, D.C. residents had to convince Congress to either grant it statehood or pass a constitutional amendment that would allow voting representatives from the district.

The Courts

The courts of the District of Columbia were established by an act of Congress. Originally, federal courts heard controversies that arose in the District of Columbia. Disputes over federal or district law came under the jurisdiction of the federal district courts. Appeals went from the district courts to the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and then to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Just as the legislative branch of the district government became less dependent on the federal system in the 1970s, so too did the courts. The district court system was completely reorganized under the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970 (Pub. L. 91-358, July 29, 1970, 84 Stat. 473; Pub. L. 99-573, § 17, Oct. 28, 1973, 100 Stat. 3234, 3235). The U.S. District court no longer has jurisdiction over criminal or civil actions occurring under D.C. law. These cases are now heard by the district's new trial court, the Superior Court. The District of Columbia Court of Appeals has jurisdiction to review decisions of the Superior Court.

further readings

Harris, Charles Wesley. 1995. The Conflict of Federal and Local Interests. Washington D.C.: Georgetown Univ. Press.

Kofie, Nelson. 1999. Race, Class, and the Struggle for Neighborhood in Washington, D.C. New York: Garland Press.

Markham, Steven. 1998. Statehood for the District of Columbia. Washington, D.C.: National Legal Center for the Public Interest.

Schrag, Philip G. 1985. Behind the Scenes: The Politics of a Constitutional Convention. Washington D.C.: Georgetown Univ. Press.

cross-references

States' Rights.

D.C. Washington capital of the United States, coextensive (since 1878, when Georgetown became a part of Washington) with the District of Columbia (2000 pop. 572,059), on the Potomac River; inc. 1802. The city is the center of a metropolitan area (1990 pop. 3,923,574) extending into Maryland and Virginia. With the city of Baltimore to its north in Maryland, it forms a consolidated metropolitan area of some 6.7 million people. Washington is the legislative, administrative, and judicial center of the United States but has little industry; its business is government, and hundreds of thousands are so employed in the metropolitan area. The city is also a major tourist attraction and a cultural center.

Washington has long been a gateway for African Americans emigrating from the South, and since the 1960s has had a (now diminishing) black majority. Many citizens live in poverty, and social problems have been exacerbated by the transient nature of the governmental workforce and the District's lack of political power.

Transportation facilities include a subway system that connects the city with many suburbs. The main rail and air hubs are Union Station and Ronald Reagan Washington National and Dulles International airports (both in Virginia). Nearby military installations include Fort McNair, Fort Myer, Andrews Air Force Base, and Bolling Air Force Base.

Landmarks

The city spreads out over 69 sq mi (179 sq km), including 8 sq mi (20.7 sq km) of water surface, with tree-shaded thoroughfares and many open vistas. Numerous impressive government buildings near the city's center are built of white or gray stone in the classical style, and there are many fine homes. Among other attractive buildings are the embassies and legations of many foreign countries, many of them lining "Embassy Row" on Massachusetts Ave. The larger of the city's fine parks are West Potomac Park, which extends S from the Lincoln Memorial and includes the Tidal Basin, flanked by the famous Japanese cherry trees; East Potomac Park, an area of reclaimed land jutting S from the Jefferson Memorial; Rock Creek Park, with almost 1,800 acres (728 hectares) of natural woodlands and extensive recreation facilities, and the adjoining National Zoological Park; and Anacostia Park, adjacent to the National Arboretum.

Besides the Capitol and the White House , other important government buildings and places of historic interest include the Senate and House of Representatives office buildings, the Supreme Court Building, the Pentagon (in Virginia), the Federal Bureau of Investigation building, the Library of Congress , the National Archives Building, Constitution Hall, the Ronald Reagan Building, the Watergate apartment complex, the State Department ( "Foggy Bottom" ), and the headquarters of the World Bank. Ford's Theatre, where Lincoln was shot, has been restored. In 1974 the Admiral's House at the U.S. Naval Observatory became the official residence of the vice president. Of historic interest is Fort Washington (built 1809, destroyed 1814, rebuilt by 1824).

Best known of the city's many statues and monuments are the Washington Monument , at the western end of the long grass-covered National Mall; the Lincoln Memorial , with its reflecting pool; the nearby Vietnam Veterans Memorial and the Korean War Veterans Memorial flanking the pool and the World War II Memorial at the pool's far end; and the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, and the Thomas Jefferson Memorial , all overlooking the Tidal Basin. Among Washington's famous churches are Washington National Cathedral (Episcopal), which was completed in 1990; and the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, the largest Roman Catholic church in the United States. The city also contains Nationals Park, the home to major-league baseball's Nationals, and the Capitals (hockey) and Wizards (basketball) play in the Verizon Center. The Washington Redskins play in nearby Landover, Md.

The Arlington Memorial Bridge across the Potomac connects the capital with Arlington National Cemetery . Also in Arlington is the U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial, one of the largest statues ever cast in bronze, and the U.S. Air Force Memorial. In the Potomac itself lies Theodore Roosevelt Island, thickly wooded and with many foot trails.

Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Institutions

The city's many institutions of higher education include American Univ., the National Defense College, the Catholic Univ. of America, Georgetown Univ., George Washington Univ., Howard Univ., and the Univ. of the District of Columbia. Among many cultural attractions are the National Gallery of Art , the Freer Gallery of Art, and the other centers under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution ; the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts; the Corcoran Gallery of Art; the Phillips Collection; the Folger Shakespeare Library; and the Newseum. Major visitor draws on the Mall include the National Air and Space Museum, the Holocaust Museum, and the National Museum of the American Indian .

The U.S. Naval Observatory, the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, the Smithsonian Institution, the Brookings Institution , and the Carnegie Institution of Washington are among the institutions dedicated to scientific research and education. Also in Washington is the U.S. Soldiers' and Airmen's Home (1851). Nearby are the National Institutes of Health and Walter Reed National Military Medical Center (Bethesda, Md.) and the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture research center (Beltsville, Md.)

Government

The present system of government (in operation since 1975) provides for an elected mayor and city council but reserves for Congress veto power over the budget and legislation and direct control over an enclave containing most of the federal buildings and monuments.

The Twenty-third Amendment (1961) to the Constitution gave inhabitants the right to vote in presidential elections; the District of Columbia was accorded three electoral votes, the minimum number. In 1970 legislation authorized election of a nonvoting delegate to the House of Representatives. There have been several unsuccessful attempts by the District of Columbia to gain statehood and achieve full representation in Congress.

With the city facing insolvency in 1995, Congress created a financial control board with a mandate to supervise municipal finances. Granted virtual authority over the city, the board concentrated on reducing the municipal workforce, paring services and programs, stimulating the economy, retaining a middle-class presence, and transferring prison and other costly operations to the federal government; it continued its oversight until the District had four successive balanced budgets (2001).

History

In 1790 the rivalry of Northern and Southern states for the capital's location ended when Jefferson's followers supported Hamilton's program for federal assumption of state debts in return for an agreement to situate the national capital on the banks of the Potomac River. George Washington selected the exact spot. The "Federal City" was designed by Pierre L'Enfant and laid out by Andrew Ellicott. Construction began on the White House in 1792 and on the Capitol the following year.

John Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. Congress held its first session in Washington in 1800, and Thomas Jefferson was the first president to be inaugurated in the new capital. In the War of 1812 the British sacked (1814) Washington, burning most of the public buildings, including the Capitol and the White House.

The city grew slowly. Even after 1850 it was still "a sea of mud," and not until the 20th cent. did it cease to be an unkempt rural city and assume its present urban aspect. Though strongly manned during the Civil War, it was several times threatened by the Confederates, notably by Gen. Jubal A. Early in 1864. In 1871, Washington lost its charter as a city and a territorial government was inaugurated to govern the entire District of Columbia. Congress took direct control of the District's government in 1874, providing for a mayor appointed by the President and a commission chosen by Congress; the residents were disfranchised. After 1901, Washington was developed on the basis of the resurrected L'Enfant plan—a gridiron arrangement of streets cut by diagonal avenues radiating from the Capitol and White House, with an elaborate system of parks.

Through the years the city has been a focus for national political activity. In 1932 Bonus Marchers lived in its parks until they were evicted by the army. In the 1960s and early 70s hundreds of thousands demonstrated for civil rights and against the war in Vietnam, and massive rallies have become a recurrent part of Washington life.

Washington's population has declined steadily since the 1950s; much of the outmigration has been to affluent suburbs in Virginia and Maryland. In Apr., 1968, the assassination in Memphis, Tenn., of Martin Luther King , Jr., touched off riots in Washington, and population loss accelerated. The long mayoralties (1980–91, 1995–98) of Marion Barry were fraught with corruption and controversy, which retarded attempts by the city and by federal authorities to resolve economic and social issues. The Washington metropolitan area was shaken in Sept., 2001, by a terrorist attack on the Pentagon and reports that the White House had been among the terrorists' possible targets.

Bibliography

See C. M. Green, Washington: A History of the Capital (1976) and Washington: Capital City, 1879–1950 (1976); S. Smith, Captive Capital (1974): D. Duncan, Washington: The First One Hundred Years, 1889–1989 (1989); J. W. Reps, Washington on View: The Nation's Capital since 1790 (1991); C. Sten, ed., Literary Capital: A Washington Reader (2011).

Washington, D.C. Tourist mecca and home of the federal government, Washington, D.C. (District of Columbia), contains many of the nation's most revered sites, including the Capitol, the White House, the Supreme Court Building, the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument (completed 1885), and others. The site on the Potomac River was chosen in a 1790 compromise that resolved a dispute not only over the new government's location but also over Alexander Hamilton's economic program. Construction went forward, and in 1800, President John Adams occupied the White House and Congress moved to the new city from Philadelphia.

As both a city and a national capital, Washington, D.C., functions like other urban areas even as its governance remains under federal supervision. This special relationship, assured by a clause in the U.S. Constitution, has brought the city parks, museums, and a stable source of employment. But federal restrictions both fiscal and political have hampered Washington's development and prevented it from becoming the model its founders envisioned.

From the outset of the federal government's relocation to the District of Columbia, local concerns were subordinated to national business. Funds to develop the urban infrastructure lagged behind those designated for federal functions. Washington's designers anticipated that trade, more than the government's presence, would stimulate development, but when Congress failed to fund the canals, and later the railroads necessary for commerce, Washington fell behind its competitors, most notably Baltimore, Maryland. The Civil War vastly expanded the federal presence in Washington without bringing additional attention to the city's physical needs. Consolidation of the different district jurisdictions under a territorial government in 1871 sparked the city's modernization, but in 1874, after local officials greatly exceeded their spending authority, Congress imposed a presidentially appointed commission to govern the district. As compensation for the loss of popular sovereignty, and as payment in lieu of taxes on federal properties. Congress promised an annual appropriation to cover half the local expenses. This practice continued although by the 1990s, Congress's contribution to Washington's operating budget was closer to 15 percent.

To mark the centennial of the federal presence, the U.S. Senate in 1900 chartered a commission to develop a new plan for government buildings and parks. The commission's plan, based on a 1791 design by Pierre L'Enfant, concentrated government facilities at the heart of the city and connected them by a system of parks. Over the next quarter century the plan materialized, but in the process the federal government set itself apart both physically and symbolically from the city around it.

By 1950, Washington, D.C.'s population approached 800,000. The Cold War further stimulated government expansion, and the area grew rapidly. Much of the growth was in the suburbs, however, and by 1957, when Washington became the nation's first majority black city, it represented a greatly diminished portion of the metropolitan area. Although a national civil rights campaign helped the city secure the right to elect local officials in 1974, Congress continued to withhold national representation and prohibited Washington from taxing either government property or workers living outside the city. With its growing importance as a world capital, Washington thrived during the real‐estate boom of the 1980s but in the early 1990s declined under the combined burdens of poor management and insufficient funds. The population dropped precipitously to under 600,000, and revenues fell correspondingly. In 1995, Congress placed the city in virtual receivership, further compromising home rule. Washington's residents protested federal interference in local affairs, but until the city's finances could be stabilized, the nation's capital was destined to see its fate largely dictated by federal authorities.
See also Arlington National Cemetery; Canals and Waterways; Federal Government; Library of Congress; Smithsonian Institution; Vietnam Veterans Memorial; War of 1812.

Bibliography

Howard Gillette Jr. , Between Justice and Beauty: Race, Planning, and the Failure of Urban Policy in Washington, D.C., 1995.
Carol O' Cleireacain , The Orphaned Capital, 1997.

Howard Gillette Jr.

Washington, D.C.: Education and Research

Elementary and Secondary Schools

The District of Columbia's public school system is among the largest in the country, serving approximately 68,000 students at 167 schools. A 2003 Newsweek study ranked three D.C. high schools—Banneker, Wilson, and School Without Walls—among the nation's finest. Besides Head Start, Magnet Schools, and Alternative Education programs, the district offers a range of special programs to meet the needs of a diverse student body, including a youth orchestra, boys choir, substance abuse prevention education, and English-as-a-Second-Language program.

The following is a summary of data regarding Washington D.C.'s public schools as of the 2002–2003 school year.

Total enrollment: 67,522

Number of facilities elementary schools: 101

junior high/middle schools: 9

senior high schools: 20

other: 6 educational centers; 20 special schools

Student/teacher ratio: 13.5: 1

Teacher salaries average: $53,194

Funding per pupil: $6,903

Dozens of private and parochial schools also operate in the district with varied curriculums. More than 60 major private schools, including several of national renown, operate as traditional, parochial, and alternative/arts schools.

Public Schools Information: Washington-District of Columbia Schools District, 415 Twelfth Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20004

Colleges and Universities

Washington, D.C. is home to 12 universities and colleges. Georgetown University has the largest school of international affairs in the world and the second largest law school in the United States. Howard University, the alma mater of many prominent African Americans, enrolls the most foreign students in the country. Nearby in Baltimore, the Johns Hopkins University is the nation's oldest research university. Other major institutions are American, Catholic, Gallaudet, George Washington, Corcoran College of Art and Design, Mount Vernon and Trinity colleges, and University of the District of Columbia. More than 20 licensed trade and technical schools also operate in the district, including the American College of Computer and Information Sciences, the ITT Technical Institute, Kennedy-Western University, and the Harrison Center for Career Education.

Libraries and Research Centers

The Library of Congress is the nation's oldest federal cultural institution and serves as the research arm of Congress. It is also the largest library in the world, with nearly 128 million items on approximately 530 miles of bookshelves. The collections include more than 29 million books and other printed materials, 2.7 million recordings, 12 million photographs, 4.8 million maps, and 57 million manuscripts. In December 2002, the U.S. Congress approved the Library's plan for a national digital information infrastructure and a program to preserve digital archives, a long-term project that will be a model for national programs seeking to organize the massive amounts of digital publishing taking place on the internet.

The District of Columbia Public Library system has 27 branches, the Martin Luther King Memorial Library, 1 kiosk, and a total of more than 2.4 million volumes. In 2004 four branch libraries were closed for major renovations. Among the several special collections is Washingtoniana, which specializes in local history and celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2005. In addition to public libraries, there are nearly 600 special libraries in the district, including those maintained by foreign embassies, colleges and universities, and the Smithsonian Institution.

Public Library Information: District of Columbia Public Library, Martin Luther King Memorial Library, 901 G Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20001; telephone (202)727-0321; Library of Congress, telephone (202)707-5000

Washington, D.C.: Introduction

During the nineteenth century, Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States, was considered so unbearably warm and humid during the summer months that foreign diplomats received hardship pay for serving there. Now, the district holds a worldwide reputation as a cosmopolitan city rich in museums, monuments, and culture—and crackling with political power. From the hill where the U.S. Capitol sits, to Embassy Row, home to much of the foreign diplomatic corps in Washington, the wide avenues hum with the business of America. With more than 2,000 foreign diplomats posted to Washington, the city exudes an international flavor.

But heavy industry never took hold in the region and outside the downtown government district and the upscale northwest quarter of the city, poverty grips many residents. City officials have worked hard to change that. Downtown, once-seedy sections of Pennsylvania Avenue, embarrassingly close to the White House, were renovated in the early 1980s. The city's standing as the nation's capital has always attracted conventioneers, and in March 2003 the new granite and limestone Washington Convention Center further revitalized the downtown area with more than 700,000 square feet of prime exhibit space. Residents from the District and surrounding suburbs commute on a clean and efficient subway system that is still expanding. And in spite of all that growth, Washingtonians pride themselves on showing an almost southern-style hospitality. In the words of Frederick Douglass, "Wherever the American citizen may be a stranger, he is at home here."

Never was the nation's reverence for its capital city more reaffirmed than in the wake of the tragic September 11 terrorist attacks that shook New York and Washington D.C. One of several hijacked planes was crashed into the massive, fortress-like Pentagon Building, claiming the lives of more than 120 people. It is widely believed that another hijacked aircraft, which eventually was forced down by heroic passengers in Pennsylvania, was bound to crash into the Capitol Building. In the months following, an Anthrax scare ripped through the city when traces of the deadly agent were discovered in packages sent to various political offices around town. All these events served to remind the city's residents of its link to historic events and its prominence as the greatest seat of political power on the planet, all somewhat sobering even as the city was on the upsurge to begin a new century.

Washington, D.C.: Population Profile

Metropolitan Area Residents

1980: 3,478,000

1990: 4,223,000

2000: 4,923,153

Percent change, 1990–2000: 16.5%

U.S. rank in 1980: 8th (MSA)

U.S. rank in 1990: 8th (MSA)

U.S. rank in 2000: 8th (MSA)

City Residents

1980: 638,333

1990: 607,000

2000: 572,059

2003 estimate: 563,384

Percent change, 1990–2000: -5.7%

U.S. rank in 1980: 15th

U.S. rank in 1990: 19th

U.S. rank in 2000: 21st

Density: 9,316.4 people per square mile (based on 2000 land area)

Racial and ethnic characteristics (2000)

White: 176,101

Black or African American: 343,312

American Indian and Alaska Native: 1,713

Asian: 15,189

Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 348

Hispanic or Latino (may be of any race): 44,953

Other: 21,950

Percent of residents born in state: 39.2% (2000)

Age characteristics (2000)

Poplation under 5 years old: 32,536

Poplation 5 to 9 years old: 35,385

Poplation 10 to 14 years old: 30,018

Poplation 15 to 19 years old: 37,867

Poplation 20 to 24 years old: 51,823

Poplation 25 to 34 years old: 101,762

Poplation 35 to 44 years old: 87,677

Poplation 45 to 54 years old: 75,310

Poplation 55 to 59 years old: 27,803

Poplation 60 to 64 years old: 21,980

Poplation 65 to 74 years old: 35,919

Poplation 75 to 84 years old: 25,004

Poplation 85 years and older: 8,975

Median age: 34.6 years (2000)

Births (2002)

Total number: 7,494

Deaths (2002)

Total number: 5,779 (of which, 86 were infants under the age of 1 year)

Money income (1999)

Per capita income: $28,659

Median household income: $40,127

Total households: 248,590

Number of households with income of . . .

less than $10,000: 36,939

$10,000 to $14,999: 14,954

$15,000 to $24,999: 28,443

$25,000 to $34,999: 30,592

$35,000 to $49,999: 35,311

$50,000 to $74,999: 39,533

$75,000 to $99,999: 22,437

$100,000 to $149,999: 20,790

$150,000 to $199,999: 8,292

$200,000 or more: 11,639

Percent of families below poverty level: 16.7% (47.7% of which were female householder families with related children under 5 years)

2002 FBI Crime Index Total: 44,349

Washington, DC. The first theatre in the federal capital, known as the United States or National Theatre, was adapted from a building already in existence. Thomas Wignell and his company played there for some months in 1800, after which it became a post and patent office. The first purpose-built theatre was the Washington, which opened in 1804 and was later rebuilt and renamed the Washington City Assembly Rooms. A New Washington Theatre was opened in 1821 by a company under Warren and Wood, which used it during the summer months only. Joe Cowell appeared there in 1828. A second National Theatre, which opened in 1835, played an important part in the social life of the city, one innovation being the turning of the old pit into a ‘parquette area’, with comfortable seating, which made it more acceptable to the better-class citizens. The theatre had to be rebuilt several times after fires in the 19th century; the present auditorium dates from 1922. Ford's Theatre, which opened in 1862, became famous as the scene of Abraham Lincoln's assassination. Among other present-day theatres in Washington are the Arena Stage and the theatres in the John F. Kennedy Center. The Folger Theatre was founded in 1970 under the auspices of the Folger Shakespeare Library (founded by Henry Folger, 1857–1930) to present plays in a reconstruction of an Elizabethan playhouse seating 253. In 1985 the Library trustees withdrew financial support and the theatre is now a separate non-profit entity, the Shakespeare Theater at the Folger, with a season running Oct.–June.

Washington, D.C.

The City in Brief

Founded: 1790 (authorized by Congressional act)

Head Official: Mayor Anthony Williams (D) (since 1999)

City Population

1980: 638,333

1990: 607,000

2000: 572,059

2003 estimate: 563,384

Percent change, 1990–2000: -5.7%

U.S. rank in 1980: 15th

U.S. rank in 1990: 19th

U.S. rank in 2000: 21st

Metropolitan Area Population

1980: 3,478,000

1990: 4,223,000

2000: 4,923,153

Percent change, 1990–2000: 16.5%

U.S. rank in 1980: 8th

U.S. rank in 1990: 8th

U.S. rank in 2000: 8th

Area: 68.3 square miles (2000)

Elevation: Ranges from 40 to 410 feet above sea level

Average Annual Temperature: 54.0° F

Average Annual Precipitation: 39.73 inches

Major Economic Sectors: services, government, wholesale and retail trade

Unemployment rate: 2.9% (December 2004)

Per Capita Income: $28,659 (1999)

2002 FBI Crime Index Total: 44,349

Major Colleges and Universities: Georgetown University,

Howard University, American University, Catholic University of America, George Washington University

Daily Newspaper: The Washington Post; The Washington Times

Washington, D.C.: Convention Facilities

In 2004 the city opened its all-new Washington Convention Center in the heart of downtown, with 2.3 million square feet total and 700,000 square feet of exhibit space covering 6 city blocks. With the addition of this state-of-the-art facility, along with the city's proximity to the nation's government, powerbase, and riches of cultural and tourist destinations, Washington D.C. should continue to be one of the great magnets for America's lucrative convention business well into the 21st century.

While the old convention center was razed in 2004 to make way for new development, The D.C. Armory Starplex, with 124,471 square feet of exhibit space, offers alternative space for smaller gatherings. The Washington area also provides more than 70,000 hotel rooms; and many hotels offer meeting space, such as the Sheraton Washington Hotel (115,000 square feet), the Shoreham Omni Hotel (85,134 square feet), the Capital Hilton (space for up 1,200 people), and the Grand Hyatt Washington (40,000 square feet of meeting space).

Convention Information: Washington, D.C. Convention and Visitors Association, 1212 New York Avenue, N.W., Suite 600, Washington, D.C. 20005; telephone (202)789-7000; fax (202)789-7037

Washington, D.C.: Health Care

The District of Columbia boasts one of the finest health care systems in the country. Its 14 hospitals, many of which are affiliated with major medical schools and research centers, include hospitals at Georgetown, Howard, and George Washington universities. The city offers state-of-the-art specialty hospitals for women, children, and veterans; world-renowned centers for neuroscientific research and the study of fertility, pregnancy, and development; and nationally recognized services for trauma, cancer, heart disease, and organ transplants. Also nearby is the Johns Hopkins Hospital and Health Systems, supported by the university's School of Medicine and one of the most renowned medical care and research facilities in the world. In 2003 the institution was named the nation's best hospital, second best medical college, and was the largest recipient of National Institutes of Health funding in America.

Washington, D.C.: Municipal Government

Washington won the right to govern itself in 1975. Until then, Congress had complete jurisdiction over the District. Now Washington is led by a mayor and thirteen city council members, all of whom serve four-year terms. Eight city council members represent separate wards, while five are elected at large. District voters also elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. Congress.

Head Official: Mayor Anthony Williams (D) (since 1999; current term expires January 1, 2007)

Total Number of City Employees: 34,000 (2005)

City Information: Council of the District of Columbia, 1350 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20004; telephone (202)727-1000

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