CANADA

Major Cities:
Ottawa, Toronto, Montreal, Quebec City, Vancouver, Calgary, Halifax, Winnipeg, Hamilton, Regina, Edmonton, London, St. John's, Victoria, Windsor

Other Cities:
Antigonish, Brampton, Brantford, Charlottetown, Dawson, Fredericton, Gander, Guelph, Kingston, Kitchener, Medicine Hat, Niagara Falls, Niagara-on-the-lake, North Bay, Oakville, Oshawa, Peterborough, Prince Albert, Prince George, Saint Catherines, Saint John, Saskatoon, Sault Sainte Marie, Stratford, Sudbury, Thetford Mines, Thompson, Thunder Bay, Trois Rivières, Whitehorse, Yellowknife

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated April 1996. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

The vast nation of CANADA , which borders on three oceans and spans seven time zones, abounds in contrasts. It boasts magical coasts, majestic mountains, wild rivers, untrod forests, and untouched lakes. It also boasts sky-scraping cities, sophisticated shopping, and culinary delights. From the Calgary Stampede to the Shakespearean Festival, from ethnic festivals to the changing of the guard in Ottawa, Canada is a fascinating blend of English and French, historic and modern, ceremonial and casual.

Canada has always had close ties with the United States, as evidenced by the fact that the two countries share the longest unguarded border in the world. In spite of its extensive geographical, cultural, financial, and economic ties with the U.S., however, Canada retains a unique distinction from its southern neighbors.

MAJOR CITIES

Ottawa

Ottawa (from an Indian word meaning "near the water") is a clean, attractive, modern city at the junction of the Ottawa, Rideau, and Gatineau Rivers, about 60 miles north of the New York State border and 120 miles west of Montreal. City residents total over 400,000, and the total metropolitan population is over one million. The climate is healthful and bracing, and the area abounds with opportunities for outdoor activities and family living.

Samuel de Champlain reached the site of what is now Ottawa in 1613; however, a permanent settlement did not develop until after the Rideau Canal was built in 1827. Originally named Bytown, Ottawa was incorporated as a city under its present name in 1854. It was selected as the national capital by Queen Victoria in 1888.

As Canada's capital, Ottawa's main business is government and, as in Washington, DC, little industry exists. Living conditions are similar to those in comparably sized U.S. cities, although social life is geared to demands of diplomatic and government circles.

Small Oriental, Lebanese, Portuguese, and Italian colonies exist in Ottawa, but the majority of residents are of British or French descent. Most francophones (35% of the population) are also fluent in English. Approximately 15,000 Americans live in the Ottawa district; they have merged into the population and do not constitute a discernible American colony. About 50 U.S. companies have subsidiaries or affiliates in the area, but only a few have American citizens on their local staffs.

During summer, there is a flow of U.S. tourists through the city, and all year government officials and business representatives visit Ottawa in their respective roles.

The diplomatic community is large and growing. Some 146 nations maintain relations with Canada, although only 100 have resident missions in Ottawa. Most are small, with two or three officers and a chief of mission. The only large missions are those of the U.S., U.K., Russia, France, Germany, and the People's Republic of China.

Education

Ottawa's public school system offers instruction from kindergarten through grade 13. There are 55 elementary schools for kindergarten through grade eight, and 15 high schools with English instruction and five with French instruction, both covering grades 9 to 13. Tuition is free for Ottawa residents attending public schools. Children may enter kindergarten at age five, or four if the child will be five before December 31 of that year.

Courses meet the standards established by the Ontario Ministry of Education. The teacher-student ratio in elementary schools is about 1:16, and in secondary schools about 1:12, ratios which have remained constant for several years.

Parents may place their children in one of two language programs: the immersion program consisting of instruction totally in French in the first few years, and a gradual phasing in of English instruction until the program becomes bilingual; or the core program consisting of at least 20 minutes daily of French instruction from kindergarten through eighth grade and making it optional at some level after that. The core program is not a rigid one and may vary from school to school.

While some students coming from U.S. schools have found the Ottawa high schools somewhat less demanding than their own, most students and parents report few differences or problems. Instructional programs and course offerings vary from school to school within a particular area.

Students pursuing a commercial, technical, or vocational curriculum in high school can receive a diploma after grade 12. Those planning to continue their studies beyond high school, especially if applying for admission to colleges and universities in Ontario, have, until recently, been required to complete grade 13, but this proviso is currently being phased out.

The Roman Catholic Church maintains a "separate school" system in Ottawa composed of 42 primary schools (19 with French instruction, 23 with English); six intermediate schools (five with French instruction, one with English); and two junior high schools, all with English instruction. Tuition through grade 10 is free for Ottawa residents. The curriculum of the "separate schools" meets all the requirements of the Ontario Ministry of Education.

The schools located in the suburban areas of Ottawa come under either the Carleton Public or Carleton Roman Catholic School Boards. Tuition for schools in both systems is free for residents of the school district. The Carleton Public School Board has 60 elementary schools (including 28 offering French immersion). There are 16 high schools, grades nine through 13, including several with a French immersion program. In addition to the schools offering French immersion, many schools in the Carleton jurisdiction offer French instruction similar to the Ottawa Board's core program. As with the Ottawa Board, parents are advised to check with the school in their neighborhood for specific details regarding the French program.

The Carleton Roman Catholic School Board has 51 elementary schools (32 with English instruction, 19 with French), all of which provide kindergarten to grade eight, and five high schools, grades nine through 13. However, after grade 10, the schools are considered private and tuition must be paid by parents. Many English-instruction elementary schools have French programs similar to those offered in the public school system. For details, parents should check with the neighborhood school their children will attend. The Carleton Roman Catholic School Board has no high schools where the language of instruction is French.

As in the Ottawa public and separate school boards, the curriculum in both boards in Carleton meets all the requirements of the Ontario Ministry of Education.

While a few American families live in Quebec Province (across the Ottawa River in the greater Hull area), the U.S. Embassy strongly discourages families with school-age children from residing in Quebec. The volatile French-language issue and related educational controversies, plus frequent teachers' strikes, have created considerable turmoil in the schools. Children not already reasonably conversant in French will probably encounter problems, especially at the high school level, even if enrolled in an English-language school.

Quebec Province requires all high school students to take French throughout high school and to pass a standard provincial French-language examination before graduation.

Both public and separate school systems in Ottawa and the suburban areas offer extracurricular activities similar to those found in the U.S., including athletics, drama, music, and student government. The Ottawa school year, longer than that of the U.S., runs from Labor Day to the last week in June. Students have a week-long vacation at Christmas and a spring break of 10 days (usually in March). Grades are released quarterly.

Ottawa has a number of nursery schools which accept children from age three. In addition, there are a number of "play schools" for children 18 months to age four. These are usually two or three half days a week, and these require some type of parent participation.

There are two private preparatory schools in the Ottawa area: Elm-wood School for girls (kindergarten through the fourth grade is coeducational; grades five through 13 are only for girls), and Ashbury College for boys (covering grades five through 13). Ashbury enrolls both day and boarding students.

Two universities, a technical institute, a teachers' college, and a variety of business and professional schools provide ample opportunity for education on a full-or part-time basis. These include Carleton University (English-language and private, founded in 1942); and University of Ottawa (bilingual and government-supported, founded in 1848). These universities offer a multitude of courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels leading to degrees in liberal arts, sciences, engineering, theology, business administration, education, medicine, nursing, law, and applied sciences. Evening courses at both universities provide many opportunities for both degree and non-degree study. Both universities have extensive evening programs for part-time students as well. Unlike most U.S. colleges, courses are generally conducted on a yearly rather than semester basis.

Algonquin College of Applied Arts and Technology, a community college with four campuses, offers a wide range of day and evening courses, one-year certificate programs, and two-and three-year diploma programs. In general, tuition and fees for colleges and universities in Ottawa are less than those of state colleges and universities in the U.S.

Ottawa has four schools for trainable, mentally handicapped children. They are École Jeanne-Lajoie, the Clifford Bowie School, McHugh School (affiliated with the Royal Ottawa Psychiatric Center), and the Crystal Bay School (Carleton Board of Education). One school, Centennial, is for the physically handicapped, and additionally, the Ottawa Crippled Children's Treatment Center has teaching facilities for physically handicapped and autistic children.

Other educational opportunities include tutoring or group study in languages, music, dance, art, and related activities. These are available for all ages at reasonable cost, usually through the various school systems, Algonquin College, the universities, and the YMCA. Often, however, waiting lists are encountered for those wishing to obtain the most competent instruction available. This is particularly true of French-language courses.

Recreation

Extensive opportunities for participation in many recreational sports activities exist in and around Ottawa. In winter, cross-country and downhill skiing are very popular. Trails and slopes abound within a 100-mile radius of the city, ranging from those for the beginner or casual skier to expert slopes for the advanced enthusiast.

Main roads are kept open and passable in winter, providing access to a number of ski trails and tows in developed ski complexes. Bus service is available. There is one ski area within the Ottawa city limits—Carlington Park. Within an hour's drive are the ski complexes of Camp Fortune and Edelweiss Valley. Camp Fortune, located in Quebec Province (in Gatineau Park) is one of the country's largest ski complexes, offering downhill and cross-country skiing at all levels of difficulty, day and night skiing, instruction, and rentals. It is a 20-minute drive from Ottawa.

Farther afield, the slopes at Mount St. Marie (Quebec) and Calabogie (Ontario) are 60 miles away. All have a variety of slopes and trails and offer instruction and rentals. Season passes for instruction, rentals, and tows are offered at most ski facilities. The elaborate winter sports resorts of Mount Tremblant, Quebec, can be reached from Ottawa in about three hours.

Ottawa also boasts what is billed as the world's largest outdoor skating rink. During the winter, a five-mile stretch of the Rideau Canal, built by the British after the War of 1812, between Dow's Lake and the National Arts Center is cleared and partially lighted for ice skating. Warming huts and snack bars are located at convenient intervals along the canal. It is not unusual to see business-people, with briefcases in tow, skate to work on the canal.

Ample facilities for all types of sports have been developed in and around Ottawa, including ice skating arenas, curling rinks, bowling alleys, indoor and outdoor swimming pools, and tennis and squash courts. One of the largest, and most unique, is the Nepean Sportsplex located in West Ottawa. Under one roof it contains an ice skating rink, hockey arena, curling rink, gymnasium, squash courts, indoor swimming pool, auditorium, sauna, pub, and restaurant. It offers instruction for all age groups in sports activities as well as physical fitness classes, ski fitness clinics, arts and crafts, ballroom dancing, and ballet and tap dancing. The sportsplex publishes an annual bulletin of activities; enrollment in some courses is limited, and first preference is given to Nepean Township residents.

In the summer, ample opportunity for all types of water sports exists on the Ottawa, Rideau, and Gatineau Rivers, and at nearby lakes. There are several yacht clubs with extensive sailing programs. Beaches within Ottawa city limits are limited to one or two spots along the Rideau River, and Britannia Beach on the Ottawa River; facilities at these places are often crowded. On some of the lakes in the area, both in Ontario and Quebec, there are developed-access roads, beaches, and docks for canoes and boats, while other lakes are more isolated and primitive.

Some private golf clubs keep their courses open from May to October; several operate their dining rooms all winter. Ottawa also has public courses.

Tennis and squash facilities are available at a number of private clubs, such as the Ottawa Athletic Club. Municipal tennis courts are scattered about the area as well, offering seasonal membership at reasonable cost, or free use on a space-available basis. Instruction is also provided at the private and public tennis facilities.

Bicycling and jogging are very popular during summer, and there are numerous cycling and jogging trails in Ottawa and across the Ottawa River in Quebec's Gatineau Park. Some roads are closed to auto traffic on Sundays for the exclusive use of hikers, joggers, and cyclists. Additional popular participant sports include archery, badminton, bowling, camping, cricket, flying, judo, riding, rugby, rowing, soccer, snowshoeing, and sailing.

For the spectator in winter, ice hockey, Canada's national sport, is virtually a mania. National Hockey League games are televised several times a week. In 1992 the Ottawa Senators, a new National Hockey League franchise, began play. The Ottawa Rough Riders represent Ottawa in the Canadian professional football league. The season begins in late July and ends in early December with the Grey Cup finals between the champions of the Eastern and Western Conferences.

Canadians are avid baseball fans, too, and root for the American major league teams as well as the Canadian entries in Toronto (Blue Jays) and Montreal (Expos). Tickets for Montreal Expo games are sold in Ottawa, and there are chartered buses from downtown Ottawa to the baseball stadium in Montreal for selected games. Stock car racing is held in Stittsville, about 20 miles from Ottawa, in the summer months.

In the greater Ottawa area, which includes suburban areas in and around Hull, Quebec, there are numerous parks operated by various municipal, provincial, and federal authorities. Much of the land adjacent to the Ottawa River on the Ontario side is part of the National Capital Commission and is maintained as park land, with hiking and bicycle trails which serve as cross-country skiing trails in winter. In nearby Quebec is the largest of the area parks, Gatineau Park, whose 75,000 acres are maintained by the National Capital Commission. It offers opportunities to painters, hikers, photographers, naturalists, skiers, and picnickers.

Ottawa citizens often form private fishing and hunting clubs, which acquire and stock private lakes within driving distance. Public or crown lands, other than in the protected areas of Gatineau Park, are generally open to hunters and fishermen. Ontario hunting licenses are issued for a nominal fee upon presentation of a valid hunting license from another province or from the U.S., or after passing a basic firearms handling test.

In Ottawa there are several museums of interest, including the National Gallery of Art; the Museum of Science and Industry, with unique viewer-participation exhibits especially recommended for school-age children; the Museum of Man; the Bytown Museum (natural history); and Laurier House (former residence of Canadian prime ministers).

Tours of the Parliament buildings are conducted daily throughout the year. During the summer there are sight-seeing tours and moonlight cruises on the Rideau Canal and the Ottawa River. Tours of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police headquarters, the Queen's Printer, the Royal Canadian Mint, and other government agencies can be arranged upon request. Within an easy drive of Ottawa are the St. Lawrence Seaway, the Thousand Islands area, and the restored pioneer settlement of Upper Canada Village.

Toronto and Montreal, Canada's two largest urban centers, are both close to Ottawa—Toronto is 275 miles to the west, and Montreal 120 miles to the east. Toronto, five hours away by road and rail and 55 minutes by air, is the business center of Canada. Here, visitors find a wide variety of reasonable hotel accommodations, extensive shopping facilities, museums, restaurants, and a lively theater district. Montreal is only two hours from Ottawa by road and rail, or 35 minutes by air, and offers a definite French-Canadian atmosphere, which can be enjoyed in a day's visit or for a longer period. There are attractive shopping areas, numerous restaurants, nightclubs, museums, and theaters.

Washington, DC (Dulles) and Baltimore, Maryland (BWI) airports are connected to Ottawa by direct air service. There are daily flights between Ottawa and BWI. Air travelers to other cities in the U.S. must make connections in either Montreal or Toronto. Washington, DC is about 600 miles by road from Ottawa, via excellent interstate highways. New York City can be reached in one day by car and is about 455 miles from Ottawa, also via interstate highways.

Entertainment

Ottawa offers a wide variety of entertainment. The National Arts Center is a cultural center of the first rank, where national and international stars, orchestras, and ballet and theatrical troupes perform regularly. Top-flight soloists and musical groups also are featured at Ottawa and Carleton Universities in programs which are open to the public. The Ottawa Little Theater, with a cast of amateur players, offers a full season of plays.

Ottawa now has some 20 movie houses, and an active National Film Theater whose thrice-weekly showings of classic and foreign films attract crowds of movie buffs to the auditorium in the Public Archives.

The National Gallery of Canada owns and displays a small but excellent collection of European and Canadian paintings, and a small group of contemporary American art. Special exhibits are scheduled throughout the year; the opening ceremonies and receptions are well-attended social events. The gallery also sponsors film shows and art lectures.

The number and quality of Ottawa's restaurants has been rising, and ethnic cuisine is available in a range of prices. Dancing is provided nightly in hotels, in the National Arts Center, and in several of the nightclubs in town and across the Ottawa River in Hull, Quebec. Another attraction in Hull is the abundance of excellent restaurants which may be found in that predominantly French-Canadian city.

Annual events of interest are the Winterlude Festival in February; the Tulip Festival in the latter half of May; and the Central Canada Exhibition, a week-long country fair held each September.

Because of the absence of a language barrier and the openness of Canadian society, Americans blend easily into the local scene. Ottawa has a number of social clubs and public activities which provide opportunities for contact with Canadians. These include an International Women's Club; Boy and Girl Scout groups; and a number of civic organizations, such as Lions, Rotary, Kiwanis, and Optimists.

Toronto

Toronto, Canada's largest city, occupies the site of an old French trading post, Fort Rouillé founded in the 1790s. The city was founded as a British Army garrison town, Fort York, on the shores of Lake Ontario in 1793. It succeeded Niagara-on-the-Lake as capital of Upper Canada in 1797. Chartered as a city in 1834, its name was then changed to Toronto. Toronto served as the country's capital from 1849 to 1851, and from 1855 to 1859.

The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto consists of the city of Toronto and five boroughs, with an estimated population of 4.7 million (2000), and covering an area of about 625 square miles. It is a beautiful city of parks and trees with a mixture of old and new buildings, connected by an excellent network of roads. Tall construction has been kept to a minimum, creating a feeling of spaciousness. The city is the capital of the Province of Ontario, the most populous and industrialized province in Canada. Toronto is the commercial, financial, and industrial center of Canada.

With the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway, Toronto has become an important shipping center with modern harbor facilities. It is also one of Canada's principal aviation and railway focal points. Well over 1,000 U.S.-controlled companies have plants or representation within the U.S. consular district, and American investment in the area is enormous. This area is said to contain the largest concentration of American-owned or American-controlled plants in any consular district outside the U.S.

Toronto is the headquarters of the Canadian book and magazine publishing industry, three large daily newspapers, and English-language radio and TV broadcasting. It is the center of English-speaking culture in Canada.

An estimated 200,000 U.S. citizens live in the district; many are dual nationals. In addition, tens of thousands of Americans visit the city annually, many of them in connection with conventions, or while en route to and from recreation and vacation areas north of the city.

Education

English is the language of instruction in virtually all public schools and in the universities. For those families who may be interested, French has been offered recently as the language of instruction at certain selected public schools throughout the metropolitan area. French is also taught as a required subject in elementary schools.

Toronto's public school system, used by most expatriates, consists of kindergarten, eight years of elementary school, and four or five years of secondary school, depending on the course selected. The fifth year of high school (grade 13), once necessary for admission to most universities in Ontario, is currently being phased out to put Ontario in step with the rest of Canada and the United States. Standards in Toronto secondary schools are comparable to those in the U.S. Course work may be on a yearly basis or semester system, depending on the school attended. Some students entering during the later high school years may have difficulty with subjects that are not taught as a matter of course in American schools. In Canadian schools, many subjects build on a foundation established the year or two before. It does not seem to be an impossible problem, but young people should come prepared to study hard if they wish to enter a collegiate school. It also should be remembered that, in this bilingual country, French is required of all students. All college entrance examinations are offered in Toronto.

A separate school system is maintained for Roman Catholic children. Catholic schools receive financial support from the property taxes assessed on those homes occupied by Roman Catholic families. Education is free through grade 10, but tuition must be paid from grade 11. Uniforms are required beginning in ninth grade, and only a couple of Catholic schools are coeducational.

Several excellent private schools accept both boarding and day pupils. Tuition rates are about the same as in comparable schools in the northeastern U.S. These schools are usually not coeducational, and uniforms are worn.

Toronto offers extensive educational opportunities, ranging from the University of Toronto to night courses available at the local high schools.

The University of Toronto (founded in 1827), an institution of high academic standing, offers undergraduate and postgraduate courses in virtually all fields of endeavor, including the arts, sciences, commerce, medicine, applied sciences, and engineering. The Ontario College of Art and the Royal Conservatory of Music are affiliated with the university.

York University is Toronto's second university; founded in 1959, it is much newer, and has faculties of art, administrative studies, environmental studies, fine arts, science, and law.

Admission standards at both universities are high, and completion of grade 13 or an equivalent year is mandatory. Undergraduate courses are offered in the evening, and summer school is also available.

In addition to university-level education, the past few years have seen a rise in the number of community colleges. These schools offer post-secondary education in numerous fields, primarily in technical areas.

The Toronto area offers exceptional facilities for the education of the mentally retarded. Special full-time programs are available through the public schools; counseling, special classes, and parent relief activities by the Provincial Ministry of Community and Social Services' Surrey Place Center; and a very active association for the retarded with its own nursery and training programs and community activities (summer camp, meetings with specialists, etc.). These combine to provide families with retarded children greater opportunities for development. However, as possibilities may depend on the age of the child and the nature of the retardation, advanced contact with the Metropolitan Toronto Association for the Mentally Retarded and with Surrey Place Center is advised.

Recreation

Toronto and the nearby areas have much to offer the sports enthusiast, both as spectator and participant. For the spectator there are both professional and amateur hockey, football, soccer, lacrosse, tennis, wrestling, boxing, baseball, and horse racing.

Hockey is by far the most popular professional spectator sport, and is followed by all ages with such enthusiasm that it ranks as a national craze. The Toronto Maple Leafs, an entry in the National Hockey League, play to packed houses at Maple Leaf Gardens from October through April.

Close behind hockey in popularity is football. The Toronto Argonauts are members of the Canadian Football League. There are two horse racing tracks within the metropolitan area offering both thoroughbred and harness racing. Pari-mutuel betting is permitted. The Toronto Blue Jays baseball team became a member of the American League in 1977, and has gained an enthusiastic following of fans of all ages; they won the Eastern Division pennant in 1985 and the World Series in 1992.

For the sports participant, there are swimming, tennis, roller and ice skating, curling, golf, bowling, skiing, fishing, and hunting. Swimming is a popular summer sport and there are many public pools, operated by the Toronto Parks Commission. Because these pools are usually overcrowded on weekends, and because the waters of Lake Ontario are generally considered too cold for anything other than wading, many Torontonians head north to the lake regions for swimming.

Tennis can be played on a number of public courts. Artificial ice skating rinks are located throughout the metropolitan area. Curling, a new game to most Americans, is another popular winter sport, played indoors on ice in arenas built expressly for this purpose.

Numerous golf courses are in the Toronto area or within a 30-or 40-mile drive. They range from crowded public courses to the exclusive, well-maintained, and expensive private clubs.

Because of Toronto's proximity to Lake Ontario and the lake regions to the north, boating is a popular summer pastime, and the city has several yacht clubs. Good fishing and hunting can be found by driving about 120 to 150 miles north of the city. Skiing in and around Toronto is possible, but the real skiing enthusiast will go north 60 to 100 miles to the Collingwood and Gravenhurst areas.

The Province of Ontario maintains an excellent system of toll-free expressways and paved secondary roads, making all but the most remote parts of the province accessible by car. However, traffic is heavy, particularly during the summer months. Distance by road (miles) to the following points are: Buffalo, New York, 100; Windsor-Detroit, 235; Ottawa, 286; Montreal, 350; Quebec City, 480; New York City, 478; and Washington, DC, 520.

Toronto's fine park system offers a variety of activities, winter and summer. The pride of the system is Centre Island Park, located on a large island in Lake Ontario off the harbor area, and accessible only by ferry. Ontario Place is also located on a series of man-made islands in Lake Ontario, adjacent to the Canadian National Exhibition grounds, the largest annual exhibition in the world. The Canadian National Exhibition is a popular event. The exhibition features theatrical and musical events, animals, farm and horticultural displays, and an international air show.

Children's playgrounds are located throughout the city and, in summer, playground directors supervise children's activities. During winter, the Parks Department operates numerous ice skating and hockey rinks.

Entertainment

Toronto does not lack cultural or entertainment activities, and offers everything normally found in a cosmopolitan city of comparable size.

Many first-run and neighborhood movie theaters show American, British, and foreign films. Live theater is also very much in evidence in the Toronto area. The 3,200-seat O'Keefe Centre for the Performing Arts and the Royal Alexandra Theatre both present full seasons of opera, ballet, and musical and dramatic productions, featuring not only the top Canadian companies, but also the best American and British companies. Toronto's concert hall, Massey Hall, a venerable old building with near-perfect acoustics, housed the Toronto Symphony Orchestra until the Roy Thomson Hall was opened. Recitals are given here by touring internationally known artists.

In Stratford, Ontario, about 90 miles southwest of Toronto, the Stratford Shakespearean Festival features world famous actors. Niagara-on-the-Lake, about 80 miles south of Toronto, is the home of the Shaw Festival. Both have become very popular spots for the theater lover during the summer season.

Jazz, folk music, chamber music, and numerous smaller professional and amateur theatrical groups can be found throughout Toronto. The city is purported to be the third most important center for theater in the world, after New York and London. There are also many fine restaurants of every cuisine, cocktail lounges, coffee shops, and nightclubs to suit every taste.

The Royal Ontario Museum, the Ontario Art Gallery, the McLaughlin Planetarium, and the Ontario Science Centre provide many hours of interesting viewing.

Montreal

Montreal, with an estimated metropolitan population of 3.4 million, is the second largest city in Canada and the second-largest French speaking city in the world. When Jacques Cartier visited the area that is presently Montreal in 1535, he found the Indian village of Hochelaga. The island was visited in 1603 by Samuel de Champlain, but was not settled by the French until 1642, when Sieur de Maisonneuve founded the Ville Marie de Montreal. The city became the center of fur trade and a starting point of expeditions into the interior. Montreal was the last Canadian city held by the French; it surrendered to the British in 1760. From 1844 to 1849, Montreal was the seat of Canadian government.

Montreal is a cosmopolitan city of charm and variety, where skyscrapers share space with 200-year-old buildings. More than two-thirds of its people are French-speaking. Most of the rest are English-speaking, primarily of English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh descent. Italians are the third largest ethnic group. About 60% of all the people in Montreal speak English fluently. Several million Americans visit the Province of Quebec every year, and nearly all visit Montreal.

The visitor soon discovers that Montreal has everything needed for a pleasant stay—an absorbing history, a rich and varied culture, outstanding cultural and recreational facilities, comfortable and attractive apartments and houses, a French cuisine which justifies the title of "Paris of America," and over 3,000 restaurants specializing in the foods of many other nationalities. The general standard of living is high. Montrealers, particularly well-to-do French-Canadians, are more fashion-conscious than most Americans and accept European style trends more readily.

Montreal is located in the southern part of the Province of Quebec, 120 miles east of Ottawa, and about 40 miles from the New York and Vermont borders. By car, it is 400 miles from New York City and 615 miles from Washington, DC. It is situated on an island some 30 miles long, and seven to 10 miles wide, at the junction of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers. Mount Royal, for which it is named, rises almost in the center of the city to a height of about 765 feet above sea level (the city's average altitude is 63 feet). Most of Mount Royal is a natural park, providing areas for picnics in summer and skating and skiing in winter.

Education

Over the last several years, the school system in Quebec has been in a state of some turmoil because of strikes and linguistic and pedagogical issues. The current provincial language law severely restricts access to English education, although exceptions are granted to children expecting to live in Quebec Province for temporary periods only.

The public school system in Montreal consists of 11 grades (grades one through six is elementary school; grades seven through 11 is high school). Some public schools have kindergartens, but this is not the general rule. The public schools, which are free, are run by two separate school boards: Catholic and Protestant, each administering francophone and anglophone schools. For public school purposes, Protestant generally means non-Catholic. Basic instruction can be in French or English. Moreover, English schools provide French immersion courses in which students may elect to take a portion of their subjects in French.

Students entering the Quebec system in the elementary grades will generally find the education to be on a par with that in the U.S., with the bonus of being able to develop a sound knowledge of French. Students entering at the secondary level may, however, encounter problems as a result of French-language requirements and the 11-grade system.

Provincial regulations require that any student who has been in Quebec for more than two years pass a French equivalency test, given to all 11th-grade students, in order to receive a school leaving certificate, which is the equivalent of a high school diploma. Most students entering in the eighth or ninth grades will therefore require extra tutoring to enable them to attain required proficiency levels in French.

Grading procedures in Quebec are also different than in the U.S. For the upper grades, class marks, which are reflected in transcripts, are heavily based on standardized provincial examinations, given at the end of the year to all Quebec students.

The absence of a 12th grade presents other problems. For the Quebec student, the normal sequence is to graduate from high school at the end of the 11th year, enter the two-year CEGEP system (somewhat like a U.S. junior college), and subsequently go on to a university. Based on recent experience, education authorities will not authorize entry to the CEGEP system for any American student who has not graduated from an American high school. The alternatives for an entering student who would normally enter the 12th grade in the U.S. are to repeat the 11th grade, which Quebec authorities insist is equivalent to the American 12th grade, or to go to school in the U.S.

American students finishing the 11th grade in Quebec have several alternatives. They may elect to go to a boarding school in the U.S. for the 12th grade, although a graduating student could elect to stay in Montreal, since one private boy's school offers a 12th-grade program. However, no 12th-grade programs for girls exist in Montreal. Alternatively, the student could elect to enter the CEGEP system or apply directly to an American college. Some Quebec students enter U.S. colleges after the 11th grade. The willingness of an American college to consider the application of an American student from Quebec would depend, however, on the success of the student in fulfilling course requirements by the end of the 11th grade.

Montreal has a number of private schools. Entrance to these schools is based on competitive examinations, and most of them have waiting lists for entry. The role of private schools in Quebec and the extent to which they should receive government support are under review by the provincial government. Most private schools in Quebec require uniforms.

Montreal has adequate facilities for any type of education from nursery school to the most advanced academic and scientific degrees; private tutoring in any subject; instruction in music, dancing, painting, and the other arts; and special training in crafts, hobbies, sports, gardening, use of power equipment, and other skills.

The Montreal school system has facilities at all grade levels for both physical (including the deaf and blind) and learning handicaps.

The school year runs from just after Labor Day until mid-June. The opening and closing dates for Catholic and Protestant schools differ by a few days, but time in school is the same. All schools have a five-day week. Schools have a two-week holiday at Christmas and a few days at Easter, usually Holy Thursday through Easter Monday.

While extracurricular activities are similar to those in the U.S., they tend to be less extensive, particularly in the area of sports.

Montreal's universities have many American students. The largest of the universities is the French-language Université de Montreal, founded in 1876. The Université du Quebec à Montreal (founded in 1969) is also a French-language institution. Most popular with Americans is the English-language McGill University, founded in 1821. The other large English-language institution is Concordia University, formed by the amalgamation of Sir George Williams University and Loyola College. Concordia has an extensive evening program where it is possible to earn degrees in a variety of fields. All of Montreal's universities offer evening extension programs, but not all lead to degrees.

Recreation

Canada's national sport is hockey. Canadian children learn to skate almost as soon as they learn to walk, and start playing hockey soon thereafter. In winter, free public skating and hockey rinks are found in every section of the city. During the season, Les Canadiens, Montreal's almost legendary National Hockey League team, play at the Forum. Announcements at Canadiens games are made in both French and English.

Montreal's professional baseball team, the Expos, is part of the National Baseball League. The Expos utilize the 1976 Olympic Stadium for their home games. Bowling and curling also are popular, and there are a number of clubs and leagues.

The city has many public tennis courts, and a number of tennis clubs, some with indoor courts. The Montreal area is dotted with private golf courses. A few public courses exist, but they are usually crowded. Excellent and extensive jogging paths are located on Mount Royal. Joggers also enjoy running along the seven-mile Lachine Canal. The Montreal International Marathon, run in late September, attracts over 10,000 participants annually.

Boating is popular. Several yacht clubs on Lake St. Louis (about a half-hour by car from the city) and on the Lake of Two Mountains offer keen inter-club competition and a limited cruising area. Most sailboats on Lake St. Louis are center-board types because of the large shoal areas, but there are many larger boats, and the International Dragon Class is very active. Two-to three-week cruises to the Thousand Islands, Ottawa, and the Rideau or Lake Champlain are popular with local yachters.

Montreal has an excellent range of readily accessible year-round recreational opportunities in Quebec Province and in northern New York and New England. The Laurentian mountain area, which begins about 45 miles from the city and includes Mont Tremblant Park, is one of the most attractive winter and summer resort areas in Canada. Mont Tremblant, 100 miles from Montreal, and Stowe, Vermont, 120 miles away, provide the best skiing in eastern North America. There is limited skiing in Montreal itself on Mount Royal, but the nearest really good skiing areas begin about 50 miles away. Cross-country skiing is very popular both in and outside of Montreal.

The many lakes in the Laurentians and other nearby areas provide swimming, boating, and water-skiing. There are good camping facilities and accommodations, from luxury hotels to simple lodgings in all areas.

Fishing and hunting are good and are possible close to Montreal. The lakes, rivers, and streams of the province have a variety of fish; speckled trout are the most common. Partridge are found in most woods. The flyways over Lake St. Francis and Lake St. Peter, each about 75 miles from Montreal, offer some of the finest duck shooting in North America. About 150 miles down the St. Lawrence is the only place in the world for hunting the beautiful snow goose. Deer and bear are found within 100 miles of the city.

Montreal has 362 parks. The top of Mount Royal has been preserved as a 500-acre natural forest park. Both the Chalet, at the peak, and Beaver Lake, at the beginning of the park area, are popular in winter and summer. The Chalet has a remarkable view of the city. Beaver Lake, an artificial lagoon, is a favorite place for model-boat enthusiasts. In addition to skiing and tobogganing in winter, the Beaver Lake Pavilion has a large ice skating rink. Mount Royal also has bridle paths for horseback riders.

Another delightful park is located on St. Helen's and Notre Dame Islands in the middle of the St. Lawrence, between the harbor and the seaway. It has an amusement park (the site of Expo '67), swimming pools, picnic areas and playgrounds, and other attractions, including Montreal's Military and Maritime Museum. Its Helene-de-Champlain Restaurant, in a castle-like chalet, provides a picturesque setting and good food.

The Garden of Wonders, better known as the Children's Zoo, is a fascinating feature of Lafontaine Park, which also has two lagoons. Rowboats are for rent, and rides can be taken in a miniature paddle-wheeler "showboat" and in a miniature train.

The extensive greenhouses of Montreal's Botanical Gardens, conveniently located on a principal street, are open all year; its outdoor gardens are open from May or June to October. There are spectacular exhibitions in November and at Easter, and excellent shows at various other times.

Montreal has a number of fine museums. The best historical museum is the Chateau de Ramezay, built in 1705 as the residence for the governor of Montreal. It was the headquarters of the American Army of Occupation in 1775-76, and well-known Americans who stayed there included Benjamin Franklin, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Benedict Arnold. Redpath Museum has interesting geological and zoological exhibits and Indian relics. McGill University's McCord Museum, now associated with the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, has a unique collection of Canadian historical and North American archaeological exhibits. The Wax Museum has more than 200 life-size figures, depicting scenes from Canada's earliest history to modern times. The Bell Telephone Company of Canada has an industrial science museum with original equipment, replicas, and pictures of communications from ancient sight and sound signals to Telstar. Many of these exhibits can be seen in operation.

The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, entering its second century, is located in the city's center, and houses a formidable collection of paintings, decorative arts, and sculptures, as well as ancient glass and textile collections.

Several Catholic churches have museums with collections of paintings and religious and other exhibits. The museum of Notre Dame de Bon Secours Church, also known as the Sailor's Church, has model ships presented by sailors and an excellent collection of fine dolls. There is also the Museum of Contemporary Art, which opened prior to the 1976 World's Fair held in Montreal. A planetarium and an aquarium were established within the city during 1966-67.

In February 1990, the Montreal Insectarium opened to the public. Built to resemble a stylized insect, the building has a total area of approximately 7,000 square feet and includes exhibition areas, open-space laboratories, a multipurpose hall and a 40-seat theater.

Entertainment

Nowhere is Montreal's cosmopolitan nature better reflected than in its entertainment. Plays may be seen throughout the year in both English and French, with occasional productions in other languages. A mobile summer theater for children is operated by the Montreal Parks Department. The Montreal ballet company, Les Grands Ballets Canadiens, performs regularly, and there are other ballet performances as well.

Montreal's modern Place des Artes is the city's center for symphonies, ballets, stage productions, and visiting national and international performers. Place des Arts houses three theaters, the largest seating approximately 3,000 people. Throughout the year, there are many vocal and instrumental recitals. The International Music Competition, held in May or June of each year, is one of the most important artistic events held in Montreal. The Montreal International Jazz Festival, held in June or July, features concerts and shows by many of the world's great jazz musicians. The World Film Festival is held annually in August and September.

There are many movie houses, both downtown and in the neighborhoods. New American films are shown at the same time as in the U.S. Films are in English and French. A few theaters show films in their original languages, with English or French subtitles.

The midwinter Carnival festivities in Quebec City are attended by many people from Montreal, Quebec, New England, New York, and elsewhere. The Sherbrooke Festival des Cantons features Quebecois shows, horse-pulling, and gourmet cuisine.

Almost every social group contains a number of the Americans living in Montreal. An American Women's Club meets regularly for lunch and has annual bazaars, fashion shows, dances, and bridge tournaments for the benefit of Canadian charities. The Montreal Post of the American Legion is also active. No other American community organizations exist.

Quebec City

Quebec City is the provincial capital and the center of French Canada. The city takes its name from an Algonquin Indian word meaning where the river narrows, but its many residents, although North American, bear the clear imprint of their French ancestry and culture. The city is located on the site of the old Indian town of Stadacona and was visited by Jacques Cartier in 1535 and 1541. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established a trading post here which became the first permanent settlement. The area was briefly controlled by the British and was the capital of New France from 1663 to 1763. It also served as capital of Canada from 1851 to 1855, and from 1859 to 1867.

Greater Quebec is a metropolitan area of about 646,000. Quebec, the largest municipality, is divided into two distinct areas. These are Lower Town (which winds around the base of the promontory, along the banks of the St. Lawrence into the St. Charles River Valley), and Upper Town (on heights 200 to 300 feet above the St. Lawrence). When viewed from the sister city of Levis (part of Greater Quebec), Upper Town has a distinctly Old World appearance, including the imposing roof and turrets of the Château Frontenac. Stone walls encircle part of the business and residential section of Upper Town and reach to the ramparts of the Citadelle. The area within the old city walls is recognized as a historic monument. Building restrictions and the tasteful restoration of old houses preserve the Old World flavor of the area. Most buildings in the city have painted tin roofs, dormer windows, colorful shutters, and wooden doors.

The city's population is about 96% French-speaking. Most of the remainder are English Canadians, and only a small minority is of other national and racial origins. In the surrounding countryside, the population is almost totally French-speaking, and is descended from French colonists led by Champlain, who established the first settlement in 1608. Although they are undeniably French in origin, their attitudes and viewpoints reflect the fact that development of their distinctive society has taken place in North America.

Quebec harbor is one of the most important in Canada. It has extensive passenger and freight-handling facilities, including large elevators for the transshipment of grain. Quebec is a regularly scheduled port of call for steamship lines during the ice-free months from April through November and, for several years, has enjoyed an increasing volume of winter freight traffic as well.

The Port City life has been reanimated at the Vieux-Port de Quebec. La Societé du Vieux-Port, commissioned by the Canadian Government, manages this facility which consists of a walkway, outdoor amphitheater, marina, market, and residential units.

In 1977, developers and artists pooled their resources to rescue North America's oldest neighborhood from an undeserved fate. Warmed with color and flowers, the Quartier Petit Champlain is once again a community and a real delight. Its beautifully restored houses shelter more than 50 businesses, outdoor cafes and restaurants ranging from classic French to European fast-food, art galleries, a theater, and charming boutiques. One can meet artists and crafts-people in their studios, or in the street, where pedestrians, musicians, clowns, and jugglers mingle.

Currently 2,000 Americans are registered with the U.S. Consulate and about 7,700 Americans live within the district, many of them French-Canadian descent.

Education

Quebec's public and private schools, from preschool through eighth grade, are generally comparable to American schools. High schools, however, are organized somewhat differently and, in general, are less demanding than their American counterparts.

The final year of high school is the 11th year of studies. Provincial regulations require that every student have two years of high school French and pass both oral and written examinations in French before graduation. The exception to that rule is only for dependents of diplomats, who are exempt from the language law, and who may attend either English-or French-language schools.

Public schools in the province are Catholic or Protestant, but the emphasis on religion has diminished considerably in recent years. Quebec now generally minimizes the importance of religious study much the same as in U.S. public schools.

Quebec has no French-language Protestant schools, public or private. Protestant parents are free to enroll their children in the French-language Catholic schools located throughout the city.

Excellent boarding schools are found throughout the neighboring New England states and in Montreal.

There are a number of specialized schools and organizations in the area for physically and mentally handicapped individuals. Children with learning disabilities attend special classes in the regular school system. For those more severely handicapped, special education, including vocational training, is available through grade nine. Interested individuals should contact the U.S. Consulate in Quebec for further information.

At Laval University (founded in 1852), many faculties, such as medicine and law, accept students only at the graduate level. Other faculties accept students at what would be considered the undergraduate level. Students wishing to enter Laval should discuss the matter with university authorities.

Laval offers evening courses during the academic year in a variety of subjects at the undergraduate level. Instruction in these courses is in French. Laval also offers an intensive summer French-language program which is well known in the U.S. and is attended by several thousand Americans each year. At other times, French-language instruction is offered in the evening at both beginning and advanced levels.

Recreation

Many opportunities exist for ice skating, skiing, and other winter sports in Quebec City. Good ski slopes are within 30 miles of town. Mount Ste. Anne—the highest—has a vertical drop of over 2,000 feet and is one of the best ski mountains in eastern North America. Cross-country skiing is enjoying a major boom, and cross-country trails are maintained in a great number of federal and provincial parks within easy driving distance. For those who prefer to break trail on their own, the open rolling countryside near the city offers virtually unlimited opportunities.

In winter, two or three professional ice hockey games are played each week by the National Hockey League's Quebec Nordiques. The Coliseum was recently renovated and enlarged. Announcements at Nordiques games are made only in French. Several other ice arenas in the municipal area provide instruction and organized competition in both hockey and figure skating.

Quebec City's premier cold-weather event is the annual 10-day Winter Carnival, held in February. There are ice sculpture contests, a majestic ice castle on Place du Palais, a canoe race on the St. Lawrence, and two parades through city streets.

Several indoor curling clubs admit both men and women to membership. There is great interest in this ancient sport here, and membership in one of these clubs affords an opportunity to meet a large number of business and professional persons.

There is good hunting and fishing close to Quebec. The provincial government runs camps in the Laurentides Park. Summertime can be very pleasant in Quebec, in spite of the overwhelming number of tourists who crowd into the city. Golf, tennis, sailing, and fishing are available near town, as well as swimming, hiking, and camping.

Quebec City is the gateway to the Laurentides Park, which begins about 30 miles north of the city and is easily accessible on one of the newest and most modern highways in the province. The areas north and east of Quebec City abound in wooded hills and mountains, with numerous small lakes perfect for flat-water canoeing and boating. These areas can be reached in a short time on good roads. Fishing and hunting are excellent. There are opportunities for day-hiking and backpacking in the park, particularly in the valley of the Jacques Cartier River. The valley also affords supervised rock-climbing, as well as white-water canoeing and kayaking.

A popular summer resort is located at Murray Bay (La Malbaie), on the north shore 100 miles down-river from Quebec. The principal hotel is the Manor Richelieu, operated by the Quebec Government. There is a fine swimming pool and golf course, both of which are open to the public. Another resort, Tadoussac, is 50 miles farther down-river at the mouth of the Saguenay River, but this resort is primarily popular with older people, and there is little excitement or activity to be found. Murray Bay can be reached by train, car, or the Saguenay excursion boats in half a day. Tadoussac can be reached by car, although the road is not well surfaced. The trip is best made by boat.

Baie St. Paul, on the north shore 89 miles down-river from Quebec, has an art center and several art galleries. This artists' haven is also a favorite among crafts-people.

Chicoutimi, a city of 60,000, located 130 miles north of Quebec City, is a tourist base for exploring the Saguenay area. The Saguenay River itself is a fjord with steep canyon walls which can be viewed from sight-seeing boats from June to September. The city is also surrounded by true "wilderness," offering excellent hunting and fishing as well as numerous other outdoor activities.

The south shore of the St. Lawrence and the Gaspé Peninsula has many small resorts of interest during the warmer months, and the trip around this spectacular peninsula can be made comfortably in four or five days by car. Lake St. Joseph and Lake Beauport, about 30 to 15 miles, respectively, from Quebec, are pleasant places to spend a day or weekend during summer.

An attraction only five miles from Quebec is the thunderous Mont-morency Falls; just beyond that lies the Island of Orleans, accessible by bridge, which retains much of the charm of the early French-Canadian countryside. The island has several good restaurants and numerous artisan stores offering handwoven articles and ceramics. In summer, visitors can buy fresh fruit at farmers' stands, or pick their own in the fields.

A short distance farther along the north shore of the river is Cap Tourmente National Wildlife Refuge, where virtually the entire east coast population of snow geese congregate in a vast honking horde twice a year, in the spring and fall, on their way to breeding or wintering grounds.

Entertainment

Quebec has several good movie theaters showing American, French, French Canadian and, occasionally, English films. One or two theaters show English-language pictures, but most American films are shown with French soundtracks.

Many visiting companies and artists stop in Quebec. The Quebec Symphony Orchestra, the oldest in Canada, has a full season. There are several avant-garde stock theater groups of considerable talent. An opera company performs occasionally during the winter season, and gifted local folk singers offer concerts. The Grand Théâtre, dedicated in January 1971, has a large auditorium for music, plays, and opera, and a small auditorium for experimental theater. The Grand Théâtre is the home of the Quebec Symphony Orchestra. Several societies, such as the Institut Canadien, offer interesting series of lectures and concerts.

The Quebec Winter Carnival is a major event in the area. For three weeks before the beginning of Lent, little else occupies the minds and time of the Quebecois. Among the principal events are the masquerade and regency balls, peewee hockey played by boys 12 and under, boat races over and around the ice floes on the St. Lawrence River, dogsled races, huge parades, and street dancing. A three-story palace is constructed of enormous blocks of ice, and ice snow statues are carved and placed along many city streets.

During July, the city sponsors a 10-day music festival offering jazz, folk, rock, and classical music in several public parks in the old town. The city, in general, is particularly lively during summer as numerous Quebecois stroll through the historic area and frequent outdoor cafes.

The historic area of Quebec City is beautifully preserved and is completely surrounded by ramparts. The city's oldest hotel, the Chateau Frontenac, and the Citadel, a star-shaped military fortress, are two main historical attractions.

Quebec boasts some excellent restaurants offering French cuisine, among them the Continental, Marie Clarisse, Rabelais, and the Serge Broyere; and out of town, the Manoir St. Castin at Lac Beauport. The variety of nightclubs is limited.

The recently-opened Museum of Civilization is a popular attraction in Quebec City. This museum contains an entire hall dedicated to the history of games—board games, cards, gambling, toys, and other recreational activities.

There are few resident Americans in Quebec, and they are well integrated into the community. A group called the American Colony Club meets infrequently, but participates in community activities and organizes an annual Thanksgiving dinner, a children's Christmas party, a summer picnic, and receptions. Rotary Club also has a chapter in the city.

The city's tourism office, located at 60 rue d'Auteuil, has advice and free booklets for tourists.

Vancouver

Vancouver, the third largest city after Toronto and Montreal, is the largest, most cosmopolitan, and most exciting city in western Canada. Strategically located in the extreme southwest corner of mainland British Columbia, it is the gateway to Alaska, to the Pacific Ocean, to the American Northwest, and to the Orient. The provincial capital and seat of government is Victoria, on Vancouver Island.

The first settlement in the area was established by 1865 and called Granville. It was incorporated as a city in 1881 and named for Captain George Vancouver. Vancouver's development was aided by the completion of the trans-Canada railroad in 1887. Fire destroyed Vancouver in 1886, the year it was incorporated. Reconstruction began immediately and an area known as Gastown became the new city center. The Gastown area declined when the commercial district expanded away from the waterfront; in 1969 restoration of Gastown began and it was preserved as a vital link to the city's past.

As of 2000, Vancouver had an estimated population near 2 million. It is by far the largest city in the Province of British Columbia. Vancouver is located on the eastern shore of the Strait of Georgia, between the Fraser River on the south and Burrard Inlet on the north. The city has a beautiful, landlocked, ice-free harbor, with wooded mountains to the north rising to 4,000 feet and snow-capped much of the year. Its glittering skyscrapers are softened by a dazzling array of parks that bring British Columbia's great outdoors to the heart of the urban setting. At its doorstep are 10 beaches and miles of sheltered cruising waters, with the lighted ski runs on Grouse Mountain only a half-hour to the north.

Vancouver's year-round port handles more dry tonnage than all five U.S. West Coast ports combined. The port is a hub for most passenger ships and Alaskan cruises from May to October.

The climate is comparable to that of Seattle, with few extremes of heat or cold. The temperature rarely exceeds 80°F in summer, and winters have relatively few days when the temperature drops below the freezing point. The mean temperature is 63°F in summer and 36°F in winter. Rainfall averages 59 inches annually in Vancouver, but is considerably less in the outlying districts south of the city. There is also very little snowfall. Living conditions are comparable to those of many other large modern cities in North America, with the additional attraction of extensive and readily accessible outdoor recreational facilities.

The U.S. consular district covers both the Province of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory—a total of 573,331 square miles. It is an area greater than California, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming, and Montana combined. The population is relatively small in British Columbia (3,105,000 in 1989) and in the Yukon (29,000 in 1990), but British Columbia is Canada's second fastest growing province.

People from the prairie provinces, as well as immigrants to Canada, are moving into British Columbia in large numbers, attracted by the climate and economic opportunities. These include Australians, Indians, Iranians, Germans, Dutch, Italians, Scandinavians, French, Swiss, Filipinos, Chinese, and Japanese. Next to San Francisco and New York City, Vancouver has the third largest Chinatown in North America. As a result, many shops specializing in ethnic goods or foods are found in the city, in addition to a host of Chinese restaurants. Chinese laborers were instrumental in building the Canadian-Pacific Railway in this part of Canada.

Currently, about 60,500 American citizens reside in British Columbia and the Yukon. Tourism plays a major role in the economics of the province. About two million Americans visit "The Evergreen Playground" each year. Vancouver was the site of the world's fair—Expo '86—in 1986. It was opened on May 2 by the Prince and Princess of Wales, Charles and Diana.

Education

Public and private schools are on a par with those in the U.S. The Vancouver public school system consists of roughly 95 elementary schools and 18 secondary schools. Roman Catholic schools are run by the church and charge monthly tuition. One public elementary school offers a French immersion program through sixth grade. French is also offered as an optional subject, along with other foreign languages at the secondary level.

Vancouver has three provincial universities: the University of British Columbia (founded in 1890 at Point Gray), University of Victoria (founded in 1902, elevated to university status in 1963), and Simon Fraser University (founded in 1963 at Burnaby).

In addition to credit and non-credit programs and courses offered by technical institutes, vocational training centers, and community colleges, Vancouver and the surrounding municipalities offer adult education day and evening classes. Subjects range from strictly academic courses to instruction in sewing, golf, and ceramics. Fees are moderate.

Vancouver has about 30 educational facilities for the mentally retarded and physically handicapped. Treatment is available for most age groups in schools specializing in disabilities ranging from autistic and behavior disorders to the multi-handicapped. Schools specifically for the deaf and blind are also available. A complete listing of facilities may be obtained by writing directly to the U.S. Consulate General.

Recreation

Vancouver is a sportsman's paradise. There are a number of excellent golf courses, both public and private, where the visitor can play most of the year. The city also has many public tennis courts. Horseback riding is available, but expensive. The surrounding mountains offer skiing from December through April. Popular runs are found on Seymour and Grouse Mountains in North Vancouver; Garibaldi Park, 30 miles from Vancouver; Whistler Mountain, some 75 miles away; and Mount Baker, east of Bellingham, Washington, where skiing is possible most of the year. Also available are numerous cross-country trails, some close by on the North Shore. There are several public and private ice skating rinks.

Boating and water-skiing are very popular, and numerous small-boat launching sites and mooring facilities are found in the surrounding salt water. Many of the interior lakes also provide boating facilities. The boating season runs from late May through September. Bowling (both indoor and lawn variety) and curling are popular. The many mountain trails offer good hiking possibilities.

For the spectator-sports fan, Vancouver has three professional teams. The British Columbia Lions play in the Western Conference of the Canadian Football League; the Vancouver Canucks are in the National Hockey League; and the Vancouver Canadians, the top farm club of the Milwaukee Brewers, are members of the Pacific Coast League. Major U.S. sporting events are telecast in Vancouver as well.

British Columbia is famous for its fishing and hunting. Freshwater trout and salmon are the most popular catches of the sport fisherman. For big game, including bear, deer, moose, mountain goat, and wild fowl, the hunter usually has to travel some distance into the interior of the province.

Camping is a popular summer activity, but facilities are often rough in the interior regions.

Numerous points of scenic interest are within easy driving distance of Vancouver. Vancouver Island, the largest island on the west coast of North and South America, features the provincial capital of Victoria, unusual gardens, beaches, and mountain scenery. One of the most scenic attractions in the Province of British Columbia, Victoria is just an hour's drive along the highway overlooking Howe Sound. The spectacular Fraser River Canyon is several hours away via Hope and Cache Creek.

In the interior of the province, east of Quesnel, lies the historic ghost town of Barkerville, a booming gold town a century ago. The Rocky Mountain Resorts of Banff and Lake Louise, about 650 miles east, just across the British Columbia-Alberta border, can be reached by car, rail, or plane almost all year. Alaska can also be reached via weekly sailings from Vancouver.

Metropolitan Vancouver contains many attractive parks, the largest being world-famous Stanley Park on a 1,000-acre forested peninsula adjacent to the downtown area. Governor General Lord Stanley, in whose honor the NHL's championship cup was named, dedicated the peninsula as a park in 1889, a year after its official opening. Stanley's life-size statue graces the park's entrance. It is a prime tourist attraction, with a zoo, gardens, one of North America's finest aquariums, picnic areas, woodland trails, playgrounds, and scenic viewpoints overlooking the entrance to Vancouver harbor. The MacMillan-Bloedel Conservatory is in the park. Queen Elizabeth Park, south of the downtown section, is another picturesque area, noted for its flowers and views of the city and surrounding area.

Vancouver has a strong international flavor, with large Italian, Greek, and East Indian communities. The city has the second largest Chinatown in North America. Every possible kind of ethnic cuisine is served somewhere in the city.

Gastown is Vancouver's "heritage" area—a colorful redevelopment of the original settlement. Cobbled streets, a steam clock restored heritage buildings housing shops and restaurants, a town square and a statue of Vancouver pioneer Gassy Jack are all part of the ambience. Handicrafts and local artists flourish here.

Shopping in Vancouver tends to be mall oriented and, because it is a port city, many exotic goods can be found. The corner of Georgia and Grandville is the key to a major downtown shopping area. The city has two underground malls, Pacific Centre and Vancouver Centre. A $100-million extension to the Pacific Centre complex has made it one of the largest retail-office complexes in Canada. It is linked to the rest of the shopping center by overhead walkway and a tunnel. The extension added 100 stores to the existing 127 retail outlets, and features a covered central atrium and a waterfall.

Numerous beaches exist in Vancouver proper and in north and west Vancouver, although the water is usually chilly, even in summer.

Vancouver also has a small but growing art gallery, an excellent maritime museum, and a new planetarium. The Anthropological Museum at the University of British Columbia is excellent.

Entertainment

Entertainment to suit all tastes is available at some time during the year. The excellent Vancouver Symphony Orchestra has a regular concert season extending from fall to spring. This and other orchestras, an opera company, soloists, and first-class theatrical companies, ballets, and choruses from many parts of the world perform at the modern Queen Elizabeth Theater, which has a capacity of 2,800.

Vancouver has a large pool of professional actors from which resident theater companies draw for stage productions of a high order. The Playhouse Theater Company, based in the Queen Elizabeth Theater, and the 450-seat Arts Club Theater, located on Granville Island, each offers seven or more major annual productions, ranging from Shakespeare to Tennessee Williams and modern Canadian playwrights.

The Waterfront Theater, Carousel Theater (for young people), and City Stage add to the variety of what is available on almost a year-round basis. A six-week Festival of Arts each summer features both local and visiting artists of distinction. A Jeunesses Musicales chapter fosters youthful musical activities in Vancouver and throughout the province. The city has many first-run movie theaters and assorted nightclubs.

Many cultural events also take place from October to June at the University of British Columbia and Simon Fraser University.

The Pacific National Exhibition (PNE), held the last two weeks of August, draws exhibitors from across Canada, the U.S., and other countries. Many top entertainers perform here during the exhibition's run. The "midway" section of the PNE also is open during summer and on weekends during good weather. An Oktoberfest is also held in Vancouver.

The excellent main public library has branches in every neighborhood.

Vancouver social life is like that in any large U.S. city. Americans soon find opportunities to make acquaintances among Canadians. People in Vancouver are hospitable and extend numerous invitations to various social or public affairs.

Organized groups include, among many others, the Board of Trade, Rotary, the English-Speaking Union, and the Consular Corps—both a men's and women's group. Vancouver has three downtown men's luncheon clubs; the Vancouver Club, the Terminal City Club, and the University Club. All of these offer comfortable, convenient facilities, pleasant associations, and good food. American men and women are welcome to participate in the charitable organizations that exist in Vancouver.

Calgary

Calgary is located in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, 3,440 feet above sea level. From the city, one can see jagged peaks of the Rockies rising to a height of 12,000 feet only 65 miles to the west. Calgary is 160 miles north of the U.S. border.

Calgary, with an estimated population of 888,000 (2000), is one of Canada's fastest growing cities. It is the center of Canada's oil industry (there are about 400 oil companies producing 90% of Canada's oil in the city) and the heart of an extensive ranching area. Calgary was founded in 1875 when the Royal Northwest Mounted Police established a fort at the junction of the Bow and Elbow Rivers. The Canadian-Pacific railroad reached Calgary in 1883; soon a bustling town had outgrown the fort to become the hub of cattle ranches and meat-packing plants. By 1891, the town had attracted 3,100 people. It was chartered as a city in 1893. By the 1950s, it had grown into a peaceful, prosperous provincial city of nearly 100,000.

A U.S. consular agency was established at Lethbridge in 1891, soon after railway connections were opened to Great Falls, Montana. This later was closed, and a consulate was established in Calgary in 1906, a year after Alberta became a province. In 1963, that Consulate was made a consulate general. The consular district includes the Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and the MacKenzie and Keewatin Districts of the Northwest Territories.

Calgary was the host of the XV Winter Olympic Games in 1988. To prepare for this event, downtown office complexes, hotels, and department stores were connected by climate-controlled elevated skyways.

Education

Calgary has a good public school system, which includes elementary, junior high, senior high, and combined junior and senior high schools. Tuition is free for all Calgary residents attending public schools. Instruction is in English, and in some schools, in French.

Physical education is compulsory through grade 10, after which it becomes an extra elective. Inter-school athletic competitions are an integral part of school life. French is, in general, the only language offered through grade 12. Two years of a foreign language are among the requirements for a high school diploma. Music and art instruction is offered in all grades.

Several private nursery schools and kindergartens are available. Nursery schools generally accept children from the age of three.

The Catholic Church maintains a separate system of elementary, junior high, combined elementary and junior high, and high schools. French and Latin are the only languages offered through grade 12. Textbooks are supplied free through grade nine, and no tuition fees are charged for Calgary residents.

The University of Calgary gives complete courses in arts, commerce, education, engineering, music, physical education, and science, premed. The student body totals about 20,000.

The Southern Alberta Institute of Technology provides educational programs in technology, art, business, trades, correspondence, instruction, and adult education. The institute is operated by the Alberta Department of Education and is financed by the provincial and federal governments.

Mount Royal Junior College is a public institution offering several types of programs: vocational training; high school completion at accelerated rate; course make-up while studying at the University of Calgary; and a transfer program geared to enrollment at a degree-granting institution.

The Calgary School Board offers a wide range of evening courses and services, primarily in high schools. Academic subjects for adults as well as general interest courses are also offered at the University of Calgary and Southern Alberta Institute of Technology.

Calgary has programs to aid the mentally and physically handicapped and children with learning disabilities. Special educational services provide alternative educational programs for children unable to cope with or benefit adequately from the regular school programs. Emphasis is placed at the elementary level, but programs for some students are available through grade 12. Schooling for the handicapped is also available at the Children's Hospital.

Recreation

Football is the main spectator sport in Calgary, and the Stampeders play in the Western Conference of the Canadian Football League. Beginning with the 1980-81 season, Calgary also has a team in the National Hockey League. The Flames moved to the Canadian city from Atlanta, and play during the winter at the Saddledome, which was also used during the 1988 Winter Olympics.

Several good horse shows are held during the year, and pari-mutuel horse racing is held regularly. Good public and private golf clubs are nearby; both the Banff Springs Hotel and Jasper Park Lodge have excellent courses.

The city has several tennis clubs. During the winter many enjoy badminton, curling, and ice skating. Boating and canoeing are also popular. Within the city, many parks and playgrounds have community swimming pools. Bowling, both five-pin and 10-pin, is popular. Downhill and cross-country skiing are available just outside the city limits, as well as on the slopes at Banff and Lake Louise. Several riding academies on nearby ranches offer lessons. Calgary also has an excellent planetarium and zoo.

A spectacular annual event is the Calgary Stampede, held during the first part of July. This event, which began in 1912, has since grown into a 10-day celebration. Rodeo and western enthusiasts are drawn from all over Canada and the U.S. during this time, when the city completely surrenders to the spirit of the Old West. Besides rodeo programs and chuck wagon races, street dancing, chuck wagons selling flapjacks and bacon, and marching bands are popular. More than half-a-million Americans pass through Calgary every year to see the stampede and to enjoy nearby scenic attractions.

Within a few hours of Calgary, in the Canadian Rockies, are some of the most scenic areas of North America: Banff (also known as a center for native arts and crafts), Lake Louise, and Jasper National Park. Banff, about 75 miles to the northwest, may be reached by car in about one-and-a-half hours; another half-hour will take the traveler to Lake Louise. The "Badlands" at Drumheller, and the dinosaur burying ground, some 85 miles north and east, are also of interest, as is the Cypress Hills area in the southeastern corner of the province.

To the south, straddling the Canadian-U.S. border at the junction of Alberta, British Columbia, and Montana, is Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. This rustic recreation area comprises large park sites of both countries. The oil and natural gas fields in Turner Valley, just southwest of Calgary, are points of interest, as are the Pembina and Leduc oil fields to the north. The tourist may drive on the Alaska Highway to Dawson Creek and beyond. Excellent highways extend into British Columbia through beautiful scenery. The nearest U.S. border points from Calgary are the small Montana towns of Babb, 165 miles to the south, and Sweetgrass, 195 miles to the southeast. Other road mileages from Calgary are: Helena, Montana, 395; Great Falls, Montana, 330; Seattle, Washington, 760; Boise, Idaho, 680; and Salt Lake City, Utah, 995.

Edmonton, Alberta's capital, is connected to Calgary by an excellent highway and frequent air service.

Big-game hunting is possible, and antelope, caribou (woodland), bear (black and grizzly), deer, elk, mountain goat, bighorn sheep, and moose are found within easy driving distance of Calgary. On the flyway for millions of migratory water fowl, Alberta offers excellent hunting for several varieties of duck and geese. Pheasant, grouse, partridge, and ptarmigan are hunted in many areas.

The larger northern Alberta lakes are inhabited by huge northern pike and lake trout; pike, perch, and pickerel can be found in most Alberta lakes. In the Rocky Mountain lakes and streams are found Dolly Varden trout, rainbow trout, and grayling. The Bow River, which flows through Calgary, is one of the best rainbow trout streams in North America.

Camping is popular in Alberta, and campsites are available in the three Rocky Mountain National Parks, as well as in 37 provincial parks. The national parks offer superb recreation throughout the year; entry permits, valid for a year, can be bought for a nominal fee.

Entertainment

Calgary has a philharmonic orchestra, a chamber music society, several choral groups, an amateur theater, an opera association, and a large number of movie houses. The permanent home of the Calgary Philharmonic Orchestra is the splendid new Calgary Centre for the Performing Arts. In addition, traveling orchestras, ballets, and musicals visit the city each year. The Glen-bow Museum houses displays of Eskimo and Indian artifacts, as well as exhibits on ranching, railroads, farming, oil, and the mounted police.

Calgary's Chinatown is small compared to those in Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal, but the restaurants on South Centre Street are lively late into the evening. There are very good Italian, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Mexican, and Vietnamese restaurants, and first-class French cuisine.

Calgary has several public libraries. New works of fiction and nonfiction from Canadian, American, and British publishers are regularly added to the stacks. An almost complete array of U.S. magazines and pocketbooks can be found at most newsstands, department stores, and supermarkets.

Social contact between members of the American community is informal. The American Women's Club is a group of mainly longtime Calgary residents, many of whom are Canadian citizens.

Other gatherings include both Canadians and Americans. Many opportunities exist for contributing voluntary time, skill, and effort to Canadian charitable and other activities. Rotary, Kiwanis, and Lions Clubs are active in the city. Several ranking men's clubs are available downtown, including the Calgary Petroleum Club, the Ranchman's Club, and the 400 Club.

Halifax

Halifax is the center of economic, political, and military activity in the Atlantic provinces. The capital of the province of Nova Scotia and the largest, most important city in the Atlantic region, Halifax is located on the south coast of the Nova Scotia peninsula. The city itself is a tiny peninsula with one of the finest natural harbors in the world.

Halifax was founded in 1749 by Edward Cornwallis as a British stronghold, and became the capital of Nova Scotia in place of Annapolis Royal the following year. It was incorporated as a city in 1842 and has been an important Canadian naval base since 1910.

Beginning life as a fort, its situation was so ideal for trade that, during the early 19th century, Halifax was the wealthiest part of Canada. Today, Halifax is an interesting mix of old and new. Province House where the Nova Scotia legislature meets, is a fine example of Georgian architecture. The residence of the lieutenant governor is also a beautiful building with lovely period furniture. The Old Town Clock on Citadel Hill, ordered by the Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria, during his tenure as commander of the Halifax Garrison, has been the symbol of Halifax for many years, but is now challenged by the towers of encroaching high-rise office and apartment buildings.

The Halifax Container port, Halifax Shipyards Ltd., and HMC Dockyard (the largest naval base in Canada) are the most important waterfront industries. Although Halifax spent the first half of the 20th century tearing down its old buildings, it is spending the latter half restoring those which are left. A fine example of this change of heart is the Historic Properties waterfront development, which features warehouses, banks, and other buildings of historic value.

The population of metropolitan Halifax (including its twin city of Dartmouth and other contiguous communities) is estimated at 321,000 (2000). The decline in merchant shipping has adversely affected the local economy, as have the recent severe problems in the fishing industry, an important one in this area. Nova Scotia now bases its hopes for economic prosperity on the gas finds off Sable Island, just as Newfoundland has great expectations founded on offshore oil. Although the oil glut has dimmed these hopes for the moment, exploration is still going on. Dartmouth, until recently best known as the bedroom of Halifax, is doing better with related industry which supplies the drilling rigs. Unlike Halifax which, cramped into its small peninsula, literally has no place to go, Dartmouth is able to provide space for industry in its Burnside Industrial Park. Halifax International Airport is located in Kelly Lake, about a 20-minute drive from Dartmouth.

Halifax is the Atlantic regional headquarters of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC); the federal departments of Manpower and Immigration; Northern and Indian Affairs; Public Works; and Transport. It is also the principal military, rescue, and emergency planning headquarters of eastern Canada. The main office of the Atlantic Provinces Economic Council is in Halifax, as are the regional headquarters of many banks and corporations.

The U.S. consular district was originally established in 1827 as the first consular office in British North America. Now, it covers four of Canada's 10 provinces—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. The first three are known as the Maritime Provinces; along with Newfoundland, they are known as the Atlantic Provinces.

Education

Educational opportunities are excellent in Halifax, which is the center of the largest concentration of institutions of higher learning in Atlantic Canada, attracting students and teachers from many parts of the world. This contributes to the area's growing cosmopolitan atmosphere.

Within the corporate boundaries of the city are seven degree-granting institutions—Dalhousie University (founded in 1818), St. Mary's University (founded in 1841), King's College, Nova Scotia Technical College (founded in 1907), Mount St. Vincent University (founded in 1873), Atlantic School of Theology, and the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design. Also available is the Nova Scotia Institute of Technology.

School attendance is compulsory for all children ages six to 16. The language of instruction for most of Nova Scotia is English. The Halifax public schools are divided into elementary schools and junior and senior high schools. Vocational and technical training is offered by the provincially operated vocational school.

Tuition is free for Halifax residents. No school bus transportation is provided; students either walk or rely on public transportation. French instruction is available on a voluntary basis at all levels, and one school offers a French immersion program in elementary grades. It is anticipated that the program will expand gradually to include upper grades as well.

The Catholic Church operates one private school in Halifax—the Convent School of the Sacred Heart. Tuition is charged. The school offers classes for girls through grade 12, and for boys in grades primary to six.

Another private school is the Armbrae Academy. It is coeducational and offers classes for grades primary through twelve.

Halifax has a number of nursery schools, one popular school being the Halifax Early Childhood School, on Inglis Street.

Special education opportunities in Halifax include facilities for the mentally handicapped and those with learning disabilities, grades primary through nine, and for the physically handicapped, grades primary through 12. In addition, educational facilities are available for the emotionally disturbed and those with behavioral difficulties in grades one through nine. Transportation, if required, is available, and in very special cases, teaching in the home is possible.

A school for the blind (primary to 11th grade) is also located in Halifax. An effort is made to keep visually handicapped children within the regular school system, particularly at the high school level. A school for the deaf, serving New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, is located in Amherst, Nova Scotia, about 125 miles from Halifax.

Recreation

Several beaches are on both the south and east shores within two hours' drive of Halifax. Sea bathing is for the hardy only, since the water temperature is rarely over 65°F. Freshwater swimming is available at Grand Lake outside Halifax and in the Dartmouth Lakes. Indoor pools are located at the YMCA, the YWCA, and Centennial Pool. The Halifax Dalplex and the Dartmouth Sportsplex offer swimming, skating, and gym facilities, as well as exercise classes. Skating and curling clubs are popular. Outdoor skating on the various lakes is limited because of the changeable climate.

Most of the city's leading business and professional people belong to one of two yacht clubs, the Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Squadron or the Armdale Club, even if they do not own boats.

The area has four golf clubs: a public club, the Ashburn Golf and Country Club in Halifax (the largest); Brightwood in Dartmouth; and a private club, Oakfield Golf and Country Club, Ltd., outside the city.

A majority of the tennis courts are controlled by the tennis clubs and universities. Among the clubs with tennis courts are the South End Tennis Club, the Waegwoltic Club, St. Mary's Boat Club, and the Northwest Arm Rowing Club. Indoor tennis is available at the Burnside Tennis Club in Dartmouth. Public tennis courts are located on the Halifax Common and at other parks throughout the city. Other court games available (at private clubs) are squash, handball, and badminton.

Persons who have some skill in football, basketball, or hockey can join amateur leagues or club teams. Health-building programs and gym facilities are available at the local YMCA, YWCA, and at various health clubs. Nova Scotians are also interested in skating and curling. Many people join skating clubs. The ancient Scottish game of curling is entirely a club activity, and membership in either of two curling organizations is an easy way to get to know the Haligonians.

Wentworth, about 90 miles north of Halifax, and Mount Martoc near Windsor have limited skiing.

Halifax is far from the larger Canadian and U.S. cities, but is well situated for excursions within the Maritimes. Its coastal scenery is beautiful, and the provinces contain many places of interest, with sailing, sunbathing, hunting, and fishing as the chief attractions. These points are not resort towns in the usual sense, so a car is useful. Bus transportation is available; railway travel is slow, except on the main line.

Two main highway routes connect most points of interest. One leads from Halifax to Yarmouth, on the southwestern end of the province, close to the famous tuna fishing grounds, then northeast along the Bay of Fundy through the apple-growing belt of the Annapolis Valley and Evangeline country. The Evangeline trail covers the country first colonized by the French. The oldest permanent settlement in North America was at Port Royal, and the French Habitation built there in 1605 has been reconstructed.

The other route leads northeast from Halifax, across the Strait of Canso and around the scenically magnificent Cabot Trail to Sydney, a city of about 35,000 and Cape Breton's steel center. Cape Breton Island, with its Cabot Trail, Louisbourg Fortress, and the Alexander Graham Bell Museum at Baddeck, is a very popular tourist attraction.

Hubbards, Chester, Mahone Bay, and Lunenburg, all with less than 5,000 population, lie along the Atlantic Coast, some 20 to 100 miles southwest of Halifax. These towns have comfortable accommodations for visitors in the tourist season, as do most Nova Scotian towns. Peggy's Cove and colorful fishing villages lie along the bays of the south coast.

Nova Scotia's 4,500 lakes, 50 rivers, and numerous streams offer fantastic fishing—shad, brook trout and, especially, Atlantic salmon. Some of the best smoked salmon can be found in the small Nova Scotian town of Tangier.

In New Brunswick, Fundy National Park, maintained by the federal government, features camping facilities, hiking, boating, horseback riding, nature trails, and many other worthwhile recreational activities. New Brunswick also has a number of festivals related to the area's fishing industry, including the Shediac Lobster Festival and the Campbellton Salmon Festival. Not far away is the former summer home of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at Campobello Island, now maintained jointly by the U.S. and Canada. The picturesque resort town of St. Andrews-by-the-Sea, with its white frame houses, reminds the visitor of the U.S. New England states.

Prince Edward Island (P.E.I.), the garden province, is alive with activity in the summertime, with its many museums, beaches, parks, and theaters. Music camps and the Atlantic Canada Institute Summer School are held in July at the University of P.E.I. Country Days and Old Home Week feature music, agricultural displays, handicrafts, and parades. The Anne of Green Gables Festival, along with lobster, strawberry, and potato blossom festivals and craft fairs, are also part of its summer attractions. P.E.I. is a favorite vacation spot for young families.

Newfoundland offers many opportunities for camping, hunting, fishing, and sight-seeing. Its capital, St. John's, is a good base from which to explore the province's scenic and historic Avalon Peninsula.

Year-round ferry service to Port Aux Basques on Newfoundland's southwest coast is offered from North Sydney, Nova Scotia. Many summertime visitors to Newfoundland, however, prefer to take the ferry which operates during summer months from North Sydney to Argentia, Newfoundland, an Avalon Peninsula port (in Placentia Bay near the site where Roosevelt and Churchill drafted the Atlantic Charter), only 85 miles from St. John's. Newfoundland's annual regatta is one of the oldest sporting events in North America.

Air service is provided by Air Canada and Eastern Provincial Airways to numerous cities in the Atlantic Provinces. Two ferry services connect Nova Scotia with Prince Edward Island at two points: one, operating throughout the year, crosses from Cape Tormentine in New Brunswick to Port Borden, about 35 miles to the west of Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; the other, which operates only when there is no ice, crosses from Pictou, Nova Scotia, to Woods Island, about 35 miles southeast of Charlottetown.

Entertainment

Halifax has a professional repertory theater, The Neptune, and is the home of Symphony Nova Scotia, a professional orchestra, recently formed under the musical direction of Boris Brott, a well-known and talented Canadian conductor. The orchestra performs chamber music as well as symphonic programs. Rebecca Cohn Auditorium, located at Dalhousie University, is the locale for various kinds of entertainment, including concerts by such well-known Canadians as André Gagnon and Liona Boyd. An ensemble called Nova Music performs classical music by contemporary composers. Distinguished films are shown in the auditorium on Sunday nights.

Dalhousie University, St. Mary's University, and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) sponsor concert series throughout the season which feature international and national artists. Local amateur groups also present plays and operettas. Spectator sports include football, basketball, hockey, boxing, and wrestling. The various university and service teams compete in amateur football, basketball, and baseball.

Several movie theaters in Halifax and Dartmouth show current American and British films. Nova Scotia is also the home of the Annapolis Apple Blossom Festival and the Highland Games.

Two Canadian television stations have studios in Halifax, and there are several radio stations in the metro area, both AM and FM. Halifax Cablevision Limited provides a cable service which picks up the U.S. public broadcasting channel, NBC, and ABC from Maine transmitters. French-language broadcasts are presented on radio and TV.

The Halifax Memorial Library, established in 1951, offers free library service from its collection of about 130,000 volumes. It has a good selection of late and current fiction and nonfiction and an excellent reference section. A mobile service for the city and the county has been operating for several years. Books are available at local bookstores, but cost 20% more than in the U.S.

Art exhibits are held at the Art Gallery of Nova Scotia and at various universities.

Some excellent restaurants are located in Halifax, specializing in seafood delicacies and French cuisine.

Winnipeg

Metropolitan Winnipeg is the fifth largest city in Canada, ranking after Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, and Calgary. It is known worldwide for its seemingly endless wheat fields, its blizzards, and its hockey team, the Jets.

A fur trading post was established on the site of modern-day Winnipeg in 1738, and later a colony was founded by the Scots. The village of Winnipeg was settled in the late 1860s, and incorporated as a city in 1873.

Winnipeg resembles cities of comparable size in the middle western plains in the U.S. Situated on the eastern edge of an 800-mile stretch of prairie-land, it is the home of the Canadian Wheat Board and the Board of Grain Commissioners. Winnipeg is also located almost midway between the two oceans, near the geographical center of North America. Its people are friendly and hospitable. Their interests, habits, and mode of life are similar to those of the American Westerner.

The capital of the Province of Manitoba, Winnipeg is situated at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, about 70 miles north of the international boundary. It is 485 miles, by car, from Minneapolis, Minnesota. It is 760 feet above sea level, and the surrounding area within a 100-mile perimeter is flat, broken by occasional wooded areas and streams. The area has a healthy climate, comparable to that of Minneapolis, although colder. Winter temperatures drop to as low as 40°F or more below zero. Winters are fairly dry and summers are cool and pleasant.

Greater Winnipeg's population was about 652,400 in 2000. English is the principal language spoken in the city. However, in St. Boniface, a part of metropolitan Winnipeg, more than 40% of the present population is of French or Belgian ancestry, and most people speak French as well as English.

Although about 40% of Winnipeg's population is British in origin, with a strong Scottish strain, there are a number of other nationalities, including Ukrainians, Germans, French, Italians, Dutch, Philippines, Vietnamese, and Chinese. There is no American colony as such in Winnipeg. In fact, the social, economic, and cultural background of the city is practically the same as in the contiguous areas of the U.S. There is a constant shift of population in both directions across the border, and estimates place the number of persons in the district with claim to U.S. citizenship above 10,000. Upwards of one-and-a-half million American tourists have annually visited the Province of Manitoba.

Education

Winnipeg's good, free education for kindergarten through grade 12 is comparable to American standards. Two nondenominational private schools and two Roman Catholic schools are also of good reputation. The nondenominational school for girls, Balmoral High School, has classes from kindergarten through grade 12. The Roman Catholic school, St. Mary's Academy for Girls, provides facilities for grades seven through 12. St. John's Raven-scourt School for Boys (and girls from grades nine through 12) provides excellent education from grades one through 12. St. Paul's College (Roman Catholic) provides education for boys and young men (grades nine through 11 and through university). Tuition and annual fees at private schools are slightly lower than those in the U.S.

Special educational opportunities are available in each school division in Winnipeg for children who have learning disabilities or who are mentally or physically handicapped. Special educational institutions are also available for severely physically handicapped or mentally retarded children.

Winnipeg has two universities. The University of Manitoba, is the oldest university in Western Canada. Founded in 1877, it is a first-class provincially operated institution and offers a large number of undergraduate and graduate programs. The University of Winnipeg, located in the center of the city, is a relatively new institution (founded in 1967), with undergraduate courses in the liberal arts and pre-professional education.

Red River Community College specializes in practical courses for both degree and nondegree students. All three institutions have evening and summer sessions.

Various levels of instruction are offered at the Winnipeg School of Ballet. Students taking private lessons in music may take examinations leading to the certificate of Associate of the Toronto Conservatory of Music. The University of Manitoba gives a bachelor's degree (AMM) in music. The Winnipeg Art Gallery also offers art classes.

Recreation

Winnipeg offers numerous and varied year-round recreational facilities for adults as well as children. Nearly every residential neighborhood has school playgrounds and local community clubs where instruction is given to children in handicrafts, dancing, skating, hockey, football, tennis, and other sports. Four large and some small parks, the largest of which is Assiniboine Park (which has a fine zoo, formal gardens, and conservatory), provide pleasant surroundings for picnicking, sports, and walking. All parks are conveniently served by local transportation.

Golf, tennis, swimming, and boating are the most popular summer sports in Winnipeg. Golf may be played at several very good municipal courses or at a number of semiprivate clubs where reasonable greens fees are charged. Winnipeg has a number of neighborhood wading pools, one large municipal outdoor pool, and several indoor pools. An Olympic-size indoor pool, one of the largest in the world and the site of the 1967 Pan American Games' swimming events, is located in the city.

Several local skiing clubs teach the fundamentals of skiing and jumping on the banks of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, but it is necessary to travel some distance from the city for really good downhill skiing conditions. Cross-country skiing is popular in and around Winnipeg. Indoor sports such as badminton, squash, bowling, curling, and roller skating may also be enjoyed.

Excellent hunting abounds in Manitoba. Deer, moose, and even polar bear are found in the north. Duck, geese, prairie chicken, and grouse are found only a few hours' drive from Winnipeg in some of the best hunting regions in Canada. Good fishing can be found throughout the district, and both open water and ice fishing are very popular.

The Precambrian Shield, 50 miles east of the city, is an area of woods, rocks, and lakes. The nearest resort area is the district on the southern shores of Lake Winnipeg, about 35 miles to the north by road, where many people have small cottages. There are limited bathing facilities in several of the beach towns.

The western section of the very attractive Lake of the Woods area is about 120 miles east of Winnipeg and easily accessible by car, bus, or train. Among the pleasant resorts closest to Winnipeg are Kenora, Whiteshell Forest Reserve and, to the west, Riding Mountain National Park. Many attractive summer homes are found throughout the area. Hotel accommodations are good; motels are satisfactory. Most resort spots offer special camping facilities.

To the north, places such as Flin Flon, a copper-zinc-gold mining center, and Fort Churchill on Hudson Bay are interesting places to visit. There is a good paved road to Flin Flon (560 miles) and to Thompson (a nickel mining town), but Fort Churchill is reached only by rail or air. Each year a few rail excursions of several days' duration are run to Churchill, with the tourists living on the train. The Selkirk Navigation Company operates a five-day cruise on Lake Winnipeg during June, July, August, and September. Accommodations on the modern Lord Selkirk are comfortable.

Northwest of Winnipeg, at the south end of Lake Dauphin, is the town of Dauphin (population 9,000). Known for barley, timber, and fisheries, Dauphin is also host to Canada's National Ukrainian Festival, held annually in August.

Entertainment

Winnipeg prides itself as being "The Convention City" and, as might be expected, it offers a wide variety of entertainment opportunities. These include the internationally renowned Royal Winnipeg Ballet, the Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra, the Manitoba Theater Center, the Contemporary Dancers, and the Opera. Performances are usually held in the Concert Hall and the Manitoba Theater Center, both located at the Centennial Center adjacent to City Hall. There is also an open-air theater—Rainbow Stage—where plays, musicals, and other attractions are held during the summer.

Also in the Centennial Center is the Museum of Man and Nature, which offers a wide variety of exhibits on the general theme of man in relation to the environment. There are several other museums in the city, the most impressive of which is the new and strikingly handsome Winnipeg Art Gallery.

The city's ethnic diversity is reflected in the variety of festivals held throughout the year, including Festival du Voyageur (a winter festival in St. Boniface), Ukrainian Week, and Folklorama, a major event each summer, during which pavilions representing various ethnic groups provide entertainment in the form of traditional songs, dancing, and food.

Probably the most popular attraction in the city is hockey, with its National Hockey League franchise, the Jets. The Winnipeg Arena is located on Maroons Road, named after a senior hockey team which brought honor to the city 20 years ago. When the Jets joined the NHL, the roof of Winnipeg Arena was raised and 5,400 additional seats were installed. This brought the arena up to NHL standards of at least 15,000 seats.

Other spectator sports include football and curling games, as well as thoroughbred racing at Assiniboine Downs.

There are about 15 motion picture theaters in the city. Several of these are first class and feature the latest American and, on occasion, European films. Winnipeg also has a 200,000-volume, Carnegie-endowed public library located in a new, attractive building.

Weather dictates the nature of much of the activity: concerts, theater, ballet, bridge, and winter sports when it is cold; and fishing, touring tennis, golf, cycling, and walking when the glorious spring and summer weather arrives.

Hamilton

Hamilton, on the western tip of Lake Ontario, is about 40 miles southwest of Toronto. Explored by Robert LaSalle in 1669 and first settled in 1813, it is Canada's most important steel-producing center, and also is a transportation hub with a harbor, an airport, and a rail terminus. Other industries include the manufacture of automobiles, tires, railroad equipment, clothing, chemicals, and farm implements. The metropolitan population is approximately 599,800 (2000 est.).

Hamilton has many attractions for the visitor. Its 1,900-acre Royal Botanical Gardens are among the most beautiful on the North American continent. There are also gardens in Gage Park, and formal gardens close to the Art Gallery of Hamilton. The city is home to Canada's largest open-air market, which teems with residents and visitors during the growing season. Hamilton Beach on Lake Ontario is a summer playground.

One of the major tourist sites in the city is the 72-room Dundurn Castle, which houses a museum and a children's theater. It was built by Sir Allan Napier MacNab from 1832 to 1835 and bought by the city in 1900. MacNab was prime minister of the United Province of Upper and Lower Canada from 1854-1856.

The Hamilton Visitors and Convention Bureau is located at 155 James Street South.

Regina

Regina is the capital city of Saskatchewan, Canada's fifth largest province. Founded in 1822, it was the capital of the Northwest Territories from its inception until 1905 and, that year, when Saskatchewan was designated as a separate province, it became the seat of provincial government. It is called by Canadians the "Queen City of the Plains."

Regina is a transportation and commercial center in the midst of a large farming region. It is the site of Campion College (founded in 1917), the Canadian Bible College (founded in 1941), the Regina branch of the University of Saskatchewan, and Luther College (founded in 1921). Among its points of interest are the Museum of Natural History, the Regina Plains Museum, the Telecommunications Historical Museum, the Saskatchewan Archives, and MacKenzie Art Gallery, with its extensive collection of Canadian and European art and antiquities from the ancient world. Sports enthusiasts can spend a day amidst memorabilia and artifacts at the Saskatchewan Sports Hall of Fame and Sport Museum. Its population is approximately 192,800.

Regina was named by Princess Louise of Great Britain in honor of her mother, Queen Victoria. It was the headquarters of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police until 1920. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police Centennial Museum contains buffalo coats, guns, saddles, uniforms, and photographs illustrating the legendary police force's intriguing past.

Regina hosts a number of major events each year: the Western Canada Farm Progress Show in June, Buffalo Days in July, the International Arabian Horse Show in August, and the Canadian Western Agribition each November.

The city has a rich cultural tradition as evidenced by its many theater, dance, music and ethnic performing groups and by the Saskatchewan Center of the Arts, one of the finest concert halls in North America. The Regina Symphony is the oldest continuously operating symphony orchestra in Canada.

The city operates a number of excellent parks and complexes, the Regina Sportplex, five outdoor swimming pools and several excellent golf courses. Wascana Centre, located in the heart of the city, has a man-made lake, bicycle paths, paddle-boat rentals, a waterfowl park, double-decker bus tours, and several historic points of interest.

Just north of Regina, in the small town of Craven, the largest outdoor country music extravaganza in Canada is held annually in July. The Big Valley Jamboree features many U.S. country music performers.

Saskatchewan's rich Indian heritage can be explored at the summer powwows held on most Indian reserves. Major ceremonies include the Poundmaker Powwow near Cut-knife, and the Standing Buffalo Indian Powwow at Sioux Bridge near Fort Qu'Appelle.

Edmonton

Edmonton, Alberta's capital, is Canada's "Gateway to the North," known for its excellent quality of life. It boasts a population of 940,000 and is the oil capital of the country. In addition to oil, Edmonton's major industries include flour milling, meat-packing, plastics, tanning, dairying, lumbering, and petrochemical production. Established in 1795 as a Hudson's Bay trading post, it expanded and developed during the gold rush to the Klondike in 1898. The quiet town of 1,500 settlers became the supply center for miners drawn by the promise of gold. It is now a modern city with a new international airport. The city's numerous rail lines have contributed to Edmonton's reputation as the transportation hub of northwestern Canada.

Located 350 miles north of the U.S. border, Edmonton is the northern-most major city in Canada. Just 185 miles from the center of Alberta, Edmonton is surrounded by a rare natural setting. Verdant foothills banked with wood and the mighty North Saskatchewan River soften the effect of all the city's new concrete. Along the river runs an impressive 35 miles of greenbelt.

The University of Alberta (founded in 1906) is located in the city, as are St. Joseph's College (founded in 1927), the Christian Training Institute, and other specialized schools.

Football and curling are popular spectator and participant recreational activities, but of greatest interest is Edmonton's National Hockey League team, the two-time Stanley Cup champion (1984 and 1985) Oilers.

Attractions in Edmonton range from various types of theater, particularly at the Citadel, to galleries and the domed Provincial Legislature buildings. Several rodeos are held during the summer months. In July, when the sun hardly sets, Edmonton hosts Klondike Days. The city's frontier past and gold rush days are celebrated at that time with sourdough raft races, beard growing contests, and other events. In August, the city hosts a Folk Music Festival. This festival features traditional and bluegrass music, country, blues, and Celtic music, arts and crafts displays, and a food fair.

Perhaps the biggest attraction in Edmonton is West Edmonton Mall, located seven miles from downtown. It is the world's largest shopping mall and the world's largest indoor amusement park—all under one roof. Covering 110 acres and housing 836 stores on two levels, the mall also includes a reproduction of the Versailles fountains; a recreation of New Orleans' Bourbon Street; a miniature golf course; an indoor amusement park called Canada Fantasyland; a water park that offers water-skiing and body surfing on artificial waves; an NHL regulation-size ice rink (the Oilers practice here often); and a hotel, with fantasy-style rooms.

Built in phases (the first was opened in 1980) by four Iranian-immigrant brothers at a cost of $750 million, the mall attracts 400,000 visitors a week, two-thirds of them from out of town.

London

London, a city of 381,500, is the chief municipality of southwestern Ontario. It is an industrial and railroad center, first settled in 1826, on the Thames River, about 20 miles north of Lake Erie. Much of its architecture and atmosphere is suggestive of the more famous city on another Thames, and visitors find that the Ontario London has many characteristics reminiscent of England's capital. London is surrounded by a rich agricultural area. Vegetables, fruits, grain, and dairy products are produced in this region. Several products are manufactured in London, including brass and steel products, textiles, diesel locomotives, food products, clothing, and electrical appliances.

London is well known for its art museum and for its Museum of Indian Archaeology and Pioneer Life, housed at the University of Western Ontario. Other popular tourist spots include the Storybook Gardens for children and the Royal Canadian Regiment Museum. There is also a unique Guy Lombardo Museum.

The city offers theaters and cultural activities (many connected with the several private colleges and the university) and other opportunities for sports and entertainment.

St. John's

St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland, is the oldest city in North America north of Mexico. Located on the southeast coast of the province, on the Atlantic Ocean, St. John's is the commercial center and principal port of Newfoundland. With a metropolitan population of about 173,000 the city has an excellent natural harbor and is the terminus of the railroad which crosses the island.

The area was colonized by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1593, and Water Street bustled in 1600, making it the continent's oldest business district, but a permanent settlement was not established until early in the 17th century. Twice destroyed by the French and Indians, St. John's was permanently controlled by the British beginning in 1762. It served as a naval base during the American Revolution and the War of 1812. On Signal Hill in 1901, Marconi received the first trans-Atlantic wireless message. The first nonstop, trans-Atlantic flight was made from St. John's in 1919.

As a base for the province's fishing fleet, St. John's industries are mainly related to fishing, and include shipbuilding, manufacturing fishing equipment and marine engines, and the storing, preserving, and processing of fish. St. John's has Roman Catholic and Anglican cathedrals, and is the site of the Newfoundland Museum, Memorial University (founded in 1949), and Queen's College (founded in 1841).

St. John's has many fine parks throughout the city. One of the largest is C.A. Pippy Park. This park offers opportunities for recreation and relaxation that include hiking and cross-country skiing. It has picnic areas, a campground, golf course, and row-boat rentals. Bow-ring Park is located in the western part of the city. The park is noted for several very attractive and interesting pieces of statuary. It has been customary for various heads of state and members of the British Royal Family who have visited St. John's to follow the tradition of planting a tree in Bowring Park as a living reminder of their visit.

Victoria

Victoria, the capital of British Columbia, is located on the southeastern portion of Vancouver Island, at the east end of Juan de Fuca Strait. The 2000 population of the metropolitan area was estimated at 287,900.

Victoria is the largest city on the island, as well as its major port and business center. Industries in the city include sawmills, woodworking plants, grain elevators, and fish processing factories. Victoria is also the base for a deep-sea fishing fleet and the Pacific headquarters of the Canadian Navy.

The city was founded in 1843 as Fort Camosun, a Hudson's Bay Company post. It was later named Fort Victoria. When Vancouver Island became a crown colony in 1849, its new town (built in l851-52) was called Victoria and named the capital of the colony. In the late 1850s, gold was discovered in British Columbia and Victoria became an important base for miners on their way to the Cariboo gold fields. The island was united with the mainland in 1866, and Victoria remained the capital. In 1871, it became the capital of the province.

Victoria, with its mild climate, beautiful gardens, and many parks is a popular center for American and Canadian tourists. The city's most famous garden is Butchard Gardens, which dates back to 1904. Other beautiful gardens worth visiting include those at Government House and Beacon Hill Park. Beacon Hill Park features ponds, gardens, forests, and one of the tallest totem poles in the world. The Dominion Astrophysical Observatory and the University of Victoria (founded in 1902 and elevated to university status in 1963) are located here. During the annual Victorian Days festival, inhabitants dress in Victorian clothing.

The downtown core of Victoria is small and packed with stores. Handmade chocolates, imported bone china, Irish linens, antiques, and English woolens are some of the items sold.

Nightlife includes the brilliantly lit parliament building, a small Chinatown, and an old section of town full of boutiques and restaurants. The city's provincial museum contains Indian, gold rush, early settler art and artifacts, and many superb old totem poles. A sawmill and logging museum is located in the nearby town of Duncan.

For the sports enthusiast, golf is available year-round at such courses as Royal Colwood, Olympic View, Glen Meadows, Cordova Bay, and Cedar Hill. To see harbor seals, porpoises, marine birds and killer whales, one cant take a three-hour, 50-mile boat trip into the Gulf Islands. For those interested in salt-water fishing, charters for both sail and power boats are available at Victoria's marinas.

Windsor

Windsor, Ontario, known as the "City of Roses," on the Detroit River, is a major border crossing between Canada and the United States. The Ambassador Bridge and the busy Detroit-Windsor river tunnel, which connect the two countries, carry countless commuters to their jobs in both cities, and serve the thousands of tourists who casually shop and dine and attend theaters and recreational activities in Detroit and Windsor.

A two-week-long International Freedom Festival is held jointly with Detroit in late June and early July, celebrating both the Canadian and the U.S. independence. The highlight of the festival is a huge fireworks display over the Detroit River. Windsor's riverfront is lined with parks. Jackson Park and Dieppe Gardens are the pride of the city.

With an estimated 2000 population of 262,000, Windsor has grown into a modern business and industrial center in the years since its incorporation as a village in 1854, then as a city in 1892.

Windsor was settled by the French at about the turn of the 18th century, just after the foundation of Detroit in 1701. It was headquarters for U.S. Gen. William Hull in the War of 1812.

Among the many products manufactured in Windsor are automobiles, pharmaceuticals, machine tools, and chemicals. Brewing and distilling facilities are major businesses here also. The city's educational institutions include the University of Windsor (founded in 1963), Assumption University (founded in 1857), and Holy Name (1934), and Canterbury Colleges (1957).

The town of Amherstburg, just a few miles south of Windsor, is one of the oldest settlements in the area, with an eventful history reflected in the numerous historic sites and buildings. When the British left Detroit, they established a fort and a navy yard here. Fort Malden National Historic Park contains part of the 1796 British earthworks. The Boblo Island amusement park can be reached by the Amherstburg ferry. Several intimate restaurants have recently given the town a reputation for fine cuisine. The population of Amherstburg is 5,700.

OTHER CITIES

ANTIGONISH is a city of 5,000 in northeast Nova Scotia, off St. George's Bay. The French first settled the region in 1762, followed by the British some 25 years later. Antigonish exports lumber and fish and has nearby quarries. With its 117-year-old St. Ninian's Cathedral, the city is the seat of a Catholic diocese. The Antigonish Movement (a pioneering, self-help, cooperative program) was founded at local St. Francis Xavier University in 1930. Tourists visit the Highland Games which the city holds every summer; these have their origin in the Brae-mar Games of Scotland.

BRAMPTON , known as the "Flower City" because of its many nurseries, is located in southeastern Ontario, 20 miles west of Toronto. Founded in the 1820s, Brampton pleasantly blends old and new, and has preserved much of the architecture from its early days. Recently, the city has become industrialized, manufacturing metal products, automobiles, shoes, furniture, stationery, optical lenses, and communications equipment. Visitors to Brampton enjoy the Great War Flying Museum, which displays World War I aircraft, as well as the five-story-high White Star Slide, located in the Shopper's World mall. Brampton's population is approximately 268.000.

BRANTFORD is located in southeastern Ontario, about 22 miles southwest of Hamilton. It was founded in 1830 and named for the famous Indian chief, Joseph Brant, who led the Six Nations Indians from their homeland in upstate New York to this site on the Grand River. Today, Brantford retains many of its associations with the heritage and culture of the Six Nations Indians; there are exhibits in the Brant County Museum and the Woodland Indian Cultural Education Centre and Museum. Indian heritage is celebrated every August during the Six Nations Indian Pageant and at the Indian John Memorial Shoot, an archery contest held each June. Her Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks, located in Brantford, is the world's only royal Indian chapel and the oldest Protestant church in Ontario. Brantford is also the place where Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and made the first long-distance call from his home to Paris, Ontario, in 1876. Bell's home in Brantford is open to visitors; it is furnished just as it was when he lived here and many of his inventions are on display. Brantford has a population of approximately 76,070. Truck bodies refrigeration equipment, textiles, and agricultural implements are manufactured here. The city is also the birthplace of hockey's Wayne Gretzky.

CHARLOTTETOWN , capital and only city of Prince Edward Island, has a population of 15,300. It was named for Queen Charlotte, consort of George III. It is on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, near Prince Edward Island National Park.

Historic DAWSON (formerly called Dawson City) lies at the confluence of the Yukon and Klondike Rivers in western Yukon Territory. A town of only 1,790, Dawson in its heyday of the Klondike Gold Rush (late 1890s) boasted over 30,000 residents. The rapid exhaustion of accessible mines in the early 20th century dealt the community a serious blow. The town's status as administrative center of the territory was lost in 1953. Now a major tourist and distribution area, Dawson celebrates its past with annual Discovery Day celebrations in August. The cabins of writers Jack London and Robert W. Service have been restored. Other attractions include the restored turn of the century Palace Grande Theater, Post Office, gold dredge No. 4, the Steamer Kero, and the cabin of the famous Canadian author, Robert Service.

FREDERICTON is the capital of New Brunswick, located 60 miles northwest of St. John's in the south-central region. The city has military, political, and literary traditions dating to the post-Revolutionary War period. A stronghold of Empire Loyalists (Tories), Fredericton is named after Frederick, King George III's son. Canada's first university, the University of New Brunswick, is in this Georgian-style city. Riverside mansions recall earlier days of grace and charm. Loyalist traditions live on at Kings Landing Historical Settlement. Fredericton is located alongside the Saint John River. The river is a focal point of city life. Each summer, the River Jubilee Festival pays tribute to the river. Tours and dinner cruises are available aboard the Pioneer Princess, a replica of the original paddle-wheelers that once plied the river. Fredericton is also the home of the internationally renowned Beaver-brook Art Gallery. The gallery displays a permanent collection of 2,000 works of art. It is distinguished as being one of the most comprehensive British collections in Canada and the most complete representation of Canadian painting, historical and contemporary, east of Montreal. The population of Fredericton is approximately 44,000.

GANDER is a modern city of 10,000, 210 miles northwest of St. John's, Newfoundland. It is best known for its airport, one of North America's largest. Transatlantic flights have been handled in Gander since 1939. During World War II it was a critical connection for air ferries and Atlantic patrols. The area's many wild geese and the Gander River were the origin of the city's name. It was incorporated in 1954.

The manufacturing city of GUELPH is located in southeastern Ontario, about 15 miles northeast of Kitchener. Founded in 1827 on several hills, Guelph produces rubber goods; electrical apparatus; paint; carpets; clothing, cigarettes, woolen, cotton, and linen goods; and iron and steel products. Foundries and tobacco warehouses are located in the city. Guelph is characterized by maple trees, wide avenues, and fine old homes constructed of local limestone in early Canadian architecture. The city is the birthplace of Col. John McCrae (1872-1918), the poet and physician best known for his nostalgic poem, "In Flanders Fields," written in 1915; his birthplace is open to the public. The University of Guelph, founded in 1964, covers 1,110 acres and includes a 350-acre arboretum. Guelph boasts one of the largest mechanical floral clocks in the province; it contains six to seven thousand flowers. A Spring Festival, featuring classical music, recitals, concerts, and song and dance programs, is held annually in late April and mid-May. Guelph's population is approximately 88,000.

KINGSTON , with a population of roughly 57,380, is strategically located in southeastern Ontario at the southern end of the Rideau Canal at the point where Lake Ontario flows into the St. Lawrence River. Fort Frontenac was built here by the French in 1673 and was destroyed by the Iroquois Indians shortly thereafter. Restored in 1695, the fort became a key point in reaching the Upper St. Lawrence River. The present city of Kingston, or "king's town," was settled by Loyalist refugees in 1793. In the early 1800s, the city seemed a likely target for an American invasion, so Fort Henry was built to guard the royal dockyards; it was used as a base for the British naval forces on Lake Ontario during the War of 1812. Fort Henry is currently a military museum. Kingston served as the capital of Canada from 1841 through 1844. Today, the city is an important transshipment point for the Welland Ship Canal and an outlet for traffic on the Rideau Canal. Aluminum sheeting, synthetic fibers, ceramics, mining equipment, ships, leather, and diesel engines are manufactured here. Kingston is the home of Queen's University (founded in 1841) and the Royal Military College of Canada (equivalent of West Point; founded in 1876). The city has an impressive concentration of 19th-century buildings that give it a unique appearance. Many of these buildings have been converted into pubs, restaurants, art galleries, and museums. The city is a departure point for boat tours along the Rideau Canal to Ottawa and around the scenic Thousand Islands. Kingston was the birthplace of organized hockey and the first league game was played here in 1885. The International Hockey Hall of Fame museum depicts the development of the sport through displays of equipment, photographs, and mementos.

KITCHENER , an industrial city in southeastern Ontario, is about 60 miles southwest of Toronto. Largely settled by the Pennsylvania Dutch in 1806, the area was then settled by Germans in 1825. The Germans named the city Berlin, but it was renamed in honor of Lord Horatio Kitchener, a British statesman. Kitchener honors its German heritage with an Oktoberfest, North America's largest. The city has a population of 178,000 (1996 est.); its metropolitan area, which includes the adjoining city of Waterloo, has a population of 346,000 (1990 est.). Manufactured items include furniture, textiles, shoes, appliances, and rubber products; industries include distilling, brewing, tanning, and meat packing. Kitchener is the site of St. Jerome's College, founded in 1864, and of Woodside National Historic Park, which commemorates the birthplace of William Lyon Mackenzie King, a Canadian statesman and former prime minister.

MEDICINE HAT , Alberta, lies on the South Saskatchewan River, 180 miles southeast of Calgary. This city of 40,000 is located in the heart of one of the biggest natural gas fields in the world. It is also on the Trans-Canada Highway and Canadian Pacific Railway. Medicine Hat is the home of several industries, among them pottery manufacturing, glassblowing, and flour milling. The mostly agricultural economy is dominated by ranching and vegetable growing. According to Indian legend, Medicine Hat acquired its name from a frightened Cree medicine man who lost his hat escaping from warriors. The city hosts an annual stampede and exhibition and has a highly regarded historical museum.

NIAGARA FALLS , with an estimated population of 70,500, is the site of one of the world's great natural wonders, drawing tourists from all over the world. The city itself is a manufacturing center located just below the falls in southeastern Ontario, opposite Niagara Falls, New York, to which it is connected by two bridges. Founded in 1853, the city was known as Clifton from 1856-1881, and was incorporated in 1904. The center of a large hydro-electric power complex, Niagara Falls also produces fertilizer, chemicals, abrasives, cereal, paper goods, silverware, and sporting goods. It is best known, however, as a bustling tourist town with several man-made attractions. A 25-mile park system stretches from above the falls downriver to Niagara-on-the-Lake. The falls are equally spectacular in the summer and in the winter when frozen; an illumination system also makes them a spectacular nighttime attraction.

Situated in a beautiful setting on Lake Ontario at the mouth of the Niagara River, NIAGARAON-THE-LAKE is one of the prettiest and best-preserved 19th-century towns in North America. Founded in 1780 and originally named Newark, Niagara-on-the-Lake was the first capital of Upper Canada from 1791-1796. Although the town was burned in 1813, parts of Fort Massassauga are still visible. Today, the city is best known for the Shaw Festival, a major annual theater event featuring the plays of George Bernard Shaw and his contemporaries. Performed in the Royal George Theatre, the Court House Theatre, and the modern Festival Theatre, the festival runs from early May through September. Located opposite Fort Niagara, New York, Niagara-on-the-Lake has a current population of 12,200.

Situated on the northeast shore of Lake Nipissing in northern Ontario, NORTH BAY is a busy year-round tourist city, well known to fishermen and hunters. It has a "golden mile" sandy beach with picnic facilities and shore-land parks, as well as numerous hiking trails. A transportation hub, North Bay produces lumber, dairy products, fur products, mining machinery and brass fittings; there are dairy farms in the area. The city is also home of the Quints Museum; the original Dionne family log farmhouse has been restored and now houses memorabilia from the world's first recorded surviving quintuplets. The annual Festival of the Arts, a series of cultural, musical, and social activities, is held in late September and early October. The local French community organizes sports and social events in early February for the Bon Homme Winter Carnival. North Bay's current population is 51,300.

OAKVILLE , located on Lake Ontario 22 miles southwest of Toronto, is a wealthy community of approximately 128,400 with an attractive harbor and an enduring, 19th-century charm. Automobiles, plastics, aluminum ware, and paper are produced in Oakville. The city is also a summer resort and has a golf course—Glen Abbey—designed by American pro golfer, Jack Nicklaus.

OSHAWA , situated on Lake Ontario 33 miles northeast of Toronto, is one of the main centers of Canada's automobile industry. Founded in 1795 as a lake port, Oshawa was incorporated as a town in 1879 and as a city in 1924. There are several old buildings near the lake-front that are preserved as part of the city's past. As an industrial city, Oshawa produces motor vehicles and parts, foundry products, electrical appliances, metal stampings, glass, plastics, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and furniture. The Canadian headquarters of General Motors is located here. The Canadian Automotive Museum, which displays collections from Canada's early car industry, is also located in Oshawa. The city's population is roughly 134,000.

PETERBOROUGH , a bustling city with many reminders of the past, is located in southeastern Ontario on the Otonabee River and Trent Canal, 13 miles north of the west end of Rice Lake and 70 miles northeast of Toronto. Sawmills were established on this site in 1821; the city was founded four years later and incorporated in 1905. Today, Peterborough is an industrial city whose products include electrical machinery, marine hardware, boats, plastics, lumber, carpets, and watches. Dairy farms are also located in the area. In addition, Peterborough is the southeastern gateway to the Kawartha Lakes and is the major link in the Trent-Severn Waterway. The Hydraulic Lift Lock is the world's highest hydraulic lift and the symbol of the city. It literally lifts pleasure craft, along with the water in which they float, 65 feet straight up. There is constant traffic, especially on summer weekends; during winter, there is skating on the canal beneath the lift lock. Peterborough also boasts the highest jet fountain in Canada. The Centennial Fountain shoots water 250 feet up from Little Lake, just south of the city. Trent University was founded here in 1963. The population is roughly 62,500. Southeast of Peterborough is the industrial town of Belleville, located on the Bay of Quinte. With a population of 35,300, Belleville is the gateway to two great recreation regions—the Highlands of Hastings, with its clear lakes (Bancroft is a tourist center there), and the sandy beaches of Quinte's Isle to the south (Picton attracts tourists there). A popular vacation spot, Belleville has one of Ontario's finest yacht harbors, along with facilities for golf, fishing, and swimming. Southwest of Belleville, on the eastern terminus of the Trent Canal system, is Trenton, whose population is 15,100. A popular water-oriented city, Trenton offers sailing, swimming, and fishing in summer, and ice boating and ice fishing in winter.

Situated in south-central Saskatchewan, PRINCE ALBERT is an important distribution point for the northern reaches of the province. Its varied economic base includes oil refining, woodworking, paper milling, tanning, and food packaging. Tourism here centers on nearby Prince Albert National Park and the unique Lund Wildlife Exhibit. Visitors are often attracted to Prince Albert's numerous museums and art galleries. Outdoor enthusiasts also enjoy the area's excellent hiking and skiing trails, and beautiful lakes where fishing is abundant. The metropolitan area is the site of a federal penitentiary, a school for the retarded, and several Indian reservations. Prince Albert has a population of about 34,000.

Situated in central British Columbia, 485 miles north of Vancouver, PRINCE GEORGE serves as an important provincial administrative and transportation hub. Explorer Simon Fraser founded the city in the early 1800s as a trading post on the river that now bears his name. The city grew with the opening of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway in 1913. The community's approximately 66,000 residents rely heavily on the lumber industry, as well as on minerals, oil, and hydropower, for their livelihoods. Tourists and sportsmen know Prince George as a base for expeditions into the Cariboo district.

SAINT CATHERINES , "the Garden City," is an industrial city situated on the Welland Ship Canal, just south of Lake Ontario. Settled by the Loyalists in 1790, Saint Catherines was incorporated as a town in 1845 and as a city in 1876. It was once a depot of the Underground Railroad; was the site of the first Welland Canal, built in 1829; and had the first electric streetcar system in North America. Today, Saint Catherines produces automobile parts, machinery, electrical equipment, hardware, textiles, and hosiery. Fruit is packed and shipped from its harbor. Brock University, founded in 1962, was named for (Gen.) Sir Isaac Brock, who commanded the Canadian and British forces at the battle of Queenston Heights in 1812. The Niagara Grape and Wine Festival, marking the ripening of the grapes in the Saint Catherines area, is held annually in late September. The 10-day festival, begun in 1952 as a one-day observance, now includes more than 200 events. The population of Saint Catherines is approximately 124,000.

SAINT JOHN , New Brunswick's largest city, boasts an excellent harbor, large dry docks, and terminal facilities. It is a year-round port with shipping connections to Europe, North and South America, and the West Indies. The city is the commercial, manufacturing, and transportation center of the province. The city's major industries include brewing, tanning, fish processing, shipbuilding, and oil refining. Visited in 1604 by French explorer Samuel de Champlain, Saint John eventually became a French fort and trading post (1631), and in the ensuing years was captured and recaptured as England and France struggled for possession. Saint John is famed for its museums; its buildings dating to colonial times; and for the Reversing Falls, which are actually rapids caused by the famous high tides. Not far away is the former summer home of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt at Campobello Island, now maintained jointly by Canada and the U.S. Historical attractions include the Carleton Martello Tower, a stone fortification surviving from the War of 1812; the Fort Howe Blockhouse, a replica of a 1777 blockhouse. Visitors are afforded a panoramic view of the city from the fort. Many of St. John's homes and buildings are worthy examples of historic architecture. The population of Saint John is about 102,000.

SARNIA is the center of Ontario's oil refining and petrochemical industries. Located on the Saint Clair River in southeastern Ontario, at the south end of Lake Huron, Sarnia is connected to Port Huron, Michigan, via the Bluewater Bridge, as well as by a railway tunnel. An important lake port, Sarnia produces lumber, plastics, sailboats, and automobile parts. Settled by the French in 1807 and by the English in 1813, Sarnia's waterfront offers a variety of recreational activities, including swimming, boating, and golfing. There are more than a dozen fully equipped marinas along 42 miles of white, sandy beaches. One of Sarnia's main attractions is fishing—trout, perch, whitefish, pickerel, walleye, chinook, and coho salmon may be caught from shore or boat. Water pollution problems have, occasionally, been serious. Those concerned about swimming in this region or eating locally caught fish are advised to contact appropriate provincial agencies. Known as the "Salmon Capital of Ontario," the city is host to the annual Sarnia Salmon Derby in May. Thousands of sailors and spectators descend upon the city for the Port Huron-to-Mackinac Race each summer. The population is estimated at about 80,000.

SASKATOON , in Saskatchewan, is the potash capital of the world. Half of the world's potash reserve is located in this area. Industries located in Saskatoon include food and dairy processing, flour milling, brewing, tanning, oil refining, and meat-packing. The city also manufactures electronic equipment fertilizers, clothing, and chemicals. Saskatoon is the home of the Mendel Art Gallery, which houses a collection of works by Canadian artists. Other museums in Saskatoon include the Ukrainian Museum of Canada, which has contemporary and historical exhibits dealing with the early settlement of Saskatchewan and culture on the Ukrainian people, and the Western Development Museum, which features a "Boom Town" that recreates a 1910 village. Saskatoon also hosts several annual fairs, and festivals which attract tourists and natives alike. The city offers numerous opportunities for fine dining. The population is about 194,000; the city is the birthplace of hockey great Gordie Howe.

SAULT SAINTE MARIE was established on the site of a mission founded by Pere Jacques Marquette in 1668. It is situated at the falls on the St. Mary's River (the link between Lakes Huron and Superior), just opposite Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan. This is the site of one of the most active canals in the St. Lawrence Seaway system; lake freighters traveling to and from the upper Great Lakes use the locks to bypass the rapids. Tours of the locks are available. Two-hour cruises through both the American and Canadian locks, the world's busiest, are offered from late May until Thanksgiving. The Canadian lock, located at the edge of the St. Mary's River rapids, was completed in 1895 and is the oldest in the system. A pretty city with many old stone and brick buildings, Sault Sainte Marie's economy depends upon the Algoma steel plant, lumber, agriculture, and tourism. Although the city is considered part of the summer resort system, it also has many wintertime events. World class cross-country skiing trails are numerous and the downhill skiing is excellent. Groomed trails for snowmobiling are available. The Ontario Winter Carnival Bon Soo, featuring dog sled races, speed skating, polar bear swimming, and more is held here in late January/early February. To the east of Sault Sainte Marie, on the North Channel of Lake Huron, are several resort and vacation centers. Bruce Mines was named for Canada's first successful copper mines. Thessalon, a lumber town situated at the river mouth, has a large government wharf and marina. Iron Bridge, on the historic Mississagi River, is known for its sturgeon fishing. Blind River is a mining and lumbering center. A short distance inland is Elliot Lake, founded in 1954 when uranium deposits were discovered nearby. A modern town of 20,000 on the shore of one of the 170 lakes in the area, Elliot Lake offers winter and summer sports activities.

STRATFORD , Ontario, is located just north of London on the Avon River. Founded in 1832, the city produces furniture, brass, and leather and rubber goods. It is best known, however, for its deliberate resemblance to Stratford-upon-Avon, England, the home of William Shakespeare. The Stratford Shakespearean Festival in Ontario began modestly in 1953 and has since become a major world theatrical event, utilizing three theaters. While still based on a Shakespearean season, the festival now incorporates diverse forms of music and theater, from folk-singing to opera. The season runs from June through October. Stratford's population is over 27,000.

"The nickel capital of the world," SUDBURY is 40 miles north of Georgian Bay in south-central Ontario. The city has a population of roughly over 90,000, and is in the middle of the country's most important mining region. Minerals were first discovered here in 1883; today, in addition to nickel, copper, gold, cobalt, sulfur, iron ore, silver, and platinum are mined. Industries include lumber milling, woodworking, brickworking, and machine shops. Sudbury is linked to other cities by the Trans-Canada Highway, as well as by two transcontinental railways. It acts as the area's main commercial and educational center.

THE FORD MINES is a mining community of 20,000, 50 miles south of Quebec City in southern Quebec province. It is known as one of the world's major asbestos-producing regions, but also mines chromium and feldspar (a crystalline mineral). Dairying, chromium and feldspar mining, saw milling, and fiberglass manufacturing are other commercial activities in Thetford Mines. It was founded in 1876 and became a city in 1912.

THOMPSON lies on the Burntwood River, 400 miles north of Winnipeg, in north-central Manitoba. This planned community was built in the late 1950s and has an estimated population of 14,700. The International Nickel Company is the principal employer. Its chairman, John Thompson, gave his name for the city when it was completed in 1961. The company's combination nickel mining-smelting-refining plant was the first of its kind in the Western Hemisphere. Thompson is linked to Winnipeg by air.

THUNDER BAY is Canada's third largest port, and the western terminus of the St. Lawrence Seaway. The twin cities of Port Arthur and Fort William joined to form Thunder Bay on January 1, 1970. The city is located in the midst of a rich mining and fishing region. Several industries in Thunder Bay are involved in brewing, flour milling, paper milling, truck and aircraft manufacturing, and shipbuilding. The city is easily accessible by boat, highway, and rail. It has an estimated population of 114,000.

TROIS RIVIÈRES (Three Rivers), in Quebec, is the second oldest city in the province. Founded in 1634, it is predated only by Quebec City, which was established in 1608. The city has a strong manufacturing base. Factories in Trois Rivières produce clothing, electrical appliances, paper, textiles, shoes, and wood pulp. Abundant woodlands, combined with a large hydroelectric plant make the city one of the world's largest producers of news-print. It has a beautiful 17th-century Anglican church, and a Gothic-style cathedral whose stained-glass windows are among the most exquisite on this continent. Approximately 51,800 people live in the city.

WHITEHORSE , the capital of the Yukon, is headquarters for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Its population is roughly 20,700. The Yukon was the site of the Klondike Gold Rush in 1898. The Gay Nineties days are relived every summer. Dramond Tooth Gerties in Dawson is a gambling casino, with blackjack and roulette tables. Other points of interest in Whitehorse include the McBride Museum, which features an in depth look at Yukon heritage and wildlife, a tour aboard the restored steamboat S.S. Klondike and a guided tour of the city.

YELLOWKNIFE , capital of the Northwest Territories, is one of Canada's youngest cities (1935). It is only 275 miles south of the Arctic Circle. From May through July, this is the land of the midnight sun. In late June, Yellowknife hosts the Pacific Western Midnight Sun Golf Tournament. The Northwest Territories covers one-third of Canada's land area, but the total population is only about 14,000. Coppermine, Cambridge Bay, Bathurst Inlet, and Bay Chimo are small communities north of Yellowknife.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The world's second largest country in land area (3,851,809 square miles), Canada is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the northeast by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the United States, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska.

Much of Canada's industry is concentrated in the southeast near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, in an environment similar to adjacent areas of the U.S. To the northeast are the rolling Appalachian country of southern Quebec, the Maritime Provinces, and the Island of Newfoundland. The most outstanding physical feature is the Shield, a rugged area of Precambrian rock which surrounds Hudson Bay and covers most of eastern and central Canada—almost half of the country. This semi-barren area, and the Arctic Archipelago to the north, are sparsely populated and as yet largely undeveloped.

Another major region is the Canadian prairies, an extension of the mid-continent Great Plains. This area lies between the western border of the Shield and the Canadian Rockies. It is the Canadian bread-basket, and an area that is also rich in petroleum, gas, and other mineral resources.

Far-western Canada, comprised mostly of British Columbia, is laced with towering mountain ranges. Most people here live on the temperate southwest coast and Vancouver Island.

The climate varies greatly in the many diversified regions—ranging from frigid to mild—but Canada generally may be described as lying in the cool temperate zone, with long, cold winters.

Population

More than two-thirds of Canada's 31.3 million people live within 100 miles of the U.S. border. Canadians and Americans are not "just alike," however, as many observers often assume. The Canadian character and outlook have been forged from a distinctive historical and social background which has produced a "Canadian way of life" that flourishes in a sovereign nation.

About 28% of the population is of British stock, about 23% of French, 15% is other European, and about 2% is indigenous Indian and Inuits (Eskimos). Canada's more than six million French-speaking citizens are mainly descendants of colonists who settled the country three centuries ago. They are concentrated in the Province of Quebec, although about 20% live in other parts of the country, mainly Ontario and New Brunswick. There is a sizeable French community in Manitoba as well.

The English-speaking population has been built up by immigration from the British Isles. The largest influx from the U.S. occurred during the American Revolution, when thousands of "Empire Loyalists" fled to Canada. Most settled in "Upper Canada," in southern and southeastern Ontario. Those Canadians who are of neither British nor French origin are mainly Germans, Ukrainians, Scandinavians, Italians, Dutch, Poles, Chinese, Indians, and Pakistanis.

Religion plays an important, though diminishing, role in the life of the Canadian. About 42% are Roman Catholics. The largest Protestant denomination, about 17% of the population, is the United Church of Canada—a union of Methodists, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians. Almost 10% are Anglicans, with Presbyterians, Lutherans, Baptists, and Jews next in number.

Government

Canada's parliamentary system of government reflects both its Old World heritage and its North American experience. The British North America Act of 1867 provided a written constitution, similar to that of the British. The lack of specific guarantees of rights, combined with profound regional disputes, led to serious consideration of a truly Canadian constitution in the late 1970s. After years of discussions, then-Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau "brought home the constitution" in 1982. Following British Parliament approval, Queen Elizabeth II and Trudeau signed the Constitution Act on Ottawa's Parliament Hill in April 1982. Included in the new constitution is a Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Many of the country's legal and parliamentary practices are derived from ancient custom, as in Great Britain. On the other hand, the 10 provinces are united in a federal system resembling that in the U.S., though provinces have greater responsibilities and powers than have American states.

Queen Elizabeth II is the head of the Canadian state, and is a symbol of Canada's Commonwealth status. Her personal representative in Canada is the Governor-General.

Parliament consists of the Crown, the Senate, and the House of Commons, the latter clearly having the dominant voice in legislation. Its 282 members are elected for nominal five-year terms. The Senate's 104 members are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister, and hold office until mandatory retirement at age 75.

Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, headed by the prime minister, who is the leader of the political party in power. The Cabinet remains in power as long as it retains majority support in the House on major issues.

Provincial government is patterned much along the lines of the central government. Each province is governed by a premier and a single, elected legislative chamber. A lieutenant governor, appointed by the governor-general, represents the Crown.

Criminal law, a parliamentary prerogative, is uniform throughout the nation, and is largely based on British law. Civil law is based on English common law, except in Quebec. Here, civil law is derived from the Napoleonic Code. Justice is administered by federal, provincial, and municipal courts.

During the past century, national politics has been dominated by two major parties, the Liberals and the Progressive Conservatives. While these parties have adopted many traditions from their British counterparts, there are substantial differences. The Liberals correspond, in very general terms, to the Democratic Party in the U.S., while the Progressive Conservatives would be the rough equivalent of the Republican Party. Distinctions between the two parties, however, are increasingly blurred since both take a pragmatic approach to Canada's problems.

Also represented in parliament and active in provincial politics is the New Democratic Party (NDP). The NDP corresponds roughly to the social democratic parties of Europe. The Communist Party is almost insignificant, and holds no seat in either the federal or provincial legislatures.

Canada is a member of the British Commonwealth, the United Nations, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the following international associations: Inter-American Development Bank, International Energy Agency, International Sugar Organization, International Wool Study Group, and the International Wheat Council.

The Canadian flag consists of a red maple leaf on a white background, flanked by vertical bands of red.

Arts, Science, Education

The development of the arts in Canada reflects not only the country's culture and geography, but also bears the imprint of a rapidly growing nation. The existence of two dominant cultural traditions—French and English—has led to a diversity in the arts. Focal points of artistic activity have grown up in several metropolitan centers scattered about the country. Since World War II, economic growth has given Canadians greater means to practice and enjoy the arts, and the influx of immigrants has increased the pool of available talent.

All provincial governments, through various departments, agencies, or educational institutions, provide some assistance for professional and amateur artists within their borders. The federally funded, as well as privately funded, Canada Council administers a similar program on a national scale.

Well-known artistic groups include the Stratford Festival Company, the Montreal Symphony, Toronto's Canadian Opera Company, and the Winnipeg Ballet. All of these groups make extensive tours throughout North America, and occasionally tour abroad.

A technologically advanced nation, Canada needs and produces much scientific activity. Most major research projects reflect the increasingly interdependent industrial, university, and government laboratories. In addition, considerable scientific cooperation is undertaken with other nations—especially with the U.S. and the U.K.

All of Canada's activities in the field of atomic energy are the responsibility of the federal government. The most diversified program of scientific research is carried out by the National Research Council—a federal agency. On the other hand, most basic medical research is conducted by universities.

Education at the elementary and secondary level is the responsibility of provincial governments; curricula and teacher qualifications vary a great deal. In all provinces, public education is free. Ages of mandatory attendance vary from province to province, but are generally from seven to 15. In Halifax, Vancouver, and Winnipeg, free public education is controlled and funded by public school boards, as in the U.S. Private schools, primarily Roman Catholic, exist as well, and charge tuition. The literacy rate is estimated to be 99%.

In other Canadian cities, free public education is funded and controlled locally by two types of boards—either "public" or "separate." Except in Quebec, the public boards are nondenominational, reflecting a Protestant and English historical development; the separate boards are Roman Catholic. In Quebec, the public boards are Roman Catholic—further divided into boards for French-and English-speaking children; the separate boards are nondenominational, also with French and English subdivisions. Both types of boards fund public education from property taxes. Parents usually cannot elect to send children in the same family to schools controlled by different boards.

Education at the elementary level in Canada is considered to be on a par with schools in the U.S. At the secondary level, schools in Ontario and the western provinces are also considered to be at par, but in Montreal, Quebec City, and Halifax, schools at the secondary level do not always meet these standards.

In the non-French-speaking areas of Ottawa, Toronto, and Winnipeg, local school districts offer French-language instruction at all levels. In elementary schools, there are generally two tracks of instruction—a required French course, or an optional immersion program, which begins in kindergarten and offers instruction totally in French, with English being phased in gradually in the third or fourth grade. At the secondary level, French is usually optional and is offered along with other languages, such as German and Spanish. At other places (outside Quebec), French is offered on an optional basis, primarily at the secondary level. In English-speaking schools in Quebec Province, French is also a required subject at all levels.

Canada's 60 universities range from small liberal arts colleges with as few as 1,000 students to multiversities (made up of colleges, faculties, and research institutes) with enrollments as high as 20,000. Most instruction is in English—although some institutions use French only—whereas both English and French are used at the University of Ottawa and two other institutions. There are numerous community colleges, usually called technical schools.

Commerce and Industry

The Canadian economy is highly developed, giving Canadians one of the highest standards of living in the world. Manufacturing is concentrated in transportation and communications equipment, engineering, and steel and consumer goods. Especially notable is the production of motor vehicles and parts, encouraged by the auto pact between the U.S. and Canada. Most manufacturing is concentrated in Ontario and Quebec.

Alberta is growing fast in industries related to oil and natural gas. Primary industries built on Canada's rich natural resources remain an important part of the economy and a major source of exports. Leading resource industries are: forest products; oil, natural gas, and hydroelectric power; grains and other agricultural products; mining of asbestos, potash, and nonferrous metals; and fishing. As in other developed countries, the service sector is growing rapidly.

The economy is closely linked by trade and investment with other countries, especially the U.S. Foreign trade, two-thirds of which is with the U.S., represents more than one-fifth of total output. There is considerable two-way direct investment between the U.S. and Canada, although the level of U.S. investment in Canada is higher, as is its relative importance in the economy.

Americans find that most products and services available in the U.S. are also available in Canada. Local prices are often higher, but this may be offset by a favorable exchange rate for the Canadian dollar.

The main office of the Canadian Chamber of Commerce is located at 55 Metcalf St., Ste. 1160, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 6N4. There are regional offices in all of the provinces.

Transportation

Except in the remote northern areas, Canada possesses an advanced transportation system in all modes comparable to that in the U.S. An extensive air network links all major and many minor traffic points with adequate connections to the rest of the world. Domestic air fares per mile are higher than in the U.S., and distances between population centers are considerably greater. A good highway system (with somewhat less emphasis on interstate-type roads) exists, and supports extensive truck, bus, and automobile traffic.

The Canadian railroad system, while vast, has many problems similar to those affecting the U.S. Although passenger service continues to exist, it is poor except in the Quebec-Windsor corridor.

Water transportation is important largely from the foreign trade viewpoint. Major ports exist at Vancouver, Montreal, other St. Lawrence River points, Halifax, and St. John (New Brunswick). The Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway and River System is an important domestic and binational transport route, which permits the movement of smaller-sized oceangoing vessels as far west as Duluth, Minnesota and Thunder Bay, Ontario.

All larger cities have public transit systems, generally buses. There are subways in Montreal and Toronto, and streetcars in Toronto and Calgary; plans are being formulated to develop rail systems in Edmonton and elsewhere. By and large, Canadian cities have public transportation arrangements at least as good as in American cities of similar size. They are better developed closer to the city's downtown center. Low population densities have inhibited the development of equivalent service in distant suburbs. The operation of public transport is frequently subsidized by provincial and local governments, making most fares reasonable.

In spite of extensive public transportation arrangements, Canada is as much an automobile society as the U.S. All American automobile manufacturers have plants in Canada, producing standard North American vehicles, and the greater portion of the automobile market in Canada is shared by these manufacturers. Most European and Japanese models found in the U.S. are also sold in Canada. Spare parts are available for all these vehicles. Repair facilities in the major cities compare to those in the U.S. There may be service problems with some European and Japanese cars outside the major cities, but most cars can be serviced readily except, perhaps, in remote areas.

U.S. grades of gasoline (leaded and unleaded) are widely available, and are sold in liters. Safety standards for cars are similar in the U.S. and Canada. Left-hand-drive vehicles are standard; traffic moves on the right. International highway symbols are used in Canada, and distances have been converted to the metric system. Seat belts and infant/child seat restraints are mandatory in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia. Fines are imposed for non-use of seat belts and child restraints.

Communications

Telephone service, provided by the Bell Telephone Company of Canada in Ontario and Quebec, and by provincial companies in other provinces, is excellent. Canada (except for the Northwest Territories) is integrated with the U.S. direct distance dialing system. Telegraph services are operated by the two transcontinental railway companies, and by the federal government to outlying districts.

Mail service within and from Canada to other countries is satisfactory. All first-class mail is airmail within Canada at no extra cost, and letters to the U.S. require only a regular first-class stamp. There is no censorship, and customs formalities are minimal.

Broadcasting is well developed in Canada. Radio and TV stations operate in all major cities and carry extensive amounts of U.S. programming. There are two national TV networks (CBC and CTV), and independent TV stations also exist in many large cities. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) operates an extensive radio network, with domestic (AM and FM), northern, and international short-wave service. It operates dual networks for English and French programming; there are even French outlets in the western cities where the francophone population is limited. The Province of Quebec also has its own French-language broadcasting system. The Province of Ontario operates an impressive educational TV system which, at night, features nonacademic programs.

Direct reception of nearby U.S. radio and TV stations is possible in many parts of Canada. In most Canadian cities there is a well-developed cable TV system which relays most of the U.S. networks (including PBS), some distant Canadian stations for an additional charge, and distant FM radio as well.

About 109 daily newspapers are published in Canada—89% are in English, the rest in French. Most major cities have at least two local papers, usually morning and evening. Ottawa has only one daily, The Citizen. About six Canadian newspapers publish a Sunday edition. Most cities receive major U.S. newspapers within a few days of publication. (The New York Times is available daily, including Sundays, in Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal.)

Most American magazines and books are available, but usually at slightly higher prices. Maclean's, a biweekly, is the only national Canadian news magazine. Reader's Digest publishes a Canadian edition.

Health

Medical care in Canada is excellent. Competent doctors, dentists, and specialists in all fields are available, and most, except in some areas of Quebec, speak English. Canadian medical educational standards are equivalent to those in the U.S., particularly in dentistry and ophthalmology. There is a shortage of trained personnel and facilities in the physical rehabilitation field, although availability of these services has improved in recent years.

Laboratories and hospitals maintain high standards and are well equipped. Professional fees and hospital and prescription drug costs are comparable to those in the U.S. Pharmaceutical facilities are excellent.

There are no special health risks. Standards of community health and sanitation are very good, and no diseases are endemic to large cities; however, several possible health problems should be noted. Winnipeg's climate might affect visitors seriously afflicted with asthma, sinusitis, or Raynaud's disease, a circulatory vascular condition. Hay fever sufferers should remember that Toronto has the highest pollen count of any large North American city. While the hay fever season is short—about six weeks—persons with hay fever experience great discomfort unless they take medication or remain in air-conditioned areas.

Clothing and Services

Americans find that tastes and standards in clothing are basically the same as in the U.S. The climate in winter makes warm clothes essential. For the most part, summers are somewhat cooler in Canada, but hot periods occur, and lightweight clothing is necessary. Wraps are usually needed for evenings, even in summer. Children dress casually, as in the U.S., but those who attend private schools ordinarily wear uniforms.

Ready-made clothes of all kinds are available at every price level. Items manufactured in the U.S. are expensive—often one-third higher than the American retail price.

Practically all services and supplies are available in the cities throughout Canada. The prices are often higher, but the current favorable exchange rate offsets the expense. Domestic help is difficult to find (as in the U.S.), and if the level of competence and experience is favorable, wages also are high. Professional catering and cleaning services are available.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

When entering from the United States, U.S. citizens must show either a U.S. passport or proof of U.S. citizenship and photo ID. U.S. citizens entering Canada from a third country must have a valid passport. A visa is not required for U.S. citizens for a stay up to 180 days. Anyone with a criminal record (including a DWI charge) should contact the Canadian Embassy or nearest Canadian consulate before travel. For further information on entry requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of Canada at 501 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001, telephone (202) 682-1740, Internet address:http://www.cdnemb-washdc.org; or the Canadian consulates in Atlanta, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York, San Juan or Seattle.

U.S. citizens living in or visiting Canada may register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy or at a U.S. Consulate General in Canada, and may obtain updated information on travel and security within Canada.

The U.S. Embassy is in Ottawa, Ontario, at 490 Sussex Drive, K1N 1G8, telephone (613) 238-5335, fax (613) 688-3082. The Embassy web site is http://www.usembassycanada.gov. The Embassy's consular district includes Baffin Island, the following counties in eastern Ontario: Lanark, Leeds, Prescott, Renfrew, Russell and Stormont; and the following counties in western Quebec: Gatineau, Hull, Labelle, Papineau, Pontiac and Tamiscamingue.

U.S. Consulates General are located at:

Calgary, Alberta, at Suite 1050, 615 Macleod Trail SE, telephone (403) 266-8962; emergency-after hours (403) 228-8900; fax (403) 264-6630. The consular district includes Alberta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories, excluding Nunavut.

Halifax, Nova Scotia, at Suite 904, Purdy's Tower II, 1969 Upper Water Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3J 3R7, telephone (902) 429-2480; emergency-after hours (902) 429-2485; fax (902) 423-6861. The consular district includes New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon.

Montreal, Quebec, at 1155 St. Alexander Street, telephone (514) 398-9695; emergency-after hours (514) 981-5059; fax (514) 398-0702. The consular district includes southwestern Quebec with the exception of the six counties served by the U.S. Embassy in Ottawa.

Quebec City, Quebec, at 2 Place Terrasse Dufferin, telephone (418) 692-2095; emergency-after hours (418) 692-2096; fax (418) 692-4640. The consular district includes the counties of Abitibi-West, Abitibi-East, St. Maurice, Trois-Rivieres, Nicolet, Wolfe, Frontenac and all other counties to the north or east within the province of Quebec. The new arctic territory of Nunavut is also in this district.

Toronto, Ontario, at 360 University Avenue, telephone (416) 595-1700; emergency-after hours (416) 201-4100; fax (416) 595-5466. The consular district includes the province of Ontario except the six counties served by the U.S. Embassy in Ottawa.

Vancouver, British Columbia, at 1095 West Pender Street, telephone (604) 685-4311; fax (604) 685-7175. The consular district includes British Columbia and the Yukon Territory.

Pets

Dogs and cats imported from the U.S. must be accompanied by a veterinarian's certificate showing that the dog or cat has been vaccinated against rabies during the three years preceding entry. From countries recognized by Canada to be free of rabies, a certificate issued by a veterinarian of the National Veterinary Service of the country of origin is required, certifying that the animal has been in that country for a continuous six-month period preceding shipment. From all other countries, a certificate issued by a veterinarian of the National Veterinary Service should certify that the animal was vaccinated against rabies not less than 30 days nor more than one year preceding shipment. Dogs and cats from countries other than the U.S. arriving without a certificate will be placed in quarantine for a 30-day period and vaccinated for rabies.

Firearms & Ammunition

Firearms are strictly controlled. As of January 1, 2001, visitors bringing firearms into Canada, or planning to borrow and use firearms while in Canada, are required to declare the firearms in writing using a Non-Resident Firearm Declaration form. Multiple firearms can be declared on the same form. At the border, three copies of the unsigned declaration must be presented to a Canadian Customs officer. The declaration will serve as a temporary license and registration certificate for up to 60 days. The Non-Resident Firearm Declaration costs $50 (Canadian). Visitors planning to borrow a firearm in Canada must obtain in advance a Temporary Firearms Borrowing License, which costs $30 (Canadian). The form must be signed before a Canadian Customs officer and the fee paid at the border. In order to save time at the border, Canadian authorities recommend that visitors complete the declaration form, but not sign it, and make two copies of the completed form before arriving at the port-of-entry. Requests made at the border for photocopies of the form may be denied. Full details on this new policy are available at the Canadian Firearms Centre web site,http://www.cfc-ccaf.gc.ca, under the heading "Visitors to Canada." The Non-Resident Firearm Declaration and the Temporary Firearms Borrowing License applications may also be obtained from this web site.

Canada has three classes of firearms: non-restricted, restricted, and prohibited. Non-restricted firearms include most ordinary hunting rifles and shotguns. These may be brought temporarily into Canada for sporting or hunting use during hunting season, for use in competitions, for in-transit movement through Canada, or for personal protection against wildlife in remote areas of Canada. Anyone wishing to bring hunting rifles into Canada must be at least 18 years old, and the firearm must be properly stored for transport. Restricted firearms are primarily handguns; however, pepper spray and mace are also included in this category. A restricted firearm may be brought into Canada, but an Authorization to Transport permit must be obtained in advance from a Provincial or Territorial Chief Firearms Officer. Prohibited firearms include fully automatic, converted automatics, and assault-type weapons. Prohibited firearms are not allowed into Canada.

In advance of any travel, please contact a Canadian embassy or consulate, or the Canadian Firearms Centre (http://www.cfc.ccaf.gc.ca) for detailed information and instructions on temporarily importing firearms. In all cases, travelers must declare to Canadian Customs authorities any firearms and weapons in their possession when entering Canada. If a traveler is denied permission to bring in the firearm, there are often facilities near border crossings where firearms may be stored, pending the traveler's return to the United States. Canadian law requires that officials confiscate firearms and weapons from those crossing the border who deny having them in their possession. Confiscated firearms and weapons are never returned.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

Canada covers seven time zones. The time in Newfoundland is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) minus three-and-a-half. The time in Halifax is GMT minus four. The time in Ottawa, Toronto, Montreal, Quebec City, Hamilton, London, and Windsor is GMT minus five (Eastern Time in the U.S.). The time in Winnipeg and Regina is GMT minus six (Central Time in the U.S.). The time in Calgary and Edmonton is GMT minus seven (Mountain Time in the U.S.). The time in Vancouver is GMT minus eight (Pacific Time in the U.S.).

The unit of currency is the Canadian dollar, divided into half-dollar, quarter, dime, nickel, and penny coins, all similar in size and shape to U.S. currency. Canadian and U.S. dollars are fully convertible at banks. The conversion rate fluctuates.

Canada officially adopted the metric system in September 1977. Most road signs are now showing distances in kilometers and speed limits in kilometers/hour. Containers show contents and weights in both pounds and ounces, quarts and kilograms, and grams and liters.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1… New Year's Day

Feb. 2… Groundhog Day

Feb. 14… St. Valentine's Day

Mar. 17 … St. Patrick's Day

Mar/Apr. … Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr. … Easter^*

Mar/Apr. … Easter Monday^*

Apr. 1… April Fool's Day

Apr. 22… Earth Day

Apr. 28… National Day of Mourning

May … Victoria Day^*

May (2nd Sun)… Mother's Day^*

June(3rd Sun) … Father's Day

July 1… Canada Day

Aug. (first Mon) … Civic Holiday (Calgary, Toronto, Ottawa, and Vancouver. Called Natal Day in Nova Scotia)^*

Sept. 3 … Labor Day

Oct. … Columbus Day^*

Oct. (second Mon)… Thanksgiving^* Day^*

Oct. 31 … Halloween

Nov. 11 … Remembrance Day

Dec. 25… Christmas Day

Dec. 26 … Boxing Day

Dec. 31 … New Year's Eve

^*Variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Berlitz Editors. Canada 1992 Travellers Guide. New York: Berlitz, 1992.

Bothwell, Robert. Canada & The United States: The Politics of Partnership. New York: Macmillan, 1992.

Canada 1991. New York: Bantam, 1991.

Eagles, et al. The Almanac of Canadian Politics. Concord, MA: Paul & Company Publishers, 1992.

Fodor's Canada 1991. New York:McKay, 1991.

Halsey, David. Magnetic North: Take Across Canada. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club, 1990.

Harris, Bill. Canada: Photo Journey. Avenal, NJ: Outlet Book Co., 1991.

Harvey, David D. Americans in Canada: Migration & Settlement Since 1840. Lewiston, NY: Edward Mellen Press, 1991.

Hobbs, Pam. The Adventure Guide to Canada. Edison, NJ: Hunter Publishing, 1991.

LeVert, Suzanne. Canada: Facts & Figures. Let's Discover Canada Series. New York: Chelsea House, 1992.

LeVert, Suzanne. Dominion of Canada. Let's Discover Canada Series. New York: Chelsea House, 1992.

Lipset, Seymour M. North American Culture: Values & Institutions in Canada and the United States. Edited by Mary Williams. Orono, ME: Canadian-American Centre, 1990.

Malcolm, Andrew H. The Canadians. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991.

Marchant, Garry. Canada. Edited by Kathleen Griffin and Martin Gamon. Oakland, CA: Compass America, 1991.

Marsh, James H., ed. The Canadian Encyclopedia. 4 vols. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale Research, 1988.

Morris, Jan. O. Canada: Travels in an Unknown Country. New York: Harper Collins, 1992.

Pratson, Frederick. Guide to Eastern Canada. 4th ed. Old Say-brook, CT: Globe Peguot Press, 1992.

Pratson, Frederick. Guide to Western Canada. 2nd ed. Old Say-brook, CT: Globe Peguot Press, 1992.

The Penguin History of Canada. New York: Viking Penguin, 1988.

Watkins, Mel, and James Warren, eds. Canada. New York: Facts on File, 1992.

Weaver, P. Kent, ed. The Collapse of Canada? Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1992.

CANADA

CAPITAL: Ottawa

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1964, consists of a red maple leaf on a white field, flanked by a red vertical field on each end.

ANTHEM: Since 1 July 1980, O Canada has been the official anthem.

MONETARY UNIT: The Canadian dollar (c$) is a paper currency of 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents, 1 dollar and 2 dollars, and notes of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 1,000 Canadian dollars. Silver coins of 5 and 10 dollars, commemorating the Olympics, were issued during 1973–76. c$1 = us$0.82645 (or us$1 = c$1.21) as of 2005. US currency is usually accepted, especially in major cities and along the border.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Good Friday; Easter Monday; Victoria Day, the Monday preceding 25 May; Canada Day, 1 July; Labor Day, 1st Monday in September; Thanksgiving Day, 2nd Monday in October; Remembrance Day, 11 November; Christmas Day, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Other holidays are observed in some provinces.

TIME: Newfoundland, 8:30 am = noon GMT; New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Québec, 8 am = noon GMT; Ontario east of 90° and western Québec, 7 am = noon GMT; western Ontario and Manitoba, 6 am = noon GMT; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 5 am = noon GMT; British Columbia and Yukon Territory, 4 am = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Canada consists of all of the North American continent north of the United States except Alaska and the small French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. Its total land area of 9,976,140 sq km (3,851,809 sq mi) makes it the second-largest country in the world (slightly larger than China and the United States), extending 5,187 km (3,223 mi) e–w from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, to Mt. St. Elias in the Yukon Territory and 4,627 km (2,875 mi) n–s from Cape Columbia on Ellesmere Island to Pelee Island in Lake Erie. Canada is bounded on the n by the Arctic Ocean, on the e by Kennedy Channel, Nares Strait, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the s by the United States, and on the w by the Pacific Ocean and the US state of Alaska. The coastal waters of Canada also include the Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay. The country's total land boundary length is 8,893 km (5,526 mi). Its total coastline length is 202,080 km (125,566 miles) Canada's capital city, Ottawa, is located in the southeastern part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Canada's topography is dominated by the Canadian Shield, an ice-scoured area of Precambrian rocks surrounding Hudson Bay and covering half the country. This vast region, with its store of forests, waterpower, and mineral resources, is being increasingly developed. East of the Shield is the maritime area, separated from the rest of Canada by low mountain ranges pierced by plains and river valleys, and including the island of Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island. South and southeast of the Shield are the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence lowlands, a fertile plain in the triangle bounded by the St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, and Georgian Bay.

West of the Shield are the farmlands and ranching areas of the great central plains, some 1,300 km (800 mi) wide along the US border and tapering to about 160 km (100 mi) at the mouth of the Mackenzie River. Toward the north of this section is a series of rich mining areas, and still farther north is the Mackenzie low-land, traversed by many lakes and rivers. The westernmost region of Canada, extending from western Alberta to the Pacific Ocean, includes the Rocky Mountains, a plateau region, the coastal mountain range, and an inner sea passage separating the outer island groups from the fjord-lined coast. Mt. Logan, the highest peak in Canada, in the St. Elias Range near the Alaska border, is 5,959 m (19,551 ft) high. The Arctic islands constitute a large group extending north of the Canadian mainland to within 885 km (550 mi) of the North Pole. They vary greatly in size and topography, with mountains, plateaus, fjords, and low coastal plains.

The central Canadian Shield area is drained by the Nelson-Saskatchewan, Churchill, Severn, and Albany rivers flowing into the Hudson Bay. The 4,241-km (2,635-mi) Mackenzie River—with its tributaries and three large lakes (Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabasca)—drains an area of almost 2.6 million sq km (1 million sq mi) into the Arctic Ocean. The Columbia, Fraser, and Yukon rivers are the principal drainage systems of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory. The Great Lakes drain into the broad St. Lawrence River, which flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Other rivers flow laterally from the interior into Hudson Bay or the Atlantic or Pacific ocean.

CLIMATE

Most of northern Canada has subarctic or arctic climates, with long cold winters lasting 8 to 11 months, short sunny summers, and little precipitation. In contrast, the populated south has a variety of climatological landscapes. The greatest temperature range is in the Northwest Territories, where the average temperature at Fort Good Hope ranges from -31°c (-24°f) in January to 16°c (61°f) in July.

Cool summers and mild winters prevail only along the Pacific coast of British Columbia. There the mean temperatures range from about 4°c (39°f) in January to 16°c (61°f) in July, the least range in the country. On the prairies there are extreme differences in temperature between day and night and summer and winter. In Ontario and Québec, especially near the Great Lakes and along the St. Lawrence River, the climate is less severe than in western Canada. This region has abundant precipitation that is highly uniform from season to season. The growing season is short, even in the south. Much of the interior plains area does not get enough rain for diversified crops.

East of the Rockies across the flat prairie lies the meeting ground for air from the Arctic, Pacific, and American interior. The mixing of air masses leads to a turbulent atmosphere and the emergence of cyclonic storms, producing most of the rain and snow in the country. The northwest and the prairies, having fewer or weaker storms, are the driest areas, although the prairies are the site of some heavy blizzards and dramatic thunderstorms. The windward mountain slopes are exceptionally wet; the protected slopes are very dry. Thus, the west coast gets about 150–300 cm (60–120 in) of rain annually; the central prairie area, less than 50 cm (20 in); the flat area east of Winnipeg, 50–100 cm (20–40 in); and the maritime provinces, 115–150 cm (45–60 in). The annual average number of days of precipitation ranges from 252 along coastal British Columbia to 100 in the interior of the province.

FLORA AND FAUNA

A great range of plant and animal life characterizes the vast area of Canada, with its varied geographic and climatic zones. The flora of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence region resembles that of the adjacent US section, with white pine, hemlock, sugar and red maples, yellow birch, and beech trees. Coniferous trees—particularly red spruce—predominate in the Maritime region, black spruce in the eastern Laurentian zone, white spruce in the western. In the east are also found the balsam fir, white cedar, tamarack, white birch, and aspen, with jack pine in the drier areas. From the prairie grassland to the Arctic tundra there are aspen, bur oak, balm of Gilead, cottonwood, balsam poplar, white birch, and other deciduous trees. Conifers dominate the northern section. Many types of grasses grow on the interior plains. The wet area along the west coast is famous for its tall, hard conifers: western hemlock and red cedar, Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, and western white pine. Subalpine forests cover the Rocky Mountain area, where there are such conifers as alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine and aspen, and mountain hemlock. The great Arctic region is covered with low-growing grasses, mosses, and bushes.

The fauna of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence region includes deer, black bear, opossum, gray and red squirrels, otter, beaver, and skunk; birds include eastern bluebird, red-winged blackbird, robin, wood thrush, woodpecker, oriole, bobolink, crow, hawk, bittern, heron, black duck, and loon. In the boreal forest area there are moose, caribou, black bear, lynx, timber wolf, marten, beaver, porcupine, snowshoe rabbit, red squirrel, and chipmunk. Typical mammals of the Rocky Mountain area are grizzly bear, mountain goat, moose, wapiti, cougar, and alpine flying squirrel. In the plains are rabbits, gophers, prairie birds, and waterfowl. Abundant on the west coast are deer, Cascade mountain goat, red squirrel, mountain beaver, various species of mice, and Puget striped skunk; common birds include northern Pigmy-owl, band-tailed pigeon, black swift, northern flicker, crow, rufous-sided towhee, and black brant. Over the stretches of the Arctic are the musk ox and reindeer, polar bear, caribou, white and blue fox, arctic hare, and lemming, as well as the snowy owl, ptarmigan, snow bunting, arctic tern, and other birds. Walrus, seals, and whales inhabit Canada's coastal waters.

ENVIRONMENT

Canada's principal environmental agency is the Department of the Environment, established in 1971 and reorganized in 1979. Responsibilities of this department, also known as Environment Canada, include air and water pollution control, land-use planning, and wildlife preservation. Responsibility for maritime resources was vested in the Department of Fisheries and Oceans under the 1979 reorganization. Air pollution and the resulting acid rain have posed a threat to lakes and forests in an area of eastern Canada about 2.6 million sq km (1 million sq mi). Canadian sources estimate that about 14,000 lakes in eastern Canada are acidified and another 300,000 lakes will remain in danger if adequate emission reductions are not implemented. As of the mid-1990s, acid rain had affected a total of 150,000 lakes throughout Canada. Waterfowl populations have already been depleted. About half the acid rain comes from emissions from Canadian smokestacks, but Canada has blamed US industry for 75% of the Ontario pollution.

Canada's rivers and ocean waters have been contaminated by toxic pollutants from agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities. As of the mid-1990s, 50% of Canada's coastal shellfish areas were closed because of the dangerous levels of pollutants.

Canada has more than 90 bird sanctuaries and 44 National Wildlife Areas, including reserves in the western Arctic to protect waterfowl nesting grounds. In May 1986, Canada and the United States signed an agreement to restore the breeding habitat of mallard and pintail ducks in the midcontinental regions of both countries. The project, which spanned 15 years and cost c$1.5 billion, was meant to protect and improve 1,200,000 hectares (3,000,000 acres) of duck habitat in order to reverse the decline in waterfowl populations and raise the average annual fall migration to 100 million birds—the level of the 1970s. The project also called for the protection of waterfowl habitats in the lower Mississippi River and Gulf Coast region, and the black duck habitat in eastern Canada and the East Coast of the United States.

The annual Newfoundland seal hunt, producing seals for pelts and meat, drew the ire of environmentalists chiefly because of the practice of clubbing baby seals to death (adult seals are shot). Approval by the European parliament of a voluntary boycott on seal-skin imports undercut the market, and the Newfoundland seal catch dropped from about 1,400 in 1981–82 to 360 in 1982–83. In 1987, Canada banned the offshore hunting of baby seals, as well as blueback hooded seals.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 16 types of mammals, 19 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 1 species of amphibian, 24 species of fish, 1 type of mollusk, 10 other invertebrates, and 1 species of plant. Endangered species in Canada include the Vancouver Island marmot, eastern puma, wood bison, sea otter, right whale, St. Lawrence beluga, Acadian whitefish, mountain plover, piping plover, spotted owl, leatherback turtle, cucumber tree, Furbish's lousewort, Eskimo curlew, Kirtlands warbler, American peregrine falcon, whooping crane, and the southern bald eagle. The longjaw cisco, the Labrador duck, and the great auk have become extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Canada in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 32,225,000, which placed it at number 36 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 13% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 18% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 98 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 0.3%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 36,027,000. The population density was 3 per sq km (8 per sq mi).

Statistics Canada is the Canadian government bureau that conducts the census; every five years, forms are included with the annual income tax returns that are sent to every mailing address. The population doubled between 1945 and 1993, although the growth rate has been declining since the 1970s, when it was 12.9% (1971–81).

The UN estimated that 79% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.05%. The capital city, Ottawa, had a population of 1,093,000 in that year. The Toronto metropolitan area had an estimated population of 5,060,000; Montréal, 3,511,000; Vancouver, 2,125,000; Edmonton, 1,005,000; and Calgary, 1,074,000. Other large cities and their estimated populations include Winnipeg, 706,900; Québec, 670,000; Hamilton, 662,401; Kitchener, 450,100; London, 432,451; St. Catherines-Niagara, 377,009; Halifax, 375,000; Victoria, 335,000; Windsor, 307,877; Oshawa, 296,298; and Saskatoon, 236,000. Ontario, with 81.8% of its population classed as urban, was the most urbanized province, followed by British Columbia (80.4%), Alberta (79.8%), and Québec (77.6%). Only New Brunswick (47.7%), Prince Edward Island (39.9%), and the Northwest Territories (36.7%) have less than half their population in urban areas.

The population is unevenly distributed, ranging from 0.045 per sq km (0.02 per sq mi) in the Northwest Territories to 59 per sq km (22.8 per sq mi) on Prince Edward Island. Nearly 85% of the people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the US boundary. All except the Maritime provinces have large areas virtually uninhabited.

MIGRATION

Canadians of French origin are descendants of about 10,000 settlers who arrived in the 17th century and in the first half of the 18th century. Black slaves were brought to Canada as early as 1608. Later in the 18th century, thousands of British settlers came to Canada from New England and other colonies to the south. By 1850, 500,000 persons had left the British Isles for Canada; between 1846–54, an additional 500,000 arrived, mainly from Ireland. The Underground Railway, a network of people and safe houses that helped runaway slaves reach freedom, operated from 1840–60, and enabled about 30,000 blacks to reach Canada. The peak year for immigration was 1913, when 400,870 people arrived. From 1921–30, there were 1,230,202 immigrants; in 1931–40, 158,562; in 1946–65, 2,504,120. Many re-emigrated, mainly to the United States; by 1950, Canadian-born persons formed the second-largest group of foreign-born US inhabitants. Between 1951–56, however, the excess of immigration over emigration was almost 600,000. After a lull in the early 1960s, immigration reached a peak of 222,876 in 1967. In 1974, immigration controls were tightened, and between 1975–85, the number of immigrants per year averaged 118,656, and between 1986–93, 193,881. In 1993, total immigration was 252,042. Of these, immigrants from Asia numbered 134,532; from Europe, 50,050; Africa, 19,033; the Caribbean, 19,028; the United States, 6,565; and South America, 11,327. Emigration is mainly to the United States.

The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, which became law in 2001, determines admissibility, emphasizing education, language, and skills. As of May 2001, 18.4% of Canada's population was foreign born. Over half was made up of immigrants from Asia and the Middle East. In 2004 Canada led the G-8 nations (Canada, the United States, the Russia, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and Japan) in gains in migratory exchanges, with the highest international migration rate of any G8 country. In 2005, the net migration rate for Canada was estimated as 5.9 migrants per 1,000 population.

Interprovincial migration is generally from east to west. During 1990–91 British Columbia gained 37,620 more people from other provinces than it lost, and Alberta 7,502, while provinces experiencing net population loss were Ontario (lost 22,301), Saskatchewan (9,941), and Québec (7,690). However, from 1996–2001, the Northwest Territories, Yukon Territory, and Nunavut, respectively, had the greatest percentage population increases among the provinces, and Québec and Ontario had the lowest.

In 2004, Canada had 168,688 applications for asylum, primarily from Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Colombia, China, Iran, and Sudan. There were 141,398 refugees in the country in 2004, and 27,290 asylum seekers.

ETHNIC GROUPS

More than 80% of the population is Canadian-born. In general, the percentage of the population born outside Canada increases as one goes westward from Newfoundland to British Columbia. Persons of whole or partial British (including Irish) origin make up about 28% of the total population; those of whole or partial French origin (centered mainly in Québec, where they constitute some 80% of the population) make up 23%. Other European groups account for 15% of the total populace. About 26% of the population are from mixed backgrounds. Others, mostly Asian, African, and Arab, make up about 6% of the population.

Amerindians constituted about 2%. These Amerindians were classified into ten major ethnolinguistic groups; the métis, of mixed European and Indian extraction, were recognized as an aboriginal people in the Constitution Act of 1982. Most of the Inuit (Eskimos) live in the Northwest Territories, with smaller numbers in northern Québec and northern Newfoundland (Labrador). Since 1959, Inuit cooperatives have been formed to finance fishing, fish processing, retail, housing, and tourist enterprises, and to promote the graphic arts.

LANGUAGES

English and French are the official languages of Canada and have equal status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all governmental institutions. The federal constitution also gives the English and French minorities the right to publicly funded education in their own language at the primary and secondary levels, wherever the number of children warrants it.

The constitution provides for bilingualism in the legislature and courts of Québec, New Brunswick, and Manitoba. Although there are no similarly entrenched constitutional rights in Ontario and Saskatchewan, these provinces have made English and French the official languages of the courts. In 1984, the Northwest Territories Council adopted an ordinance providing for the use of aboriginal languages and establishing English and French as official languages.

English was proclaimed the sole official language of Manitoba in 1890, and French was made the official language of Québec in 1974. However, the 1890 Manitoba legislation was declared unconstitutional in 1979, as was a Québec law passed in 1977 declaring French to be the sole language of the legislature and the courts.

Although Canada is frequently referred to as a bilingual country, only a minority are able to speak both English and French. In Québec, more than 80% of the people speak French as a native language; in the other provinces, most of the people speak only English, although there are sizable proportions of people able to speak French in New Brunswick and parts of Ontario and Manitoba. Some 60% of Canadians report that their only mother tongue is English, and only about 24% say that is French. About 15% report a single mother tongue other than English or French. Italian, German, Chinese, Ukrainian, Portuguese, and Polish are spoken by small numbers of people. There are at least 58 different Indian languages and dialects, in 10 major language groups. Cree is the most common Indian language.

RELIGIONS

About 74.6% of the Canadian population belong to Christian denominations. Roman Catholics constitute the largest single group, with 43% of the population. Other Catholic groups include Eastern Orthodox and Ukrainian Catholics. Protestants make up 29% of the populace; the largest denominational groups include the United Church; Anglicans, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Baptists, and Pentecostals. Members of other religions include Jews (1.1% of the population), Muslims (2%), Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs. There are a number of parareligious faiths, including Scientology, Kabalarianism, and Rastafarianism. Shintoism and Taoism are also represented within the country. Approximately 16% of the population has no religious affiliation.

Freedom of religion has been specifically protected by the constitution and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The right has generally been respected in practice. Certain Christian holidays are observed as public holidays. In 2003, a group of Muslims in Ontario established an Islamic Court of Civil Justice, designed to rule on civil disputes between Muslims using the tenets of Shariah law.

TRANSPORTATION

With such a vast land area, and with most production inland, all forms of transportation are vital. Since 1945, with the rapid growth of road, air, and pipeline services, the trend has been away from railways for carrying both freight and passengers. But because they can supply all-weather transportation in large volume over continental distances, railways are still important. The federal government, through the Canadian Transport Commission, has allowed a few rate rises and has insisted on a slow curtailment of services; nevertheless, the companies have traditionally operated at a deficit or very low margin of profit because of competition and rising costs. In 2004, the Canadian railway system consisted of 48,683 km (30,281 mi) of all standard gauge track. Two great continental systems operate about 90% of the railway facilities, the formerly government-owned Canadian National Railways (CNR), which was privatized in 1995, and the privately owned Canadian Pacific Ltd. (CP). They compete in some areas but cooperate where duplication of service is not profitable. In addition to their railway operations, CNR and CP maintain steamships and ferries, nationwide telegraph services, highway transport services, and hotel chains.

The populated sections are generally well supplied with roads and highways, but because of difficult winter weather conditions, road maintenance is a recurring and expensive task and puts a tremendous strain on road-building facilities. As of 2002, there are about 1,408,800 km (876,273 mi) of roads, 493,080 km (306,696 mi) of which are paved, including 16,906 km (10,516 mi) of expressways. The 7,820-km (4,860-mi) paved Trans-Canada Highway, a c$500-million project financed jointly by the federal and provincial governments, was completed in 1962. Canada ranks next to the United States in per capita use of motor transport, with one passenger car for every 2 persons. Motor vehicles in use in 2003 totaled 18,495,531, including 17,755,075 passenger cars and 740,456 commercial vehicles.

Bounded by water except for the Alaskan and southern land boundaries with the United States, Canada has many inland lakes and rivers that serve as traffic arteries. In addition, there is also the 3,769-km (2,355-mi) Saint Lawrence Seaway (which includes the 3,058 km/1,911 mi Saint Lawrence River) and Canada's portion of the Great Lakes, each of which are shared with the United States. Canada has access to three oceans, the Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Arctic. Canada's merchant fleet was comprised of 169 ships, totaling 1,784,229 GRT, in 2005. Most overseas commerce is carried by foreign ships. Montréal is Canada's largest port and the world's largest grain port. Others among the many well-equipped ports are Toronto, Hamilton, Port Arthur, and Fort William on the Great Lakes, and Vancouver on the Pacific Coast. The Montréal and lake ports are closed by ice from December to April, during which time Halifax on the Atlantic and Saint John on the Bay of Fundy are the only Atlantic Ocean traffic terminals.

The St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project, constructed jointly by Canada and the United States, and its many canals provide an 8-m (27-ft) navigation channel from Montréal to Lake Superior. The Athabasca and Slave rivers and the Mackenzie, into which they flow, provide an inland, seasonal water transportation system from the end of the railway in Alberta to the Arctic Ocean. The Yukon River is usually open from mid-May to mid-October. All Canadian inland waterways are open on equal terms to the shipping of all nations.

Canada had an estimated 1,326 airports in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 508 had permanent runways and there were also 319 heliports. Principal airports include Calgary International at Calgary, Edmonton International at Edmonton, Halifax International at Halifax, Lester Pearson at Toronto, Vancouver International at Vancouver, Winnipeg International at Winnipeg, and Dorval International and Mirabel International at Montréal. International air service is provided by government-owned Air Canada and Canadian Airlines. Regional service is provided by some 570 smaller carriers. Air transport is the chief medium in the northern regions for passengers and freight. Canadian airlines transported 35.884 million passengers in 2003.

HISTORY

The first inhabitants of what is now Canada were the ancient ancestors of the Inuit. Exactly where they originated or when they arrived is uncertain, but they probably crossed from eastern Siberia to Alaska, Canada, and Greenland between 15,000 and 10,000 bc. Their descendants, the Dorset people, who inhabited the central Canadian Arctic region from about 700 bc to ad 1300, were primarily hunters of walrus and seal. The shorter-lived Thule culture, which may have assimilated the Dorset, lasted from about 1200 to the first arrival of the Europeans. Although most Inuit lived near the coast, some followed the caribou herds to the interior and developed a culture based on hunting and inland fishing.

Although the Norse had occupied a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland by ad 1000, the first fully documented arrival by Europeans was in 1497 by the Italian-born John Cabot, who led an English expedition to the shore of a "new found land" (Newfoundland) and claimed the area in the name of Henry VII. In 1534, the French, under Jacques Cartier, planted a cross on the tip of the Gaspé Peninsula; the following year, his expedition discovered and ascended the St. Lawrence River. By 1604, Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts, along with Samuel de Champlain had founded the first permanent French colony, Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia). Four years later, Champlain established the town of Québec. The great St. Lawrence waterway led Étienne Brulé and others after him to the Great Lakes and the rivers flowing south through the center of the North American continent. Missionaries and fur traders soon arrived, and an enormous French territory was established. Between 1608 and 1756, about 10,000 French settlers arrived in Canada. In the hope of protecting French settlers and the fur trade, Champlain supported the Huron Indians against their enemies, the Iroquois. When the Iroquois demolished the Hurons, the French colony was almost destroyed.

In the 17th century, England pressed its claim (by virtue of Cabot's expedition) to the rich fur-trading colony, and during the frequent skirmishing between New France and New England the English conquered Québec (1629). Restored to France in 1632, Québec, together with the rest of New France, was placed under the absolute control of a chartered commercial organization, the Company of One Hundred Associates, with the twofold purpose of exploiting the fur trade and establishing settlements. In 1663, New France became a royal province of the French crown. Thereafter, three important officials—the royal governor, the intendant, and the bishop—competed in exercising control of the government. Under the seigneurial system, which had been founded in 1598, large land grants were made to seigneurs, who made other grants to settlers. The actual farmers owed some quasi-feudal dues and could sell the property only by paying a large duty to the seigneur.

The movement of exploration, discovery, commercial exploitation, and missionary enterprise, which had begun with the coming of Champlain, was extended by such men as Jacques Marquette, Louis Jolliet, and Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, reaching its climax in the last three decades of the 17th century. At that time, French trade and empire stretched north to the shores of Hudson Bay, west to the head of the Great Lakes, and south to the Gulf of Mexico. Meanwhile, a British enterprise, the Hudson's Bay Company, founded in 1670, began to compete for the fur trade.

The European wars between England and France were paralleled in North America by a series of French and Indian wars. The imperial contest ended after British troops commanded by James Wolfe defeated Marquis Louis Joseph de Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham, bringing about the fall of Québec in 1759. The French army surrendered at Montréal in 1760, and the Treaty of Paris in 1763 established British rule over what had been New France. The Québec Act of 1774 established English criminal law but secured seigneurial tenure, a modified oath of office allowing Roman Catholics to serve in the conciliar governments, and the right of the Roman Catholic Church to collect tithes.

These concessions, which reflected the sympathy of the British ruling class for the French upper classes, instituted the separateness of French-speaking Canada that has become a distinctive feature of the country. It also secured the loyalty of the French clergy and aristocracy to the British crown during the American Revolution. Although the poorer French settlers (habitants) sympathized with the Revolutionists, efforts to take Canada by arms for the revolutionary cause failed in the Québec campaign. Some 40,000 Loyalists from the colonies in revolt fled northward to eastern Canada and did much to change the political character of their new country. The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided Lower Canada (now southern Québec) from Upper Canada (now southern Ontario) and provided for elected assemblies with limited powers, the first organs of self-government in the territory.

In the 1780s, the newly organized North West Company began to challenge the Hudson's Bay Company's fur-trade monopoly. The period was one of expansion, marked by Alexander Mackenzie's journey to the Arctic Ocean in 1789 and his overland voyage to the Pacific Ocean in 1793. British mariners secured for Britain a firm hold on what is now British Columbia.

The War of 1812, in which US forces attempting to invade Canada were repulsed by Canadian and British soldiers, did not change either the general situation or the US-Canadian boundary. After amalgamating the North West Company in 1821, the Hudson's Bay Company held undisputed sway over most of the north and west. Eastern border problems with the United States were resolved by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842; in the west, however, US expansionists sought to fix the border at 54°40′n. In 1846, the border was resolved at 49°n, and since then, except for minor disputes, the long border has been a line of peace.

The continuing influx of immigrants stimulated demands for political reforms. In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick the reformers had some early success, but in the two Canadas it was not until groups led by Louis Joseph Papineau in Lower Canada and William Lyon Mackenzie in Upper Canada had conducted separate futile rebellions in 1837–38 that the British government acted. John George Lambton, Earl of Durham, was sent to Canada as governor-general in 1838; he resigned later that year, but in 1839 submitted a report to the crown in which he recommended the granting of some forms of self-government. He also advised the immediate union of the two Canadas for the express purpose of Anglicizing the French Canadians. Union of the two provinces was approved in 1840, but responsible government was not achieved until 1849, after strenuous efforts by leaders in the various provinces. There was, however, no single unified nation—only a string of provinces in the east and the Hudson's Bay Company domain in the west and north.

The movement for Canadian confederation—political union of the colonies—was spurred in the 1860s by the need for common defense and the desire for a common government to sponsor railroads and other transportation. John Alexander Macdonald and George Brown, rival political leaders, agreed in 1864 to unite Upper Canada and Lower Canada under a common dominion government. Already the Maritime provinces were seeking union among themselves; their Charlottetown Conference in 1864 was broadened to admit delegates from the Canadas. After two more conferences, in 1864 and 1866, the dominion government was established under the British North America Act of 1867. The dominion was a confederation of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the two provinces of Canada. There had been much opposition, and Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were brought to accept the union only through the efforts of Sir Charles Tupper and Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley and by the fear and indignation roused by the invasion of Canada by Fenians (militant Irish nationalists) from the United States in 1866. Since the name Canada was chosen for the entire country, Lower Canada and Upper Canada became the provinces of Québec and Ontario, respectively.

In 1869, the Hudson's Bay Company relinquished its territorial rights to Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territories. In 1870, the province of Manitoba was established and admitted to the confederation, and the Northwest Territories were transferred to the federal government. In 1871, British Columbia, on the Pacific shore, joined the confederation, largely on the promise of a transcontinental railroad. Prince Edward Island did not join until 1873. Pushing through the Canadian Pacific (CP) Railway was a main achievement of Macdonald's Conservative administration. The CP was given large grants of land in return for its promise to aid in settling these lands, a policy that is still being carried on. Objection in the west to being taken over by the east led to two métis rebellions, headed by Louis Riel, in 1869–70 and 1885, but the west was opened to settlement nonetheless.

Under the long administration (1896–1911) of the Liberal Party under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, immigration to the prairie provinces was greatly accelerated. The prairie agricultural empire bloomed. Large-scale development of mines and of hydroelectric resources helped spur the growth of industry and urbanization. Alberta and Saskatchewan were made provinces in 1905. In 1921, Manitoba, Ontario, and Québec were greatly enlarged to take in all territory west of Hudson Bay and south of 60°n and all territory east of Ungava Bay. In February 1931, Norway formally recognized the Canadian title to the Sverdrup group of Arctic islands (now the Queen Elizabeth Islands); Canada thus held sovereignty in the whole Arctic sector north of the Canadian mainland. Newfoundland remained apart from the confederation until after World War II; it became Canada's tenth province in March 1949.

Canadian contributions of manpower and resources were immensely helpful to the Allies when Canada joined the British side in World War I; more than 600,000 Canadians served in Europe, and over 60,000 were killed. The war contributions of Canada and other dominions helped bring about the declaration of equality of the members of the British Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster of 1931. The wartime struggle over military conscription, however, deepened the cleavage between French Canadians and other Canadians. After the war, the development of air transportation and roads helped weld Canada together, and the nation had sufficient strength to withstand the depression that began in 1929 and the droughts that brought ruin to wheat fields. The farmers developed huge cooperatives, especially in Nova Scotia and the prairie provinces, and also took up radical political doctrines, notably through the Social Credit and the Socialistic Cooperative Commonwealth Federation parties.

Canada was again vitally important in World War II, under the premiership of William Lyon Mackenzie King. More than one million Canadians took part in the Allied war effort, and over 32,000 were killed. The nation emerged from the war with enhanced prestige, actively concerned with world affairs and fully committed to the Atlantic alliance.

Domestically, a far-reaching postwar development was the resurgence in the 1960s of French Canadian separatism, symbolized by a series of cultural agreements between France and Québec. In 1970, terrorist acts by the Québec Liberation Front led to the banning of that organization and to the federal government's first invocation in peacetime of emergency powers under the War Measures Act. The emergency measures, imposed on 16 October, were not lifted until 30 April 1971. Although administrative reforms—including the establishment of French as Québec's official language in 1974—helped meet the demands of cultural nationalists, separatism continued to be an important force in Canadian politics. In the 1976 provincial elections, the separatist Parti Québécois came to power in Québec, and its leader, Premier René Lévesque, proposed that Québec become politically independent from Canada, in a relationship termed sovereignty-association. In a referendum on 20 May 1980, in which 82% of those eligible voted, the proposal was defeated, 59.5% to 40.5%. Meanwhile, other provinces had their own grievances, especially over oil revenues. Alberta objected to federal control over oil pricing and to reduction of the provincial share of oil revenues as a result of the new National Energy Program announced in late 1980; the failure of Newfoundland and the federal government to agree on development and revenue sharing hindered the exploitation of the vast Hibernia offshore oil and gas field in the early 1980s.

Since 1927, when discussions first began on the question of rescinding the British North America Act, disagreements between the provinces and the federal government over constitutional amendment procedures had stood in the way of Canada's reclaiming from the United Kingdom authority over its own constitution. In 1980, Liberal Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau made "patriation" of the constitution a principal priority of his administration. Initially he faced considerable opposition from 8 of the 10 provincial premiers, but a compromise on amending procedures and a charter of rights eventually proved acceptable to all but Québec. The Constitution Act, passed in December 1981 and proclaimed by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 April 1982, thus replaced the British North America Act as the basic document of Canadian government. In 1987, Québec was to sign the new constitution, after winning the inclusion of a clause acknowledging that Québec is a "distinct society." The Meech Lake Accord of 1987, however, failed to compel Québec into signing the constitution, and Québec's status has been in limbo ever since. New Brunswick and Manitoba failed to ratify the Accord because of the perceived preferential status Québec would have received. The Charlottetown Accord also proposed recognizing Québec as a "distinct society" in addition to acknowledging aboriginals' inherent right to self-government and converting the senate into an elected and more effective legislative body. On 26 October 1992, however, the majority of Canadians chose not to support the Charlottetown Accord in a national referendum.

Canada joined with the United States and Mexico to negotiate the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was built upon the US-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA). The three nations came to an agreement in August 1992 and signed the text on 17 December 1992. NAFTA created a single market of 370 million people with a combined GNP exceeding us$6 trillion and was implemented in 1994.

Like the French Canadians of Québec, Canada's native peoples have also challenged the federal government on issues of identity and autonomy. In 1992 the Inuits approved an agreement by which the country's Northwest Territories would be divided in two, with the eastern part comprising the semiautonomous Nunavut territory, which would serve as an Inuit homeland. Other native groups also advanced land claims.

On 30 October 1995, the province of Québec held a referendum on secession from Canada; the measure was defeated by the narrowest of margins—a majority of less than 1%. As the 1990s ended, the province remained deeply divided over the secession issue, and the constitutional impasse over the status of Québec persisted. In 1998, Canada's Supreme Court ruled that in order for Québec to secede from the country, it had to reach agreement with the other provinces and the federal government on issues including a common currency and payment of the national debt. In 2003, the Liberal Party defeated the Bloc Québécois in provincial elections in Québec, ending nine years of rule by the pro-independence party.

After ousting the Progressive Conservatives in the 1993 national election, the Liberal party, led by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, won a second consecutive parliamentary victory for the first time in 40 years in June 1997. However, the party's majority was significantly reduced from its previous size, and the right-wing Reform Party replaced the Bloc Québécois as the leading opposition group, a development that added to the regional fragmentation posing an increasing threat to the national unity of Canada. To overcome regional divisions within their own ranks, Canada's conservatives voted to create the new Canadian Alliance party early in 2000, in an attempt to unite the western-based Reform Party with the Progressive Conservatives. In 2003, the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservatives voted to disband and form the new Conservative Party of Canada.

In the late 1990s, Canada's native peoples achieved two historic milestones in their quest for autonomy. In 1998 the Nisga'a Indians ratified a treaty according them 1930 sq km (745 sq mi) of land in British Columbia. The following year, the Nunavut territory—occupying an area larger than Western Europe—was officially founded as a homeland for the Inuit in the Northwest Territories.

In March and April 2003, Toronto was the site of the largest outbreak of the deadly severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus outside Asia. The World Health Organization (WHO) imposed a travel advisory to Toronto which lasted a week. Some 300 people were affected and 33 died. That August, Toronto, Ottawa, and other parts of Ontario as well as many cities in the United States were affected by the largest power outage in North American history.

On 12 December 2003, former finance minister and member of the Liberal Party Paul Martin was sworn in as prime minister, ending 10 years of leadership by Jean Chrétien. In February 2004, a financial scandal erupted over the misuse of government funds being used for advertising and sponsorship. The Liberal Party was accused of receiving kickbacks from advertising contracts awarded in Québec in the late 1990s. Paul Martin ordered an official inquiry. In June 2004, Martin was returned to power in parliamentary elections, but the Liberal Party was no longer in the majority. In February 2005, Martin and Chrétien appeared before a commission set up to investigate the financial scandal involving the misspent government funds. That May, the government won a confidence motion in parliament by only one vote.

In July 2005, Canada became the fourth nation in the world to legalize same-sex marriages. The other countries having such laws at that time were Belgium, the Netherlands, and Spain.

Canada has collaborated with the United States in its war against international terrorism. Securing the long border shared between the two countries in order to prevent possible terrorist infiltration has been a challenge, and has caused Canada and the United States to cooperate on sharing intelligence. However, Canada did not join the US-led coalition in the war in Iraq which began in 2003, prompting much domestic debate and US criticism of Jean Chrétien, who was prime minister at the time.

GOVERNMENT

Canada is a federation of 10 provinces and three northern territories (including the Nunavut territory formed in 1999). Under the British North America Act of 1867, which united the four original provinces of Québec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into one dominion under the name of Canada, the federation was provided with a powerful central government, which, besides its areas of exclusive authority, held residual authority in matters beyond the powers of local or private concern specifically assigned to the provincial legislatures. The British North America Act—which effectively served, together with a series of subsequent British statutes, as Canada's constitution—could be amended only by the British Parliament. In 1982, the British North America Act was superseded by the Constitution Act (or Canada Act), the principal innovations of which are the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the provision for amendment. For passage, an amendment requires approval by the federal parliament and the legislative assemblies of at least two-thirds of the provinces, which must hold an aggregate of at least half the population of all the provinces. However, when an amendment derogates from provincial rights, it will not apply in any province in which the legislative assembly dissented by majority vote. When such an amendment deals with education or other cultural matters, the federal government must pay compensation to any dissenting province, to make up for the funds that would have been transferred had the province accepted the amendment.

Under the Constitution Act, the British sovereign remains sovereign of Canada and head of state; for the most part, the personal participation of Queen Elizabeth II in the function of the crown for Canada is reserved to such occasions as a royal visit. The queen's personal representative in the federal government is the governor-general, appointed by the crown on the advice of the prime minister of Canada; the governor-general is usually appointed for a term of five years. Active executive authority resides in the cabinet, or ministry, headed by the prime minister.

The federal parliament is made up of the House of Commons and the Senate. A new House of Commons, with 308 members as of 2005, is elected at least once every five years by all Canadian citizens 18 years of age or older. Representation by provinces and territories is based on population, ranging from one for the Yukon Territory to 106 for Ontario.

The leader of the party that wins the largest number of seats in a newly elected House of Commons is asked to form the government. The governor-in-council (cabinet), responsible for determining all important government policies and for securing the passage of legislation, financial measures, and administrative provisions, is chosen by the prime minister.

The 105 members of the Senate, or upper house, are appointed for life, or until age 75, by the governor-general on the nomination of the prime minister, with equality of representation for regional divisions. There are roughly equal proportions of senators from the Maritime provinces, Ontario, Québec, and the western provinces. In October 1992, Canadian voters declined a constitutional amendment that would have made the Senate an elected body.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Throughout most of the 20th century and into the 21st, national unity has been the primary aim of every Canadian government: leaders of both the English-speaking majority and the French-speaking minority have cooperated to develop a united Canada with a great destiny to which differences arising from national origin were subordinate. In the 1970s, this unity was challenged by a growing demand for French Canadian autonomy. Despite cultural division, national unity has remained a basic factor in Canadian foreign policy. Two elements have contributed to the growth of Canadian nationalism—deliberate government policy and reaction against overidentification with either the United Kingdom or the United States.

Continuity of policy characterizes party relationships. The Liberal Party (LP), which held office from 1935 to 1957, from 1968 to 1984 (except for part of 1979), and since 1993, is nationwide in its representation but has its main strength in Québec. It traditionally emphasizes trade and cultural relationships with the United States. Its principal rival, the Conservative Party (formerly the Progressive Conservative Party or PC), which held power from 1957 to 1968, from May to December 1979, and from 1984 to 1993, stresses Canada's relationships with the United Kingdom. In economic policy, the Liberals generally champion free trade, while the Conservatives favor a degree of protection; but practical political considerations have modified this distinction.

The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) was a farmer-labor party with its main strength in Saskatchewan. Its foreign policy was much like that of the British Labour Party, but with an admixture of traditional Canadian prairie radicalism. It merged with the Canadian Labour Congress to form the New Democratic Party (NDP) in 1961. The Social Credit Party (SCP) has headed governments in Alberta and British Columbia but has not done well nationally. In June 1962, the group collapsed into independent factions, leaving only five representatives in the Commons. In September, the Québec wing of the party united to form the Ralliement des Créditistes, which after the 1965 elections became the new focal point of French Canadian interests.

After 22 years of uninterrupted rule, the Liberals were defeated by the PC in the 1957 elections. This was widely interpreted as a vote of protest against individual Liberal ministers and high taxes, as a reflection of concern over US economic penetration, and as a demonstration of widespread feeling that it was "time for a change." In the general election on 31 March 1958, the PC was returned to power with an unprecedented majority, taking 208 of the 265 seats. The LP was reduced to 49 seats, the smallest number in its history. In the election of June 1962, the PC lost 92 seats. The following February, the PC government lost a vote of confidence, the major issue being defense policy and the refusal of the prime minister to accept nuclear weapons from the United States. In the election of April 1963, the resurgent Liberals gained an additional 29 seats for a total of 129 (four short of a parliamentary majority). With some support from the SCP, Liberal leader Lester B. Pearson formed a new government.

In April 1968, the new Liberal Party leader, Pierre Elliott Trudeau, was elected prime minister in a colorful campaign emphasizing personality more than specific issues. In the June general election, which he called for almost immediately, the LP took 155 seats and the PC 72; the SCP lost all five of its seats. In the general elections of 30 October 1972, the Liberals lost their parliamentary majority, winning only 109 seats to the PC's 107. The NDP increased its representation from 22 seats to 31, and the Créditistes, who had resumed calling themselves the SCP in 1971, won 15 seats. When the NDP decided to support the continuance of Liberal rule, Prime Minister Trudeau formed a new cabinet. The Liberal-NDP alliance collapsed on 8 May 1974 when, for the first time in Canadian history, the government received a vote of no confidence on a budget bill. Elections were called, and the campaign was fought largely on the issue of inflation, with the PC calling for a system of wage and price controls. In the elections of 8 July 1974, the Liberals regained their majority.

In the general elections of 22 May 1979, the Liberals lost to the PC, taking 114 seats of the now 282-seat parliament to the PC's 136, and were unable to form a government in any province. However, on 13 December 1979, the government of Prime Minister Joe Clark was defeated by a Liberal and NDP coalition on a vote of no confidence on a budget bill that called for an increase of 18 cents a gallon in the excise tax on gasoline. Trudeau, who in November had announced his planned retirement, decided to continue as Liberal leader, and again became prime minister after elections on 18 February 1980 gave the Liberals 147 seats. Four years later, on 29 February 1984, Trudeau again announced his impending retirement, and his party chose John Turner as successor. Brian Mulroney became prime minister following a landslide PC victory in the September 1984 elections, which gave the PC 211 seats, the Liberals 40 (their lowest number ever), the NDP 30, and an independent 1. However, the Liberals regained strength over the next year and in 1985 won the Québec general election and, in a coalition with the NDP, ended 42 years of PC government in Ontario.

In 1993, the PC fell from power, primarily due to one of the worst Canadian recessions in nearly 60 years and the failure of the PC government to implement constitutional reforms. Brian Mulroney resigned and was succeeded by Kim Campbell. Liberals soundly defeated the PC in the October 1993 election, with 177 of the 295 seats (up from only 80 in 1988). The PC retained only two of their 157 seats. The Liberal party named Jean Chrétien as the new prime minister.

The Liberal Party's majority in parliament was reduced to 155 in elections called by Chrétien in June 1997. The majority of opposition seats were won by the right-wing populist Reform Party, formed in Alberta in 1988 and led by Robert Manning, which increased its representation to 60 seats, winning broad support in the western provinces. Other party totals were Bloc Québécois, 44; New Democratic, 21; Progressive Conservative, 20; and Independent, 1. In 2000, members of the Reform Party voted to create a broader conservative grouping called the Canadian Alliance, uniting the western-based, populist Reform Party with the eastern-based Progressive Conservatives in an attempt to eventually unseat the dominant Liberals. In 2003, the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservatives disbanded to create the Conservative Party of Canada.

On 12 December 2003, former finance minister and member of the Liberal Party Paul Martin was sworn in as prime minister, ending 10 years of leadership by Jean Chrétien. Parliamentary elections were held in June 2004. The distribution of the vote by percentage and seats was as follows: Liberal Party, 36.7%, (134 seats); Conservative Party, 29.6% (99 seats); New Democratic Party, 15.7% (19 seats); Bloc Québécois, 12.4% (54 seats); Greens, 4.3% (no seats); independents held 2 seats in the new House of Commons.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Canada is made up of 10 provinces and three territories. Each province has a premier and a legislature. They function like those of the central government. However, the provincial parliaments are unicameral. In each province, the sovereign is represented by a lieutenant-governor appointed by the governor-general. The provinces are empowered to regulate their own affairs and dispose of their own revenues. Civil and property rights, civil law, education, health, labor conditions, licenses, management and sale of public land, municipal government, and direct provincial taxation are within the jurisdiction of the provinces. Although the federal government still exercises considerable authority over the northern territories, they now have elected legislative bodies. In Yukon, the powers of the federal commissioner have been greatly reduced, and the newly formed Nunavut territory, an Inuit homeland, is semiautonomous.

Each province is divided into municipalities, the number and structure of which vary from province to province. In Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Québec the first order of municipalities consists of counties, which are further subdivided into cities, towns, villages, and townships, although there are minor variations. In Newfoundland and the four western provinces there are no counties; municipalities are either rural or urban, the latter being made up of cities, towns, and villages, but again with minor variations. Municipalities are usually administered by an elected council headed by a mayor, overseer, reeve, or warden. Local governments are incorporated by the provinces, and their powers and responsibilities are specifically set forth in provincial laws.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The civil law follows English common law everywhere except in Québec, where it follows the Napoleonic Code. The main body of criminal law is derived from English sources; most criminal statutes, being federal, are uniform throughout the country. Police magistrates and justices of the peace are appointed by the provincial governments. Civil and criminal courts exist on county, district, and superior levels; all judges of the superior, federal, tax, district, and county courts are appointed for life (but not beyond age 75) by the governor-in-council (the cabinet) and are paid by the federal parliament. The Supreme Court in Ottawa has appellate, civil, and criminal jurisdiction throughout Canada; its chief justice and eight associate ("puisne") justices (at least three of whom must come from Québec) are appointed by the governor-general. The Federal Court of Canada (formerly the Exchequer Court), organized into trial and appeal divisions, hears cases having to do with taxation, claims involving the federal government, copyrights, and admiralty law. Its appeal jurisdiction includes review of rulings by federal boards and commissions. The Tax Court, with seats in major cities throughout the country, rules on cases involving tax and revenue matters.

The death penalty in Canada was abolished in 1976; that decision was upheld in a vote by the House of Commons in June 1987.

The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive branches. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, part of the 1982 revised constitution, guarantees a number of individual fundamental rights.

Criminal defendants are afforded a wide range of procedural due process protections including a presumption of innocence, a right to counsel, public trial, and appeal.

Canada accepts compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice with reservations.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005 the armed forces numbered 62,000 active and 36,900 reserve personnel. The army (land forces) consisted of 33,000 active and 15,500 reserve personnel. Equipment included 114 main battle tanks, 303 reconnaisance vehicles and 1,278 armored personnel carriers. The air force (air command) had a strength of 14,500 active personnel, and 2,600 reservists with 140 combat aircraft. The navy (maritime command) had 12,000 active personnel and 4,00 reservists, with 4 guided missile destroyers, 12 frigates, and 2 submarines. Major deployments of Canadian troops include Bosnia and Afghanistan. Canadian personnel are also deployed in nine other overseas peacekeeping operations. Paramilitary organizations had 9,350 members and consisted of the Canadian Coast Guard and Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Defense spending in 2004 totaled c$15 billion.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

A Commonwealth nation, Canada became a charter member of the UN on 9 November 1945 and participates in ECE, ECLAC, and several nonregional specialized agencies. A Canadian, Lester B. Pearson, served as president of the General Assembly in 1952/53. Maj. Gen. E. L. M. Burns of Canada was chief of staff of the UN Truce Supervision Organization in the Middle East from August 1954 to November 1956, when UNEF was established, and he served as UNEF commander for the next three years. Canada has contributed to UN peacekeeping efforts in Cyprus (est. 1964), Sierra Leone (est. 1999), and the DROC (est. 1999).

The country is a member of NATO and other intergovernmental organizations, such as the Asian Development Bank, APEC, ASEAN (dialogue partner), OECD, the OSCE, the OAS, and the WTO (1995). Canada participates in G-7, G-8, the Paris Club (G-10), the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, and the Inter-American Development Bank. The country is an observer in the Council of Europe.

Canada cooperates with the United States in North American defense through the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). A free-trade agreement with the United States signed in 1988 was extended to include Mexico with the 1992 signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), creating a free trade bloc among the three countries. The agreement was ratified by the governments of all the countries in 1993 and went into effect the following year. Canada supported joint military actions with the United States in Afghanistan throughout 2002–05, with plans for ongoing support as necessary. Canada is a member of the United Nations, Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection Commission, which was originally established in 1999 as the Special Commission for the Elimination of Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction. Though Canada did not participate in the 2003 military coalition in Iraq, it has offered financial support for reconstruction efforts.

Canada is part of Nuclear Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group). In environmental cooperation, Canada is part of the Antarctic Treaty, the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, International Tropical Timber Agreements, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

The Canadian economy is the eighth-largest in the world (measured in US dollars at market exchange rates), behind the United States, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, China, and Italy. The postwar period saw a steady shift from the production of agricultural goods toward increased emphasis on manufacturing and services. The service sector employed three-fourths of the workforce in 2006, compared to only half of the workforce in 1960. Canada is a world leader in the production and export of asbestos, nickel, silver, zinc, uranium, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, gypsum, molybdenum, potash, aluminum, gold, iron ore, copper, fluorspar, and lead. Although no longer the foremost sector of the economy, agriculture is of major importance to the economy as a whole and still is basic in many areas; Canada is the world's second-largest wheat exporter, after the United States. Canada is also the world's leading producer of newsprint and ranks among the leaders in other forestry products.

Canada in the postwar period changed from a country producing and exporting mainly primary products to one that increasingly produced and exported manufactured goods. In the 1980s, machinery and equipment joined automotive products among the country's leading exports; at the same time, the importance of natural resource products declined (partly reflecting the 1986 collapse of oil prices). However, by 2006, the engines of growth for the Canadian economy—automobiles and high-tech industries—slowed or had shrunk considerably. In their place, such perennial industries as mining had gained in importance. By that year, natural resources, construction, and business services (including work by architects and engineers) were the three fastest-growing sectors of the economy. Natural resources, and particularly energy, account for more than 60% of Canada's exports. With oil prices high in the mid-2000s, Canada's wealth increased.

Canada was hard hit by the recession of the early 1980s, with interest rates, unemployment, and inflation all running higher than in the United States. The effects of the recession on minerals and manufacturing were especially severe. By the end of 1982, all mining operations in the Yukon were closed, and throughout the country more than 70,000 of 115,000 miners were unemployed. The economy recovered during the mid-1980s, and Canada's economic growth rate was among the highest of OECD countries during 1984–86. However, differences in prosperity among the provinces increased during the 1980s, with the central provinces relatively robust, the western provinces suffering declines in growth because of lower prices for oil and other natural resources, and the Atlantic provinces depressed. Although the 1990s were marked by continued high rates of unemployment and restrained domestic spending, the economy posted an average growth rate in GDP of about 3%. From 2001–05, real GDP growth averaged 2.5%. GDP growth was forecast at 2.7% in 2006 and 2.8% in 2007.

Unemployment was rated at a peak of about 12% in 1992 but had gone down to 8% in 1999. The unemployment rate stood at 7% in 2004, but was considerably lower in rural areas and in the western provinces, where employment in the natural resource sector had increased; blue-collar work grew more rapidly than white-collar employment in urban areas after 2000. As of 2006, the unemployment rate in Alberta was half the national average.

The Canadian economy is highly integrated with the US economy, which absorbed nearly 85% of Canada's exports and was the source of 64% of its imports in 2004. Most Canadians live in a narrow strip north of the US border, which makes them vulnerable to potential US economic and cultural domination.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Canada's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $1.1 trillion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $32,800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.8%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.3%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 2.2% of GDP, industry 29.1%, and services 68.7%.

Foreign aid receipts amounted to $50 million and accounted for approximately 4.2% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Canada totaled $407.97 billion or about $12,910 per capita based on a GDP of $856.5 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.8%. Approximately 14% of household consumption was spent on food, 10% on fuel, 4% on health care, and 21% on education. It was estimated that in 2003 about 15.9% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, Canada's labor force numbered an estimated 17.35 million workers. In 2004, the service sector accounted for 75% of all workers, with 14% in manufacturing; 2% in agriculture, 5% in construction, and the remaining 3% in various other occupations. The rate of unemployment was estimated at 6.8% in 2005.

In 2005, about 30% of the civilian workforce was unionized. All workers have the right to strike except those in essential services.

Child labor legislation, standard work hours, and minimum wage rates vary from province to province. Most provinces prohibit employment for children under the age of 15 or 16 from working without parental consent, at night, or in hazardous conditions. However, Alberta allows minors between the ages of 12 and 14 to work work for limited periods in certain sectors of the economy, without a permit from the director of employment standards. In British Columbia minors between 12 and 14 can be employed with the written consent of the parent or guardian. The province also allows children under 12 to be employed in "exceptional circumstances," such as in the entertainment industry, with the permission of the director of employment standards.

All provinces limit the regular workweek to 40 or 48 hours, wiThat least 24 hours of rest. Minimum wage rates in 2005 ranged from c$5.90 to c$8.00 per hour. A family with only one wage earner at the minimum level would fall below the poverty line. Federal and provincial laws effectively protect the health and safety of workers.

AGRICULTURE

Until the beginning of the 1900s, agriculture was the predominant occupation, and farmers and their families made up the majority of the population. Since then, however, the farm population has been shrinking both relatively and absolutely. Even in Saskatchewan, the province with the highest proportion of farm population, farm families account for no more than 25% of the total population. For Canada as a whole, agriculture engaged only 2.1% of the economically active population in 2000. Farm production continues to increase, as have the size of holdings, crop quantity, quality and variety, and cash income. Canada is still one of the major food-exporting countries of the world; agriculture engages about 362,000 people and generates about 2% of GDP. Farm cash receipts for crops totaled almost c$14.5 billion in 2004, or 40% of total farm receipts.

Of Canada's total land area, about 5% is classified as arable land; another 3% is considered as permanent pasture land. More than 90% of the cultivated area is in the three prairie provinces. The trend is toward fewer and larger farms and increased mechanization and specialization. Ontario and Saskatchewan together account for about half of all farm cash receipts. Sale of field crops provide more than 50% of farm cash income in the prairie region, but less than 10% elsewhere in Canada.

The estimated harvest of principal field crops in 2004 (in thousands of tons produced per thousand hectares) was wheat, 25,860 produced on 9,862; barley, 13,186 on 4,050; corn, 8,388 on 1,072; oats, 3,680 on 1,320; and rapeseed (canola), 7,728 on 5,564.

Formerly, Canada imported only such items as could not be grown domestically—coffee, tea, cane sugar, spices, and citrus fruits—while exporting large surpluses of wheat, barley, and livestock. However, food imports have risen sharply in recent years. Nevertheless, Canada remains a significant food exporter; in 2004, Canadian grain exports totaled 18,984,000 tons, fifth after the United States, France, Australia, and Argentina.

Federal and provincial departments of agriculture provide guidance and aid to farmers in almost every field of operation. Activities include research and experimentation, protection of animals and crops, irrigation and reclamation, and price stability and farm credit measures. The government can stabilize the price of any agricultural product (except wheat, for which separate provision is made) by outright purchase or by supporting the market with guarantees or deficiency payments.

The departments of agriculture apply fundamental scientific research to soil management and crop and animal production, promote agricultural production, and enact financial measures to ensure greater stability of the farm economy. Long-term and short-term mortgages are made available; other loans are granted for equipping, improving, and developing farms. Various federal acts assist the marketing of produce. Governments, working with product organizations, also set limits on the production of milk, eggs, tobacco, chicken, and turkey meat. Price supports may be given to any designated natural or processed product but are mandatory for cattle, sheep, hogs, dairy products, wheat, oats, and barley. Farmers who have suffered severe crop losses through drought may obtain compensation, and prairie farmers who cannot deliver all their grain to market are given temporary financial assistance. The rail freight rates paid by western farmers to ship their grain to eastern markets, basically unchanged since 1897, increased five-fold between 1983 and 1991. The increase, partially subsidized by the federal government, would pay for improvements in the western rail system.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Canada traditionally exports livestock products, producing more than the domestic market can use. Animal production (livestock, dairy products, and eggs) now brings in about half of total farm cash income. Stock raising is the foundation of agricultural economy in the foothills of the Rockies, across northern Alberta and Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba, on the interior plateaus of British Columbia, in the Georgian Bay district of Ontario, in Prince Edward Island, and in western Nova Scotia. One of the great ranching sections is located in the Palliser Triangle of southern Saskatchewan and Alberta.

Livestock on farms in 2004 numbered 14,660,000 head of cattle; 14,623,000 pigs and hogs; 1,005,000 sheep; and 160 million chickens. In 2004, meat production included 1,460,000 tons of beef, 1,930,000 tons of pork, and 16,100 tons of mutton and lamb. Poultry production totaled 969,716 tons. Milk production in 2004 was 8 million tons; butter production amounted to about 88,400 tons, and cheese production to 366,355 tons. Most dairy products are consumed within Canada. In 2004, 376,560 tons of eggs were produced. Cash receipts in 2004 for cattle amounted to c$5,069 million; for dairy products, c$4,598 million; for hogs, c$4,261 million; and for poultry, c$1,845 million.

The wild fur catch, which was important in Canada's early history, is now limited to the northern parts of the provinces, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and the Yukon. In 2003, the value of fur production totaled c$103.6 million, with ranch-raised pelts accounting for 82% and wildlife pelts for 18%.

FISHING

With a coastline of nearly 29,000 km (18,000 mi) and a lake-and-river system containing more than half the world's fresh water, Canada ranked 20th among the world's major fish producers in 2003 and was the world's fifth-leading exporter of fresh, chilled, and frozen fish by value. That year, Canada exported $3.3 billion in fishery commodities, accounting for 15.8% of agricultural exports.

Two of the world's great fishing grounds are located off Canada. One lies along the Atlantic coast of the Maritime provinces, and in this region the Grand Banks of Newfoundland constitute the largest area. More than one billion pounds of cod, haddock, halibut, pollock, and other fish are caught every year along the Atlantic in deep-sea and shore operations. Most of the cod and about a third of the total catch is dried and salted for export to Mediterranean and Latin American countries; another third is sold fresh; the rest is canned. Vast numbers of lobsters and herring are caught in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy. The other great fishing region includes the bays, inlets, river mouths, and fjords of British Columbia. Salmon, the specialty of the Pacific fisheries, is canned for export and constitutes the most valuable item of Canadian fish production. Also exported are fresh halibut and canned and processed herring. Other important export items are whitefish, lake trout, pickerel, and other freshwater fish caught in the Great Lakes and some of the larger inland lakes. Feed and fertilizer are important by-products.

Canada's total fish and seafood landings were estimated at 1,229,925 tons in 2003, of which all but 45,876 tons were from marine fishing. Pelagic species and other finfish (primarily salmon and herring) accounted for 33% of the 2003 marine catch; shellfish (mostly shrimp, oysters, and crabs), 42%; and groundfish (mostly hake and redfish), 25%. The United States imported about 58% of Canada's fish product exports by volume in 2003. Japan is the second most important market for fish exports.

Canadian aquacultural production in 2003 consisted of 151,264 tons, primarily salmon. Canada's aquaculture industry faces many federal and provincial regulatory impediments that restrict its growth, such as regulations on the introduction and transfer policy of new species and salmon tagging. However, in 2002, the British Columbia government announced that new environmental standards would allow for a managed expansion of salmon aquaculture, ending a moratorium on fish farms in effect since 1995. In 2004, gross output of aquaculture amounted to c$726.1 million, primarily from British Columbia and New Brunswick.

The government protects and develops the resources of both ocean and inland waters and helps expand the domestic market for fish. It extends loans to fishermen for the purchase of fishing craft. Canadian-US action has helped restore Pacific salmon runs and halibut stocks and the Great Lakes fisheries, but pollution represents a threat to freshwater sport fishing, especially in Ontario.

FORESTRY

Canada's National Forestry Database (CNFD) reports total forestland area at 417.6 million hectares (1,031.9 million acres), equivalent to 42% of the total land area. Only about 6% of Canada's forests are privately owned. Of the 94% under crown (public) control, provincial governments manage 71% and the federal government manages 23%. Some 9.6 million hectares (23.7 million acres) of the public forest land are for uses other than timber production, including parks, game refuges, water conservation areas, and nature preserves. Most of the provincial crown forestland is in Québec, British Columbia, and Ontario. The crown forests are leased to private individuals or companies. Each province and territory regulates and controls the harvest rate on crown land through an allowable annual cut.

In 2003, an estimated 194.7 million cu m (6.9 billion cu ft) of roundwood was harvested. Canada ranks as the third-largest producer of coniferous wood products (after the United States and Russia), and is the leading supplier of softwood products to world markets. Chief forest products in eastern Canada are pulp and paper manufactures, especially newsprint. Canada leads the world in newsprint production, with 8,201,000 tons in 2004, accounting for 21% of the world's production. Exports of newsprint were valued at over c$4 billion, with about three-fourths going to the United States. In the west, the chief product is sawn timber. The value of Canada's forestry exports in 2003 amounted to over $24 billion, or 16% of the world's forestry exports that year. In 2003, production for leading export commodities included: sawnwood, 57.5 million cu m (2 billion cu ft); wood pulp, 26.2 million cu m (925 million cu ft); industrial roundwood, 191.7 million cu m (6.8 billion cu ft); wood-based panels, 16.7 million cu m (590 million cu ft); and paper and paperboard, 20.1 million tons. About 75% of forestry exports are sent to the United States. Exports of wood products contribute about 14% to the value of all Canadian exports.

Other well-known Canadian forestry sector products include Christmas trees and maple syrup. Québec accounts for about 35% of the annual Christmas tree production and 90% of maple syrup production.

With such a large annual forestry output, conservation and reforestation are stressed. Both government and industry promote improvements in management practices and in the use of forest products. New manufacturing methods permit the use of inferior classes of wood. The government estimated there were 5,400 forest fires in 2000, 57% due to human activities.

MINING

The world's largest exporter of minerals and metals, Canada's mining sector was considered a pillar of the economy and a way of life for Canadians. Canada was the leading producer and exporter of potash (world's largest and richest reserves), the leading supplier of uranium, the second-largest producer of asbestos (possibly the largest deposits) and sulfur (17% of world output and 38% of world trade), the third-largest in titanium, platinum-group metals (PGMs) and mine zinc, fourth in aluminum (from imported oxide), fifth in copper, lead, silver, and gold, and among the leading producers of nickel, salt, and nitrogen in ammonia. Yet, the country only recently began to fully develop many of its most important mineral resources, and resources developed earlier continued to display great growth potential. This was reaffirmed by discoveries such as the huge and rich nickel, copper, and cobalt deposit at Voisey's Bay, and the Ekati diamond mines—diamond was expected to be the most sought-after mineral in the country.

The production, by value, of minerals, metals, and coal in 2003, totaled us$14.4 billion, up 1.2% from 2002. In addition, Canada's minerals industry played an integral part in Canada's new-technology-driven and knowledge-based economy. The value of nonfuel minerals production increased to us$13.4 billion in 2003, up 2.3% from 2002.

In terms of value, the top nonfuel mineral commodities in 2003 were: gold us$1.6 billion; nickel, us$1.4 billion; diamonds us$1.2 billion; cement, coal, and potash, at us$1.1 billion each; iron ore us$1.0 billion; copper, us$929 million; sand gravel, and stone us$714 million each; and zinc, us$643 million. Exports of minerals, and mineral products (excluding crude oil and natural gas), and metals (including smelted and refined), totaled us$35.3 billion in 2003.

Mined nickel (metal content) output in 2003 was 162,756 metric tons. The world's biggest newsmaker in nickel continued to be Inco Ltd.'s nickel-copper-cobalt project at Voisey's Bay. Proved reserves at the site totaled 30 million tons (2.85% nickel and 1.68% copper); indicated resources were 54 million tons (1.53% nickel, 0.70% copper); inferred resources, 16 million tons (1.60% nickel, 0.80% copper).

Gold output in 2003 was 140,559 kg, down from 151,904 kg in 2002. Gold has lost some of its luster. Three mines opened, while 13 closed, a result of low gold prices and/or depletion. Operating mines accounted for 92.5% of Canada's output, with the remainder coming from 19 base-metal mines (gold as a by product) and a number of placers. Ontario produced 49% of Canada's gold, followed by Québec at 21%, British Columbia at 15% and Manitoba at 4%, with the remaining provinces and territories accounting for the remainder.

Mined zinc output (metal content) was 788,328 metric tons in 2003, down from 923,931 metric tons in 2002. Zinc prices remained depressed in 2003 as a result of continued poor demand in Japan, slow growth in Europe, and increased mine production worldwide. The country's proven and probable reserves totaled 10.2 million tons, 35% of which was in New Brunswick.

Mined copper output (metal content) was 534,287 metric tons in 2003, down from 584,195 metric tons in 2002. Proven and probable reserves for the country totaled 8.4 million tons, 50% of which was in Ontario, and 35% in British Columbia.

The output of iron ore and concentrate (metal content) was 32,957,000 tons in 2003, up from 30,902,000 tons in 2002. Exploration continued in Roche Bay (Northwest Territories), the Peach River area of Alberta, and Ungava Bay and Schefferville (Québec). Total proven and probable reserves in Canada were 1,261 million tons.

Mined silver output (metal content) was 1,309,274 kg, down from 1,407,558 kg in 2002. Silver, the value of whose output dropped by almost 7% in 2003 versus 2002, was mainly a by-product of base-metal and gold mining. Proven and probable reserves in Canada totaled 15,738 tons.

Lead output (metal content) was 81,268 metric tons, down from 101,330 metric tons in 2002. Proven and probable reserves amounted to 1.85 million tons; 76% were in New Brunswick. In addition, Canada mined the metals antimony, arsenic trioxide, bismuth, cadmium, magnesium, molybdenum (121,000 tons of proven and probable reserves, all in British Columbia), pyrochlore, selenium, spodumene, tantalite (from Niobec, the world's third-largest producer, and the only operating columbium mine in North America), tellurium, and titanium. Calcium may have been produced as well.

Among industrial minerals, diamonds have been attracting much attention. Total output was 11.2 million carats in 2003, up 127% from 4.937 million carats in 2002. By value, diamond production in 2003 totaled us$1.2 billion versus us$552 million in 2002. Canada's first commercial production of diamonds—by BHP Diamonds Inc., in the Ekati Mine—began in 1998, when production totaled 300,006 carats; 2000 was Ekati's first full year of operation, and it has became a factor in world markets. BHP Diamonds reported that the quality of diamonds recovered from the five kimberlite pipes at its Lac de Gras property, northwest of Yellowknife, compared favorably with the best pipes in the world. De Beers, which bought 35% of Ekati's output, has discovered 220 kimberlites, several of which had the potential to become diamond mines; one, the Snap Lake project, is due to start production in 2008, and is De Beers's first mine outside of Africa. Diavik Diamond Mines Inc.'s Diavik Mine began production in January 2003. At least 90% of Diavik's output is estimated to be of gem quality. More than 500 companies have been exploring for diamonds, on an off and on basis. The First Canadian Diamond Cutting Works, in Montréal, became the country's first fully integrated cutting and polishing factory, with the aim of handling Canada's diamond production at lower cost than European competitors; artisans came from Belgium.

Potash output was 9,131,000 tons in 2003, up by 9.2% from 8,361,000 tons in 2002. However, potash output by value increased only slightly in 2003 from 2002, to around us$1.65 billion versus us$1.63 billion. The 63%-government-owned Potash Corp. of Saskatchewan Inc. was the largest publicly held potash producer in the world, with an annual capacity of 8.2 million tons, 61% of Canada's total capacity. An area extending from central Saskatchewan southeast into Manitoba was probably the largest and richest reserve of potash in the world, and could probably supply all the world's needs for 1,000 years. Known national reserves amounted to 14 billion tons.

Asbestos output in 2003 was 240,500 metric tons, down slightly from 242,241 metric tons in 2002. The world's largest deposits of asbestos (including chrysotile, crocidolite, and amosite) were believed to be in a region of eastern Québec that included the Black Lake open pit and the Bell underground mines and the town of Asbestos. The nation's proven and probable reserves of fiber asbestos totaled 35.8 million tons.

Output totals for other industrial minerals in 2003 were: salt, 12,390,000 tons, with 264 million tons of proven and probable reserves; sulfur, 8,509,000 tons, with 130 million tons of proven and probable reserves; nitrogen (content of ammonia), 3,440,000 metric tons; and sand and gravel, 235,574 tons. In addition, Canada produced amethyst, anhydrite, barite, brucite, hydraulic cement, clay and clay products, diatomite, dolomite, gypsum (482,000 tons of proven and probable reserves), jade, lime, mica (scrap and flake), nepheline syenite, pyrite, pyrophyllite, pyrrhotite, silica (quartz), soapstone, sodium carbonate (soda ash), natural sodium sulfate (81.3 million tons of proven and probable reserves), and stone (including crushed, building, ornamental, and paving). Canada also had capacities to produce graphite and limestone.

Mining has been conducted in Canada since the seventeenth century, but the remarkably rapid development of mineral exploitation dates from the end of World War I. Petroleum has been found in the Midwest; iron ore deposits in Labrador, Québec, and Ontario; and uranium in Ontario and Saskatchewan. Ontario led the provinces, producing 30.8% of nonfuel mineral commodities, followed by Québec (19.5%), Saskatchewan (11.9%), and British Columbia (11.2%).

Land use, which had not been given much attention, has become an issue, with First Nation rights receiving consideration. Canada's provincial governments regulated most aspects of exploration and mining, and the exceptions, the Yukon Territory and the Northwest Territories, have been accumulating more independent powers. Federal agencies recently became able to review mining activity for environmental impact. Exploration for metals and petroleum has tended to move north in recent years, into the new territory Nunavut, which was created in 1999 out of the Northwest Territories; Nunavut included Baffin, Ellesmere, and the Queen Elizabeth islands, one-fifth of Canada's landmass. The Inuit have generally been receptive to mining proposals, including the new Nanisivik lead-zinc mine on Baffin Island, north of the Arctic Circle.

The Standards of Disclosure for Mineral Projects, which was to be enacted in 2001, covered all technical public disclosure on mineral projects and was intended to preserve Canada's preeminent position in world mining, exploration, development, and financing. The mineral industry consisted of 3,000 domestic and 150 foreign companies; 10% were actively engaged in mining; the rest were engaged in exploration, in advanced stages of development, or dormant, in search of financing. More than 200 mine sites, including coal sites, were active, and 3,000 mines and quarries produced sand, gravel, and other construction materials. Total employment in mining and mineral manufacturing in 2000, including coal, was 400,000, and 55,750 were employed in coal, metal, and nonmetal mining and quarrying. Most of the mineral industry was privately owned; an exception was government participation in potash and petroleum, which were transitioning to private ownership. Mining had the prospect of diversifying and strengthening Canada's economy. Canada was well positioned in terms of its mineral-resource base and its access to markets in the United States.

ENERGY AND POWER

Abundantly endowed with fossil fuels and hydroelectric resources, Canada was the world's seventh-leading energy producer, as of 2004. Energy production is exceeded only by manufacturing as a percent of Canada's gross domestic product (GDP).

In the late 1990s, Canada's oil industry made a strong recovery from low prices in the preceding years. Petroleum production in quantity began in 1947 with the discovery of oil 29 km (18 mi) south of Edmonton. Output of oil in 2004 was estimated at 3.1 million barrels per day (2.4 million barrels per day was crude oil). Canada's oil reserves were estimated in 2005 to total 178.8 billion barrels, of which 95% are oil sands. Petroleum is now the largest single contributor to mineral output. Heavy crude oil is produced entirely in western Canada, with 60% coming from Alberta and 40% from Saskatchewan. It is transported to eastern Canada and the United States through two major oil pipeline systems, both originating at Edmonton; one extends east to Toronto, and the other southwest to Vancouver and the state of Washington. On the east coast of Canada, oil exploration has been focused on the Jeanne d'Arc Basin off Newfoundland. Terra Nova, the second major project in the region, began production at the beginning of 2002, with a capacity of 115,000 barrels per day over six years. The White Rose oil field, in the same basin, was expected to become operational in 2004. There are potentially up to 300 billion barrels of synthetic crude oil available from western Canada's oil sands. Reserves at Athabasca in northern Alberta are among the world's two largest oil sand deposits.

Canadian natural gas reserves were estimated at 56.6 trillion cu ft as of 1 January 2005. Natural gas production was estimated in 2002 to have totaled 6.6 trillion cubic feet, and according to British Petroleum (BP), to have totaled 182.8 billion cu m in 2004. Gas production is mostly centered in Alberta, which accounts for about 80%. The 3,017 km (1,875 mi) Alliance Pipeline, which carries natural gas from western Canada to the Chicago region, is the longest pipeline in North America.

Canada ranks among the top producers of electric power in the world and first in the production of hydroelectricity. In 2002, Canada's installed capacity was estimated to have reached 111.0 million kW. In that same year, Canada generated an estimated total of 548.9 billion kWh of electricity, of which: 57% came from hydropower sources; 28% from conventional thermal; and 13% from nuclear sources, with geothermal making up the remainder. The marked trend toward the development of thermal stations, which became apparent in the 1950s, is due in part to the fact that most of the hydroelectric sites within economic transmission distance of load centers have already been developed. When the Churchill Falls project reached completion in 1974, the capacity of the plant was 5,225 MW, making it, at the time, the largest single generating plant of any type in the world. It has since been surpassed by Hydro-Québec's 5,328 MW generator, the first completed station of the massive James Bay project. Electricity consumption was estimated in 2002 to have totaled 487.3 billion kWh.

Low-cost electricity generated from waterfalls and fast-flowing rivers has been a major factor in the industrialization of Québec, Ontario, and British Columbia, most significantly in the establishment of metal-smelting industries. In other areas, hydroelectric power is not as abundant, but all provinces have turbine installations. As of 2002, Canada's hydroelectric resources still included substantial untapped potential.

Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. is responsible for research into reactor design and the application of nuclear power in the electric power field. In 1962, commercial electric power was first generated in Canada by a nuclear reaction when the Nuclear Power Demonstration Station at Rolphton, Ontario, became operative. Canada's first full-scale nuclear power station, completed in 1956 at Douglas Point on Lake Huron, produced its first power early in 1967. Nuclear power production declined from 102.4 billion kWh at its peak in 1994 to 69.8 billion kWh in 2000. However, in 2002, Canada's output of electrical power from nuclear sources rose to 71.750 billion kWh. In 1999, Canada had 14 nuclear reactors operating at five power facilities. Spurred by a desire to meet its obligations under the Kyoto Protocol, which Canada has signed, plans were put forth in 2004 by the government to build a new nuclear power plant in Ontario. It would be the first such plant in two decades.

Coal production in 2002 is estimated to have reached 73.2 million short tons in 2002, with reserves estimated at 7.3 billion short tons, for that year. About 90% of coal consumption is for electricity generation, and most of the remainder is for steel production. The increase in total output since 1970, especially the increased output from Alberta and British Columbia, is almost entirely due to the growth of the Japanese and South Korean export markets. In eastern Canada, however, domestic coal must be augmented by US coal imports.

INDUSTRY

Industry accounted for 26.4% of GDP in 2004, with approximately 15% of the labor force employed in manufacturing and 5% in construction. The leading industrial sectors are foods and beverages, transport equipment, petroleum, natural gas, coal products, paper and paper products, primary metals, chemicals, fabricated metals, electrical products, and wood products.

Canada's automotive industry is the nation's largest manufacturing sector, accounting for 12% of manufacturing GDP and 25% of manufacturing trade. It employs more than 170,000 people in automotive assembly and component manufacturing, and nearly 335,000 people in distribution and aftermarket sales and service. Canada in 2005 manufactured approximately 2.5 million passenger and commercial vehicles. Canada currently ranks eighth in the world in motor vehicle production. Canada's automotive sector is closely integrated with that of the United States.

More than 150 communities in Canada depend on mining. Canada is one of the largest mining nations in the world, producing more than 70 minerals and metals. Exports of minerals and mineral-based products are close to $50 billion a year, averaging 13% of Canada's total domestic exports.(These figures include all minerals and mineral products excluding oil and natural gas.) The production of fabricated metals is one of Canada's leading industries, with about 50 nonferrous smelters, refineries, and steel mills in operation.

Of the total manufacturing output, about half is concentrated in Ontario, which not only is the center of Canadian industry but also has the greatest industrial diversification. Some important industries operate there exclusively. Québec ranks second in manufacturing production, accounting for some 25% of the value of Canadian manufactured goods. British Columbia ranks third. Manufacturing is also the leading industry in Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

In 2000, Canada had 3,487 researchers and 1,105 technicians per million people actively engaged in scientific research and development (R&D). In 2004, Canadian R&D expenditures were provisionally set at c$24.487 billion. Of that amount, 46.2% came from business, with 35.4% from government sources. Higher education accounted for 17.8%, with foreign sources and private nonprofit organizations accounting for 7.9% and 3.2%, respectively, in that same year. In 2002, high technology exports totaled $22.662 billion, or 14% of manufactured exports.

The Ministry of State for Science and Technology, established in 1971, is the chief federal policymaking body. In 1986, the National Advisory Board for Science and Technology, chaired by the prime minister, was created, and merged with the ministry. In the following year, a National Science and Technology Policy (NSTP) was approved by ministers of the federal, provincial, and territorial governments. The NSTP has emphasized a strong push linking national research to national needs.

The Royal Society of Canada, founded in 1882 and headquartered in Ottawa, is the most prestigious learned society; there are 53 specialized societies in the fields of agriculture, medicine, science, and technology. The National Research Council of Canada, founded in 1916 and headquartered in Ottawa, coordinates research and development in the country; one of its major facilities is the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, established in 1918 at Victoria, British Columbia. The Geological Survey of Canada (founded in 1842) is headquartered in Ottawa.

The National Museum of Science and Technology in Ottawa, founded in 1967, shows Canada's role in science and technology. The Ontario Science Centre, established in North York in 1965, has over 800 exhibits. In 1996, Canada had 49 universities offering courses in basic and applied science. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 16% of college and university enrollments. In 2000, of all bachelor's degrees awarded, 20% were in science (natural sciences, mathematics and computers, and engineering).

DOMESTIC TRADE

Wholesalers' and manufacturers' sales branches are the most prominent wholesale and distribution agencies. Wholesaling is particularly prominent in foodstuffs, lumber and building supplies, hardware, coal, clothing, dry goods, automotive equipment, and machinery. In producer goods, however, direct relations are often maintained by resident or traveling agents.

Large-volume outlets, including department stores, large mail-order houses, and chain stores, often buy direct from the manufacturer. A wide variety of local and imported goods is available in all major towns and cities. Vast indoor shopping complexes have been developed in the larger cities, including Eaton Centre in Toronto with over 300 stores and the West Edmonton Mall in Alberta. A 7% goods and service tax (GST) applies to most consumer products and services.

Due to Canada's size and its regional economic differences, distribution is essentially regional. Toronto and Montréal dominate merchandising, are the headquarters of much of Canada's trade and financial apparatus, and do by far the greatest share of import business. Winnipeg is the business center for grain and agricultural implements. Vancouver is the center of the growing British Columbia market. As of 2006, about three-quarters of the labor force was employed in the service industry, which accounted for some 70% of the GDP.

There is considerable advertising overflow from the United States. Business hours are 9 am to 5 pm, Monday through Friday. Shopping hours are 9:30 am to 6 pm, Monday through Saturday; many stores stay open to 9 pm on Thursday and Friday nights and have Sunday hours. Normal banking hours are from 10 am to 4:30 pm,

Monday through Thursday, and from 10 am to 5 or 6 pm on Fridays. Some banks are open on Saturday mornings.

FOREIGN TRADE

Canada's exports are highly diversified; the principal export groups are industrial goods, forestry products, mineral resources (with crude petroleum and natural gas highly important), and agricultural commodities. Imports are heavily concentrated in the industrial sector, including machinery, transport equipment, basic manufactures, and consumer goods. Trade balances are almost invariably favorable.

In 1989, the United States and Canada signed a free trade agreement; and in 1994 the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Currently, trade between the United States and Canada is essentially unhindered. In fact, the US–Canada trade relationship is the largest such economic association in history.

Cars, trucks, and automobile parts were the second-largest exports of Canada in 2004 (totaling 21.1%), behind machinery and equipment (21.3%). Wood, paper, and paper products follow Canada's vehicle exports closely. Canada's leading markets in 2004 were the United States (88.4% of all exports), Japan (2.1%), the United Kingdom (1.7%), and China (1.7%). Canada's leading suppliers in 2004 were the United States (64.5% of all imports), China (7.5%), Mexico (4.2%), and Japan (4.1%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Canada's merchandise balances, although fluctuating, showed consistent surpluses between 1961 and 2005, except for 1975. These, however, were offset by persistent deficits from other transactions. Sources of these deficits include Canada's indebtedness to other countries, travel of Canadians abroad, payments for freight and shipping, personal remittances, migrants' transfers, official contributions, and other Canadian government expenditures abroad.

In 2000, Canada recorded a current account surplus of us$12.8 billion, the first such surplus since 1996. Merchandise trade was responsible for most of the improvement, in part due to the then-thriving US economy, which received 86% of Canada's total merchandise exports. Canada at that time received 22% of total US

merchandise exports, making it the largest single-country export market for the United States.

Merchandise exports on a balance-of-payments basis rose by 7.2% to c$429 billion in 2004 as growth in the US economy remained strong and bilateral trade with China increased exponentially. Merchandise imports rose by 6% to c$363 billion. The merchandise trade surplus rose to c$66.1 billion in 2004 from c$57.6 billion in 2003. In 2004, the current-account balance amounted to us$28.2 billion. From 2001–05, the current-account balance averaged 1.9% of GDP.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Bank of Canada, which was established in 1934, is a government-owned institution that regulates the total volume of currency and credit through changes in the cash reserves of eight domestic chartered banks and 45 foreign bank subsidiaries. The Bank of Canada also acts as the government's fiscal agent, manages the public debt, and has the sole right to issue paper money for circulation in Canada. It is empowered to buy and sell securities on the open market, to fix minimum rates at which it will make advances, and to buy and sell bullion and foreign exchange.

The Federal Business Development Bank, established as the Industrial Development Bank in 1944 as a subsidiary of the Bank of Canada, has operated as a separate entity since 1974. It does not engage in the business of deposit banking but supplements the activities of the chartered banks and other agencies by supplying medium- and long-range capital for small enterprises.

The eight domestic chartered banks are commercial and savings banks combined, and they offer a complete range of banking services. Canada's banks were reorganized in 1992 under the Banking Act. Every 10 years the banks' charters are subject to renewal and the Banking Act is revised to keep abreast of changing trends, a practice unique to Canada. The banks were reorganized into Schedule I and II banks. The Schedule I banks are banks whose ownership is public. No one shareholder in Schedule I banks controlled more than 10% of the shares until the law was revised in 2000. Schedule II banks are subsidiaries of foreign or domestic banks that are held privately or semiprivately. In 1999, foreign banks were given the right to operate branches in the full-service and lending sectors. Schedule I banks include the Bank of Montréal, Bank of Nova Scotia, Canadian Imperail Bank of Commerce, Canadian Western Bank, Laurentian Bank of Canada, National Bank of Canada, Royal Bank of Canada, and the Toronto-Dominion Bank of Canada.

Canada's four biggest banks—Royal Bank of Canada (RBC), Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC), Bank of Montréal, and Bank of Nova Scotia—were all among the top 10 in North America in the 1980s. In 1997, only RBC and CIBC qualified. The Canadian banks began in mid-1996 to speak out in favor of liberalized ownership rules if they were to maintain their competitive edge. In October 1996, the Bank of Montréal chairman, Matthew Barrett, said domestic banks should have the freedom to merge, and that serious thought should be given to dropping the 10% ownership limit. In 1999, banks with equity of over c$5 billion were allowed to merge, and the ownership limit was raised to 20% on vote-taking shares, and 30% on nonvote taking shares. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to us$163.9 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was us$463.9 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.11%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 2.5%.

The Toronto Stock Exchange (TSE) was founded in 1852 and incorporated in 1878. The Standard Stock and Mining Exchange, incorporated in 1908, merged with it in 1934. Its members have branch offices in principal Canadian cities and in some US financial centers.

The Montréal Stock Exchange was incorporated in 1874. In 1974, it merged with the Canadian Stock Exchange, which was organized in 1926 as the Montréal Curb Market. Other securities exchanges were: the Winnipeg Stock Exchange, founded in 1903; the Vancouver Stock Exchange, founded in 1907; and the Alberta Stock Exchange (formerly Calgary Stock Exchange), founded in 1913.

In 1999, the TSE took over all senior equity exchanges from the Montréal market. Also in that year, the TSE and the Canadian Venture Exchange combined to create the TSX Group. The Vancouver and Alberta stock exchanges also merged to form the Canadian Equities Exchange, handling only junior exchanges. As of 2004, there were 3,597 companies listed by the TSX Group. Total market capitalization as of December 2004 stood at $1,177.518 billion. The TSX in 2004 was up 12.5% from the previous year at 9,246.7.

INSURANCE

Of the billions of dollars worth of coverage that Canadians buy every year, most is either life and health insurance or property and casualty insurance. Canadians buy more life and health insurance on a per capita basis than any other group except the Japanese (the United States is third). Compulsory insurance for Canadians includes automobile insurance and workers' compensation, on which the government holds a monopoly. Manitoba, British Columbia, Québec, and Saskatchewan also operate a monopoly on primary automobile policies.

Since 1978, the Canadian property and insurance market has continued to experience underwriting losses. The return on equity fell to 13.1% in 1997, to 6.8% in 1998, and to 5.4% in 1999. Since the industry continues to pay more in claims and expenses than it earns in premium revenue, overall profitability is ultimately determined by revenues generated from investment earnings. A high rate of natural disasters coupled with a low rate of crime in 1999 influenced industry intake. In 2000, government restructuring of the financial sector refused to allow bank branches to distribute insurance policies, supporting the insurance industry. In 2003, direct premiums written in Canada totaled us$59.144 billion, of which us$36.303 billion was nonlife insurance and us$22.841 billion life insurance. In that same year, ING Canada was the country's top nonlife insurer, with gross written nonlife premiums of us$2,119.0 million, while Sun Life of Canada was the nations top life insurer, with gross written life insurance premiums (excluding segregated funds) of us$2,495.8 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

By far the largest item of expenditure of the federal government is for social services, including universal pension plans, old age security, veterans benefits, unemployment insurance, family and youth allowances, and assistance to disabled, handicapped, unemployed, and other needy persons. Through the early 1970s, federal budgets remained relatively in balance, fluctuating between small surpluses and small deficits. Since then, however, the budget has been in continuous and growing deficit. The federal debt rose from 18% of GDP in 1974 to 70% of GDP in 1993, and about 65% in 1999. Government options to reduce the deficit are constrained by the high level of nondiscretionary spending in the federal budget. Sources

of provincial revenue include various licenses, permits, fines, penalties, sales taxes, and royalties, augmented by federal subsidies, health grants, and other payments. Federal grants and surpluses and federal payments to the provinces under the federal-provincial tax-sharing arrangements constitute a major revenue source of the provinces. Corporation and personal income taxes provide a considerable portion of the revenue of Québec. The largest provincial expenditures are for highways, health and social welfare, education, natural resources, and primary industries. Real property taxes account for more than two-thirds of revenue for municipalities and other local authorities. Almost one-third of their expenditures go to supporting local schools.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2004 Canada's central government took in revenues of approximately us$159.6 billion and had expenditures of us$152.6 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately us$7 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 68.2% of GDP. Total external debt was us$600.7 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2003, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues in billions of Canadian dollars were 240.98 and expenditures were 224.4. The value of revenues in millions of US dollars was $172 and expenditures $159, based on a market exchange rate for 2003 of 1.4011 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 30.3%; defense, 5.8%; public order and safety, 3.0%; economic affairs, 6.0%; environmental protection, 0.6%; housing and community amenities, 1.3%; health, 2.7%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.5%; education, 2.1%; and social protection, 46.6%.

TAXATION

As with most industrialized democracies, Canada's tax system is complex, reflecting the impact of numerous social and economic policy goals. There are both federal and provincial taxes on corporate and individual income. Ontario, Québec, and Alberta administer their own corporate tax systems, but in the other provinces, the federal government levies both. As of 2005, Canada's federal corporate income tax rate is 21%, with a surtax adding another 1.12%. However, additional taxes by Canadian provinces/territories, can add 11.5% to 17%. Québec has a rate of 8.9% for active income. Canada is also slated to further reduce the corporate rate. Effective January 1, 2008, the corporate rate will be lowered to 20.5%, while the surtax (as of that date) will be abolished. As of January 1, 2009, the corporate rate will be cut further to 20%, and will be reduced on January 1, 2010 to 19%. Nonresidents of Canada are also subject to a 15% withholding tax for services performed in Canada. Individual income taxes are based on a progressive system, for which the top federal rate is 29%. Individual income tax rates imposed by the provinces/territories vary from 4–24%.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Customs duties, once the chief source of revenue, have declined in importance as a revenue source as Canada's economy has grown and developed. The tariff, however, still is an important instrument of economic policy. There is a wide range of duties, progressing from free rates on raw materials to higher duties as goods become more highly processed. Producer goods, including machinery of a kind not made in Canada, are subject to lower rates or are admitted free. Imports from the United Kingdom, most Commonwealth countries, and some crown colonies receive a tariff preference on a basis of reciprocity. Imports from nonmembers of the World Trade Organization (WTO) that have not negotiated a trade agreement with Canada are subject to the general or highest duty category. A federal goods and services tax, excise tax, and provincial retail sales taxes add to the cost of importation.

In October 1987, Canada and the United States reached agreement to establish a free trade area between the two countries, which came into force in 1989 with all tariffs being eliminated within 10 years. Today, there are essentially no tariffs on US goods, although there remain a few nontariff barriers to trade. Canadian commercial policy is generally opposed to the use of quantitative restrictions except as permitted by the WTO, or for sanitary reasons, in emergencies, to allocate scarce supplies, or to meet balance-of-payments problems. Canada does not adhere to a general system of import licensing but does require permits for a limited number of products, such as electric power, petroleum, and natural gas and by-products. There are no free ports, but bonded facilities are operated at many ports. Except in grain, for which storage facilities are extremely large, customs warehousing is not extensive.

The United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in December 1992. Approved by the legislatures of all three countries in 1993, NAFTA replaced the existing free trade agreement between Canada and the United States in 1994 but retained many of its major provisions and obligations. Canada and Chile signed a free trade agreement in 1997. NAFTA members are working towards a Free Trade Area of the Americas to incorporate Central and South America.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

With few exceptions, Canada offers foreign investors full national treatment within the context of a developed open market economy operating with democratic principles and institutions. However, Canada is one of the few OECD countries that still have a formal investment review process, and foreign investment is prohibited or restricted in certain sectors of the economy.

The federal corporate tax is 21%. The federal capital tax will be eliminated for all businesses by 2008. Provincial governments charge corporate taxes at rates from 10% upwards; the federal government allows a tax credit of 10% against these provincial levies.

By the beginning of 2003, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Canada, which has increased steadily since the early 1950s, amounted to us$349.4 billion. This was only 4.7% above the level in 2001, the lowest rate of increase since 1993. FDI inflow in 2002 was us$33.6 billion, about 20% lower than 2001. The US share in annual FDI inflow declined from 91% in 2001 to 74.7% in 2002. The second-largest source of inward FDI was the European Union. Canada's relative share of global inward FDI remained unchanged in 2001 and 2002, at about 4% of the world total. The inflow of foreign portfolio investment (foreign purchases of Canadian stocks and bonds) declined from us$30.1 billion to us$17.9 billion.

Outward FDI by Canadians has grown at an even faster average rate than inward FDI over the last 10–15 years. FDI assets held by Canadians reached us$432 billion in 2002. Outward FDI flow was us$43.8 billion down about 20% from 2001. Direct investments in the United States accounted for 47% of outward FDI, down from 60% in 2001. As in 2001, Canada accounted for about 6% of the world total outward FDI in 2002. Outward portfolio investment in 2002 was us$24.7 billion, down from us$37.7 billion in 2001 in 2002, up 10.8% from 2001.

By 2006, the soaring price of oil and other commodities had prompted a surge in investment. Some us$39 billion of new investment was announced early in 2005 in Alberta's oil sector alone. Railway lines are being built, ports expanded, and oil and gas pipelines laid. From 2001–05, FDI inflows averaged 2% of GDP.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Basically, Canada has a free-enterprise economy. However, the government has intervened in times of economic crisis and to accomplish specific social or economic goals. For example, in October 1963, the Canadian government announced a plan, involving tariff rebates, designed to induce US automobile companies to increase the export of vehicles and parts from their plants in Canada; subsequently, US companies markedly increased the scale of their Canadian operations. To dampen speculative buying of the Canadian dollar, the government permitted the dollar to float in the foreign exchange markets as of 31 May 1970; the government's intent was also to make imports cheaper in terms of Canadian dollars, and thereby to dampen domestic inflation. Another attempt at economic intervention, the Canada Anti-Inflation Act, became effective on 16 December 1975. This legislation established an Anti-Inflation Board and an Anti-Inflation Appeal Tribunal to monitor wage and price guidelines, which are mandatory for key sectors of the economy. The act was part of a government program to limit the growth of public expenditures and public service employment, to allow the money supply to increase at a rate consistent with moderate real growth, and to establish new agencies and policies to deal with energy, food, and housing.

A recurrent problem for Canada has been the dominant position of US corporations and investors. Attempts to limit US influence have included tightened tax policies, the Foreign Investment Review Act, and, in 1980, the National Energy Program (NEP), which aimed at reducing foreign ownership of Canada's oil and gas industry, principally through assisting Canadian companies to take over foreign holdings. One beneficiary of the NEP was the government-owned Petro-Canada, created in the mid-1970s; by the end of 1985, Petro-Canada had become the country's second-largest oil company, ranked by assets. However, much of the NEP was eliminated in the mid-1980s by the Conservative government, which sought to encourage foreign investment and to privatize government-owned enterprises. Between 1984 and 1991, the government sold or dissolved over 20 federal corporations, deregulated much of the energy, transportation, and financial sectors, and removed many controls on foreign investment.

In 2000, after more than 10 years of the bilateral trade agreement with the United States, and six years under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Canada's economy was growing at a comfortable pace, unemployment was falling, and inflation was low; but nationals were still dissatisfied with the size of the Canadian economy as compared to US affluence. The economic downturn that began in the United States in 2001 negatively impacted the Canadian economy. In addition, the 2003 outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) worldwide harmed tourism and exports in Canada, as Toronto was struck by the worst outbreak of the disease outside Asia. In addition, a cow in Alberta was diagnosed with mad-cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalophathy) in May 2003, and the United States and four other countries placed a ban on the import of Canadian beef. (Canada is the world's third-largest exporter of beef, after Australia and the United States.) However, shipments of most Canadian beef to the United States were resumed in late 2003, and trade in live cattle under 30 months resumed in July 2005.

By 2006, federal finances were holding up well and federal debt as a share of GDP was forecast to continue on a downward trend. In the medium term, the government planned to cut taxes and increase expenditures. Immigration and internal security remain key policy issues. Canada's close bilateral relationship with the United States had been soured by a number of security and trade disputes, such as the United States' imposition of tariffs on shipments of Canadian softwood lumber and over the Unites States' approach to climate change.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Federal programs include family allowances, old age security, and earning-related disability and survivors' pensions. There is a universal pension for all residents, and an earnings related pension for most employed persons. The universal pension is funded by the government, while the employment based program is financed with employer and employee contributions. There is a family allowance for low-income families for each child under the age of eighteen. The amount of these child allowances declines as family net income increases. Benefits are provided for the disabled, and the benefit is adjusted for changes in the consumer price index.

Sickness and maternity benefits are available for all wage earners and salaried workers. Virtually the total population is covered for physician and hospital services. Workers' medical benefits include general medical and maternity care, as well as specialty and laboratory services. There are additional benefits available to residents of some provinces. There is a funeral grant that varies according to province.

The first work injury laws were enacted in 1908. Employees in industry and commerce are covered, and the employer funds the program. Unemployment is funded by both the employer and employee contributions. All wage earners and salaried workers are covered by the program. The government funds a social assistance system for all residents based on total family income.

Women participate fully in the Canadian labor force, including business and the professions, although government reports show that their average earnings are still less than those of men. There is equality in marriage and property rights. The law prohibits sexual harassment and criminal harassment. The government spends considerable funds to prevent domestic violence and to provide services to victims. Incidences of violence against women declined in 2004.

The government protects human rights, and the law and judiciary are effective in addressing incidence of abuse. There has been an increase in anti-Semitic harassment in recent years, as well as a rise in trafficking in women.

HEALTH

Canada adopted a national health insurance scheme in 1971. It is administered regionally; each province runs a public insurance plan with the government contributing about 40% of the cost (mostly from taxes). Government regulations ensure that private insurers can only offer particular types of health care provision. Drug prices are low. Most hospitals and doctors operate privately. Hospitals are paid by allocated budgets and doctors receive fees per treatment. The system offers considerable choice, but there is little competition and the government has used rationing measures to limit health care expenditures. Access to health care and cost containment are good, but there are strains on the budget, increased by an aging population. In 1997, the National Forum on Health, created by the government three years earlier, released a report on ways to improve Canada's health system. It recommended several initiatives, including formation of a Health Transition Fund to support provincial and territorial health programs.

Major health planning is carried on by provincial governments, most of which offer substantial free care for patients suffering from tuberculosis (7 cases reported per 100,000 people in 1999), poliomyelitis, venereal diseases, and certain types of cancer. They also assume responsibility for mental health treatment. Municipalities are responsible for sanitation; communicable disease control; child, maternal, and school health care; public health nursing; health education; and vital statistics. In some cases, they supply hospital care and medical service to the poor. The federal government provides consultant and specialist services to the provinces, assists in the financing of provincial programs, provides services to veterans and Indians, exercises control over the standard and distribution of food and drugs, maintains quarantine measures, and is responsible for carrying out certain international health obligations. The federal Department of National Health and Welfare provides financial assistance for provincial health and hospital services through the National Health Program and for provincial hospital insurance programs through the Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act of 1957, under which the federal government shares the provinces' costs (since 1977, by means of tax transfers and cash payments). By 1973, this program had been established in all provinces and territories, covering more than 99% of the total population of Canada. Federal and provincial governments contribute toward construction costs of new hospitals. Total health care expenditures for 1995 were us$1,899 per capita. Public insurance pays about 80% of the Canadian population's health bills. The total expenditure on health is second only to the United States, with an estimated 9.3% of GDP going toward health as of 1999. As of 2004, there were an estimated 209 physicians, 1,010 nurses, 80 pharmacists, and 56 dentists per 100,000 people.

The Canadian death rate of 7.5 per 1,000 people in 1999, the maternal death rate (1998) of 6 per 100,000 live births, and the infant mortality rate (2005) of 5 per 1,000 live births are among the lowest in the world. In 1999, 6% of all births were low birth weight. Diseases of the heart and arteries account for nearly 40% of all deaths and cancer accounts for about 28%; the proportion of deaths from causes related to old age is rising. Tobacco consumption, which was 2.8 kg (6.2 lbs) a year per adult in 1984–86, was 2.3 kg (5.1 lbs) in 1995. Accidents are the leading cause of death in childhood and among young adult males and rank high for other population groups. In 2005, life expectancy at birth was estimated at 80 years. Canada had a birth rate of 11.9 per 1,000. Approximately 73% of married women (ages 15 to 49) were using contraception. Children up to one year of age were immunized as follows: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 93%; polio, 89%; and measles, 98%.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.30 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 56,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 1,500 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

According to the 2001 census, there were about 11,562,975 occupied private dwellings in Canada and 25,755 collective dwellings. The average number of persons per household is about 2.6. The most active period of housing construction of private homes was during the period 1971–80, when about 21% of the existing housing stock was built. In the period 1996–2001, there were 819,865 private dwellings built. The average value of a private home was about $162,709 in 2001. In 2003, about 57% of all households were in single, detached homes, about 30% were in apartments, and 10% were in single, attached housing. About 65% of all dwellings are owner occupied.

EDUCATION

The age limits of compulsory school attendance are roughly from age 6 to age 16. Primary schools lasts for six to eight years and secondary or high school another six years. Each province is responsible for its own system of education. While the systems differ in some details, the general plan is the same for all provinces except Québec, which has two parallel systems: one mainly for Roman Catholics and speakers of French, the other primarily for non-Catholics and speakers of English. Québec, Newfoundland, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and, to a lesser extent, Ontario provide for public support of church-affiliated schools. Primary and secondary education is generally free, although nominal fees are charged for secondary education in some schools or provinces. Public elementary and secondary schools are administered by the provinces and Yukon Territory. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 5.2% of GDP, or 12.5% of total government expenditures.

In 2001, about 64.7% of all children between the ages of four and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2000 was estimated at about 99.6% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 94% of age-eligible students. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 17:1 in 2003. The ratio for secondary school was about 17:1.

Canadian higher education began with the founding of the Collège des Jésuites in Québec City in 1635. The Séminaire de Québec, another Jesuit institution, established in 1663, became Laval University in 1852. Other early institutions on the French collegiate model were the Collège St. Boniface in Manitoba (1827), the University of Ottawa (1848), and St. Joseph's University in New Brunswick (1864). Although many French institutions survive—most notably the University of Montréal, which separated itself from Laval in 1920—most university-level instruction is conducted in English on the Scottish, British, or US model. The first English-language college in Canada was King's College in Halifax, Nova Scotia (1789). Two private universities on the Scottish model are Dalhousie University in Halifax (1818) and McGill University in Montréal (1821). The first state-supported institution, founded in 1827 on the principles of Anglicanism and loyalty to the British crown, was King's College at York in Upper Canada, which became the University of Toronto, the largest and one of the most distinguished of Canadian institutions. Universities in each of the four western provinces—Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia—founded in the late 19th century, represent a Canadian adaptation of the US state land-grant universities.

Canada also has numerous community colleges, teachers' colleges, technical institutes, nursing schools, and art schools. Adult education is sponsored by universities, colleges, school boards, government departments, and voluntary associations, each of which has some other primary function. The Canadian Broadcasting Corp., the National Film Board, and many museums, art galleries, and libraries engage in adult education as part of their work. Instructors are represented by the Canadian Association of University Teachers, and students by the Canadian Federation of Students. In 2001, about 59% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate has been estimated at about 97%.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

Municipal public libraries serve the large cities and many small towns and rural areas; regional units supply library service to scattered population areas. Traveling libraries, operated by provincial governments or university extension departments, also provide mail services for more isolated individuals and communities. Although public libraries are organized and financed by municipalities, in most provinces the provincial government supervises library services and makes grants to the municipal units. Special libraries of various kinds and at various levels serve limited groups.

In 2004, Library and Archives Canada (LAC) was established through a government act which essentially merged the services of the National Library of Canada with the National Archives of Canada. The massive collection of the new LAC includes over 300,000 hours of film archives; over 2.5 million architectural drawings, plans, and maps; 21.3 million photographic images; 343,000 works of arts; 200,000 music recordings; the Canadian Postal Archives; and millions of books, among other materials.

Canada also has a number of major academic libraries, most notably at the University of Toronto, which itself has over 14 million volumes. In 2002, Canada had a total of 3,932 libraries, including 1,673 public libraries, 484 academic libraries, 380 government libraries, and a variety of special libraries.

There are about 2,000 museums, art galleries, and related institutions in Canada. Major museums located in Ottawa include the National Arts Center, the National Gallery of Canada (including the Canadian Museum of Contemporary Photography), the Canadian Museum of Nature, and the National Museum of Science and Technology (including the National Aviation Museum and the Agriculture Museum). Other notable Canadian museums include the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto and the Fine Arts Museum in Montréal. The major museums and art galleries, located in the principal cities, provide valuable educational services to adults and children; many supply traveling exhibitions for their surrounding areas or regions. The National Gallery conducts extension work throughout the country and sends many exhibitions on tour.

MEDIA

The 10 public and private companies in Telecom Canada provide a major share of the nation's telecommunications services, including all long-distance service, and link regional networks across Canada. In 2003, there were an estimated 629 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 417 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people. Telegraph services are operated by the two transcontinental railroads and by the federal government to outlying districts. All external telecommunication services are operated by the Canadian Overseas Telecommunication Corp., a crown agency. The Post Office became a crown corporation in 1981.

The Broadcasting Act of 1968 entrusted the Canadian Radio-Television Commission with the regulation and supervision of all aspects of the broadcasting system. The publicly owned Canadian Broadcasting Corp. (CBC) provides the national broadcasting service in Canada. Its radio and television facilities extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific and north to the Arctic Circle. The CBC has broadcasting stations in the principal cities and operates both English- and French-language national networks. Privately owned local stations form part of the networks and provide alternative programs. In 2005, there were nearly 2,000 licensed radio stations in the country. There are at least 80 television stations. Radio Canada International, the CBC's shortwave service, broadcasts in seven languages to Europe, Africa, Latin America, Asia, the Middle East, the South Pacific, and the United States.

The Canadian communication satellites play an increasingly significant role in efforts to bring radio and television services to the more remote parts of the country, particularly in the north. Beginning in late 1980, a new television network began broadcasting programs in the Inuit language via satellite, offering viewers the opportunity to "talk back" through their television sets to people in other communities. In 2003, there were an estimated 1,047 radios and 691 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 487 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 513 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were over 15,000 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

In 2004 there were over 100 major daily newspapers across the country. Although some newspapers in Montréal, Québec, Toronto, Winnipeg, and Vancouver have more than local influence, most circulate only on a regional basis and have a limited number of readers. Rural areas are served by over 2,000 monthly and weekly publications. There are many consumer magazines, but only Maclean's is truly national. Three large news-gathering organizations are the Canadian Press, a cooperatively owned and operated venture, the British United Press, and United Press International of Canada.

Canada's leading English-language newspapers (with their 2004 daily circulations) include Toronto Star (464,838), Globe and Mail (317,954), National Post (243,966), Toronto Sun (194,011), Vancouver Sun (172,486), The Province (in Vancouver, 154,590), The Gazette (in Montréal, 135,471), Ottawa Citizen (129,175), Edmonton Journal (125,848), Winnipeg Free Press (117,608), Calgary Herald (114,213), The Chronicle-Herald (in Halifax, 110,033), The Hamilton Spectator (102,574), and The London Free Press (90,043). The leading French-language dailies (with their 2002 daily circulations) include Le Journal de Montréal (265,168), La Presse (in Montréal, 188,216), Le Journal de Québec (97,805), and Le Soleil (in Québec, 76,307). The Mail Star of Halifax merged with the Chronicle-Herald on 2004. The Times Colonist in Victoria is a fairly substantial regional paper with a daily circulation of about 69,855.

In 2004, there about 765 community weekly newspapers in the country. A few of the largest include the Brampton Guardian (circulation 113,032 in 2004), The Scarborough Mirror (110,000), Etobicoke Guardian (69,500), and The Cambridge Reporter (52,000). Le Soleil du St. Laurent is a French weekly based out of Chateauguay, Québec with a circulation of 51,560. Some prominent alternative newspapers in Canada include Le Journal Voir (Montréal, 107,161 weekly in 2004), Now (Toronto, 106,296 weekly), Mirror (Montréal, 66,494 weekly), and Monday Magazine (Victoria, 40,000 weekly). Prominent ethnic weeklies with their language, city, and average circulation in 2004 were Il Cittadino Canadese (Italian, Montréal, 40,000), Corriere Italiano (Italian, Montréal, 40,000), Deutsche Press (German, Toronto, 27,500), El Expreso (Spanish, Toronto, 20,000), and Kanada Kurier (German, Winnipeg, 19,500). The Canadian Daily News of Don Mills, Ontario, has a weekly circulation of 48,700.

The law provides for freedom of expression, including speech and press, and the government supports these rights. The banning of journalists from reporting on some court cases until after a trial in concluded enjoys widespread public support, in favor of a defendant's right to a fair trial.

ORGANIZATIONS

Cooperatives are very important in Canadian agriculture and fishing, and also provide housing, medical insurance, transportation, and other services. Trade unions and professional organizations exist for a wide array of professions. The Confederation of National Trade Unions and the Canadian National Federation of Independent Unions serve as umbrella organizations for some unions. Almost every city has a chamber of commerce, affiliated with the national Canadian Chamber of Commerce. The Canadian Council of Better Business Bureaus and the Consumers' Association of Canada are based in Ottawa.

Among organizations active in general education are the Canadian Association for Adult Education, the Canadian Association of University Teachers, Project READ Literacy Network, and the Industrial Foundation on Education, a research organization aiming to promote aid to education by business. There are numerous associations for educators in various fields. The Canada Council is the official national agency for promotion of the arts, humanities, and the social sciences. The Royal Canadian Academy of Arts is the oldest arts organization with national prestige. The Canada Arts Council, a federation of professional cultural organizations, includes the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, the Canadian Authors' Association, the Canadian Music Council, the Sculptors' Society of Canada, and similar societies. The Royal Canadian Geographical Society promotes the study of Canadian history and culture. There are also numerous associations for hobbyists.

Such organizations as the Canadian Medical Association, the Canadian Dental Association, the Canadian Nurses Association, and the Canadian Mental Health Association serve as both as networks for medical professionals and a resource for education and public action and awareness on health issues. There are hundreds of health and medical associations dedicated to education and research in specialized fields of medicine, such as the Canadian Lung Association and the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. Many voluntary societies are active in the field of health.

There are numerous national, regional, and local organizations dedicated to concerns of social welfare and public affairs. These include the National Council of Women of Canada, National Action Committee on the Status of Women, Canadian Human Rights Foundation, and the Canadian Civil Liberties Association is based in Toronto. The Canadian Red Cross Society, affiliated with the International Red Cross Society, has branches in all 10 provinces. The country has chapters of UNICEF, Habitat for Humanity, CARE, Amnesty International, and Greenpeace.

Youth organizations exist for a variety of interests. The Canadian Federation of Students (CFS), founded in 1981, has over 400 000 individual members and 65 student association voting members. The Canadian Council on Children and Youth (CCCY), established in 1958, works to defend the rights of youth. Other youth organizations include Big Brothers/Big Sisters of Canada, the Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada, Canada World Youth, Canadian 4-H Council, YMCA/YWCA, Canadian Hostelling Association, Girl Guides of Canada, National Canadian Girls in Training Association, and the Progressive Conservative Youth Federation of Canada. Sports organizations exist for nearly every sport and leisure-time activity.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

One of Canada's principal attractions for tourists is its extraordinary geographic variety: from the polar ice cap to the mountains, fjords, and rain forests of the west coast, from the lakes, forests, and ranchlands of the interior to the rugged shores and fine beaches of the east, Canada offers a remarkable range of scenic wonders. The excavation of L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, with its Norse artifacts and reconstructed dwellings, has been designated a world heritage site by UNESCO, as have Nahanni National Park in the Northwest Territories and Dinosaur Park in Alberta's Red Deer Badlands. Among the most spectacular parks are the Kluane National Park in the Yukon and the Banff (with Lake Louise) and Jasper national parks in the mountains of Alberta. Other attractions include the Cabot Trail in Nova Scotia; the Bay of Fundy, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and the Laurentians and the Gaspé Peninsula in Québec.

The arts and crafts of the Dene Indians and the Inuit may be seen in cooperative workshops in Inuvik in the Northwest Territories; and of the North West Coast Indians, at the reconstructed Indian village Ksan in British Columbia. Québec City is the only walled city in North America; picturesque old fishing villages are to be found in the Atlantic provinces. Fishing and hunting attract many sportsmen to Canada, and ice hockey attracts many sports fans, particularly to the Forum in Montréal. In 1992, the Toronto major league baseball team, the Blue Jays, became the first non-American team to both play in and win the World Series. In 2004, the Montréal Expos played their final major league baseball season in Canada; the team relocated to Washington, D.C., where they opened the 2005 baseball season as the Washington Nationals.

One of the world's foremost summer theatrical events is the Shakespeare Festival at Stratford, Ontario. Toronto is known for its many theaters, the CN Tower, and a fine zoo; Montréal, the second-largest French-speaking city in the world (after Paris), is famous for its fine French cuisine, night life, vast underground shopping and entertainment network, and its excellent subway system.

Montréal in 1967 hosted a major world trade exhibition, EXPO 67; the Summer Olympics took place in that same city in 1976. A world's fair, EXPO 86, was held in Vancouver in 1986, and Calgary was the site of the 1988 Winter Olympics. The Winter Olympics were scheduled to be held in Vancouver in 2010.

In 2003, Canada was the third most popular tourist destination in the Americas after the United States and Mexico. In that year, 17,534,298 tourists arrived from abroad, 14,232,370 of them from the United States. In 2003, tourist receipts totaled us$12.2 billion.

Citizens of the United States do not need passports but should carry documents attesting to their citizenship, such as birth certificates or voter registration cards. Alien residents should carry their green cards. Nationals of other countries must have valid passports and may require visitor visas; they should check with the nearest Canadian embassy, consulate, or high commission. In 1991, a 7% Goods and Services Tax went into effect; however, it is refundable to foreign tourists.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Vancouver at us$207 from the months of May through October. That same year, the daily cost of a visit to Toronto was estimated at us$295.

FAMOUS CANADIANS

Political Figures

Because of their exploits in establishing and developing early Canada, then known as New France, a number of eminent Frenchmen are prominent in Canadian history, among them the explorers Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), Samuel de Champlain (1567?–1635), Étienne Brulé (1592?–1633), Jacques Marquette (1637–75), Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle (1643–87), and Louis Jolliet (1645–1700); François Xavier de Laval de Montigny (1623–1708), first and greatest bishop of Québec; Jean Baptiste Talon (1625?–94), first and greatest intendant, who re-created the colony on a sound economic basis; and Louis de Buade, Comte de Palluau et de Frontenac (c.1622–98), greatest of the French royal governors. Great explorers of a later period include Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Vérendrye (1695–1749), Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764–1820), David Thompson (1770–1857), Simon Fraser (1776–1871), Joseph E. Bernier (1852–1934), and Joseph Burr Tyrrell (1858–1957). Louis Riel (1844–85), of Indian and French-Irish ancestry, led the métis in rebellion in 1869–70 and 1885, when he was captured and hanged for treason.

Fathers of confederation and other important 19th-century political figures include Louis Joseph Papineau (1786–1871) and William Lyon Mackenzie (1795–1861); Sir John Alexander Macdonald (1815–91), first prime minister of the confederation; George Brown (1818–80), Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley (1818–96), and Sir Charles Tupper (1821–1915). The greatest political leader at the turn of the century was Sir Wilfrid Laurier (1841–1919), prime minister from 1896 to 1911. The outstanding national leader of the first half of the 20th century was William Lyon Mackenzie King (1874–1950), Liberal prime minister for over 21 years (1921–26, 1926–30, 1935–48), who retired with a record of the longest service as prime minister in Commonwealth history. Charles Vincent Massey (1887–1967), governor-general from 1952 to 1959, was the first Canadian to represent the British crown in Canada. Lester Bowles Pearson (1897–1972), prime minister and Canada's longtime UN representative, won the Nobel Prize for peace in 1957. Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1919–2000) served as prime minister from 1968 to 1979 and again from 1980 to 1984, when he was succeeded by Brian Mulroney (b.1939). The best-known French-Canadian separatist was René Lévesque (1922–87), leader of the Parti Québécois, who became premier of Québec in 1976.

Artists

Highly regarded Canadian painters include James Edward Hervey MacDonald (1873–1932), Thomas John ("Tom") Thomson (1877–1917), Frederick Horsman Varley (1881–1969), and Lawren Stewart Harris (1885–1970) of the Group of Seven; James Wilson Morrice (1864–1924); and Emily Carr (1871–1945). Paul-Emile Borduas (1905–60) and Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923–2002) both were part of the Montréal School; however, after settling abroad, they probably became better known in France and the United States than in their native country. Two other artists of distinction are James W. G. MacDonald (1897–1960) and Harold Barling Town (1924–90). The portrait photographer Yousuf Karsh (b.Armenia-in-Turkey, 1908–2002) was a longtime Canadian resident.

Musicians

Well-known Canadian musicians include the composer Healey Willan (1880–1968); the conductor Sir Ernest Campbell MacMillan (1893–1973); the pianist Glenn Gould (1932–82); the singers Edward Johnson (1878–1959), Jon Vickers (b.1926), and Maureen Forrester (b.1931); the bandleader Guy Lombardo (1902–77); and, among recent popular singers and songwriters, Gordon Lightfoot (b.1938), Paul Anka (b.1941), Joni Mitchell (b.1943), Neil Young (b.1945), Celine Dion (b.1968), and Shania Twain (b.1965).

Actors

Canadian-born actors who are known for their association with Hollywood include Marie Dressler (Leila Koerber, 1869–1934), Walter Huston (Houghston, 1884–1950), Mary Pickford (Gladys Mary Smith, 1893–1979), Raymond Hart Massey (1896–1983), Walter Pidgeon (1897–1984), Norma Shearer (1904–83), Lorne Greene (1915–87), Raymond Burr (1917–93), William Shatner (b.1931), and Donald Sutherland (b.1935). Stage personalities include Beatrice Lillie (1894–1989), Hume Cronyn (1911–96), and Christopher Plummer (b.1929). Atom Egoyan (b.1960 in Egypt) is a filmmaker of Armenian descent, known for his film The Sweet Hereafter (1997).

Sports

Notable in the world of sports are ice-hockey stars Maurice ("Rocket") Richard (1921–2000), Gordon ("Gordie") Howe (b.1928), Robert Marvin ("Bobby") Hull, Jr. (b.1939), Robert ("Bobby") Orr (b.1948), and Wayne Gretzky (b.1961).

Authors

Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865), author of Sam Slick, was the first Canadian writer to attain more than a local reputation. Sir Charles George Douglas Roberts (1860–1943) and Bliss Carman (1861–1929) were widely read poets and short-story writers. Archibald Lampman (1861–99) wrote sensitive poems about nature. Narrative poems about the northwest frontier by Robert William Service (1874–1958) achieved mass popularity, as did the backwoods novels of Ralph Connor (Charles William Gordon, 1860–1937). The animal stories and bird drawings of Ernest Evan Thompson Seton (b.UK, 1860–1946) are still highly regarded. Stephen Butler Leacock (1869–1944), economist and essayist, is regarded as Canada's leading humorist. The Anne of Green Gables novels of Lucy Maud Montgomery (1874–1942) have been popular with girls of several generations. Mazo de la Roche (1885–1961) achieved fame for her romantic Jalna novels about an Ontario family. Well-known contemporary novelists include Morley Edward Callaghan (1903–90), Hugh MacLennan (1907–90), Farley McGill Mowat (b.1921), Alice Munro (b.1931), Margaret Lawrence (1926–87), Mordecai Richler (1931–2001), and Marian Passmore Engel (1933–1985). The novels and plays of Robertson Davies (1913–95), newspaper editor, actor, music critic, and university administrator, crackle with wit. Lorne Albert Pierce (1890–1961) was a prominent editor and literary critic. Herbert Marshall McLuhan (1911–80) was a communications theorist and cultural critic. Herman Northrop Frye (1912–91) was a well-known literary critic, and Margaret Atwood (b.1939) is a noted novelist and poet. Jewish-American novelist Saul Bellow (1915–2005), was born in what is now Montréal; he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1976. The British newspaper publisher William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook (1879–1964), was born in Canada.

The Histoire du Canada (1845) of François Xavier Garneau (1809–66) stimulated a great interest in French Canada's heritage. Joseph Octave Crémazie (1827–79) was the first notable French Canadian poet. The poems of Louis Honoré Fréchette (1839–1908) were crowned by the French Academy. Louis Hémon (1880–1913), a French journalist who came to Canada in 1910 and spent only 18 months there, wrote the classic French Canadian novel Maria Chapdelaine (1914). Authors of realistic novels dealing with social and economic problems of French Canada include Claude-Henri Grignon (1894–1976), author of Un Homme et son péché (1933); Jean-Charles Harvey (1892–1967), author of Les Démi-civilisées (1934); Ringuet (Dr. Philippe Panneton, 1895–1960), author of Trente Arpentes (1938); Germaine Grignon Guevremont (1900–1968); Roger Lemelin (1919–92), author of Au pied de la pente douce (1944); and Gabrielle Roy (Carbotte, 1909–93). Gratien Gélinas (1909–1999) is an actor, director, and dramatic satirist. Abbé Félix Antoine Savard (1896–1982) wrote a poetic novel of pioneer life, Menaud, maître-drayeur.

Scientists and Inventors

Among the famous Canadian scientists and inventors are Sir Sanford Fleming (1827–1915), inventor of standard time; Sir William Osler (1849–1919), the father of psychosomatic medicine; and Sir Charles Saunders (1867–1937), who developed the Marquis wheat strain, which revolutionized wheat growing in northern latitudes. The codiscoverers of insulin, Sir Frederick Grant Banting (1891–1941) and John James Richard Macleod (1876–1935), were awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1923. George Brock Chisholm (1896–1971) was an eminent psychiatrist and former head of WHO. Gerhard Herzberg (b.Germany, 1904–1999) won the 1971 Nobel Prize for chemistry for his work on molecular spectroscopy. Marius Barbeau (1883–1969), anthropologist and folklorist, was an authority on totem poles and Canadian folk music. David Hubel (b.1926 in Windsor, Ontario) shared the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine in 1981 for discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system. Henry Taube (1915–2005) was born in Saskatton; he won the 1983 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Canadian John C. Polanyi (b.1929) shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1986. Sidney Altman (b.1939), shared the 1989 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Richard E. Taylor (b.1929), shared the 1990 Nobel Prize in physics for discoveries regarding the development of the quark model in particle physics. Rudolph A. Marcus (b.1923), born in Montréal, won the 1992 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems. Michael Smith (1932–2000) shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in chemistry for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry. Bertram N. Brockhouse (1918–2003) shared the 1994 Nobel Prize in physics for contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques. William Vickrey (1914–96) was born in Victoria, British Columbia; he shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in economics. Myron S. Scholes (b.1941) shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in economics. Robert Mundell (b.1932) won the 1999 Nobel Prize in economics for his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange rate regimes.

DEPENDENCIES

Northwest Territories

Prior to its division with Nunavut in 1999, the Northwest Territories constituted all of Canada north of 60°n except the Yukon and the northernmost parts of Québec and Newfoundland. Total land area was 3,293,020 sq km (1,271,438 sq mi). After the 1999 division, the territory encompassed 1.17 million sq km. The division ran along the Saskatchewan-Manitoba border through the Arctic Archipelago to the North Pole. Most of the people who live in the territories are aboriginal. The population of the new Northwest Territories in 2000 was 42,083. Over half the population is spread out among 33 communities, and the other half is located in the capital of Yellowknife.

The Mackenzie River and its tributaries, the Athabasca and Slave, provide an inland transportation route of about 2,700 km (1,700 mi). There is some traffic on Lakes Athabasca, Great Bear, and Great Slave. Most of the settlements in Mackenzie are linked by scheduled air service.

The new territory is governed by a commissioner and by a 19-member elected territorial assembly. Six ministers and a premier are elected to serve as an executive council. Following the approval by voters in April 1982 of a proposal to divide the territory, the federal government scheduled the division in 1999. The Inuit of the east called their eastern jurisdiction Nunavut; Indians of the west—where opinion on the proposal was sharply split—called their proposed division Deneden. Land claims of Dene Indians and the Inuit overlapped. Nunavut was created in 1999, and the name "Northwest Territories" for the other half of the area was to be used until such time as residents would be asked to vote on a new constitution, or the territorial assembly would be asked to vote on a new name.

Northwest Territories' mineral resources include rich deposits of gold, silver, lead, tungsten, and zinc. The Northwest Territories contain some of Canada's total mineral resources. It was the Yukon gold rush in 1897 that triggered a large migration of people northward. In one year 30,000 people from the lower parts of Canada were in the Northwest and Yukon Territories looking for gold.

Today, Canada leads in the production of oil, natural gas and coal. Canada's mining industry contributes US$20 billion annually to the economy and employs 145,000 people. In 1989 Canada's oil and gas industry was valued at US$19 billion with 55% of the revenue coming from oil production. Whitefish and trout are caught in Great Slave Lake; the 100,000 or more lakes of the territories provide an "angler's last frontier" in North America for sport fishermen. Fur production is a sizable industry in the Northwest Territories.

Nunavut

The territory of Nunavut, meaning "Our Land" in Inuktitut, was created on 1 April 1999, when the Northwest Territories divided in two. Nunavut encompasses 1,994,000 sq km in the eastern Arctic region of Canada. The islands in the Hudson and James Bays are included. The population in 1999 was approximately 27,500, of whom 20,500 were Inuit. Languages spoken are Inuktitut (many dialects), Inuinnaqtun, English, and French. Iqaluit is the capital and the largest community in Nunavut, with more than 4,200 residents in 1996. The territory is divided into three regions (Qikiqtaaluk, Kivalliq, and Kitikmeot) and 28 communities. Government departments and agencies are located in the various communities in a decentralized fashion. There are an elected legislative assembly, a cabinet, and a territorial court. As of 2003, the government of Nunavut was assuming the responsibilities formerly controlled by the government of the Northwest Territories for programs in culture, public housing, and health care to be completed by 2009. The territory has 21 km of roadways, none of them paved. A handicrafts industry supplies Inuit-made sculpture and prints to the Canadian Handicrafts Guild. Most of the richest and well-developed parts of the Northwest Territories were not included in Nunavut, which now relies largely on developing its mineral resources. Hunting, fishing, fur trapping, and sealing also contribute to the economy.

Yukon Territory

The Yukon Territory, located north of British Columbia and east of Alaska, has a land area of 478,970 sq km (184,931 sq mi) and had an estimated population in the mid-1990s of more than 30,000, of whom some one-fifth were of Indian origin. The principal town is Whitehorse, the capital. An all-weather roadway connects the territory with Alaska and British Columbia, and a railroad connects Whitehorse with ocean shipping at Skagway, Alaska. Air service is available to and from Edmonton, Vancouver, and Fairbanks, Alaska. There are local telephone services in the three chief towns. The territory was separately constituted in June 1898. Since 1978, the Yukon has had a legislative assembly, consisting of 16 elected members. In late 1982, the federal government gave its consent for the Yukon cabinet to call itself the Executive Council and officially to take over some powers hitherto reserved by the federally appointed commissioner, as representative of the governor-general-in-council, or by the minister of Indian affairs and northern development. The Yukon government has recently pressed for provincial status.

Mineral resources include rich deposits of gold, silver, lead, tungsten, and zinc. Mining and tourism are Yukon's principal industries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clement, Wallace (ed.). Understanding Canada: Building on the New Canadian Political Economy. Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997.

Cooper, Andrew Fenton. Tests of Global Governance: Canadian Diplomacy and United Nations World Conferences. New York: United Nations University Press, 2004.

The Community in Canada: Rural and Urban. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1996.

Cooper, Andrew Fenton. Tests of Global Governance: Canadian Diplomacy and United Nations World Conferences. New York: United Nations University Press, 2004.

Driedger, Leo. Multi-Ethnic Canada: Identities and Inequalities. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Fenwick, Rudy. Canadian Society. Washington, D.C.: Association for Canadian Studies in the United States, 1996.

Fry, Earl H. The Canadian Political System. Washington, D.C.: Association for Canadian Studies in the United States, 1996.

Gagnon, Alain-G. and James Tully, (eds.). Multinational Democracies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Howells, Coral Ann. Margaret Atwood. 2nd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.

International Smoking Statistics: A Collection of Historical Data from 30 Economically Developed Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Kirtz, Mary K., et al. (eds.). The Elections of 2000: Politics, Culture, and Economics in North America. Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 2006.

Konrad, Victor A. Geography of Canada. Washington, D.C.: Association for Canadian Studies in the United States, 1996.

Marsh, James H. (ed.). The Canadian Encyclopedia. Toronto, Ont.: McClelland and Stewart, 2000.

Summers, Randal W., and Allan M. Hoffman (ed.). Domestic Violence: A Global View. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Thompson, Wayne C. Canada, 2005. 21st ed. Harpers Ferry, WV: Stryker-Post, 2005.

Vaillancourt, Yves and Louise Tremblay (eds.) Social Economy: Health and Welfare in Four Canadian Provinces. Halifax, N.S.: Fernwood, 2002.

CANADA

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Canada is located in the northern-most region of North America. Its southern territories run along the northern border of the continental United States. Canada is one of the largest countries in the world, second only to Russia in territorial size. It has a total area of 9.9 million square kilometers (3.8 million square miles). This includes 755,170 square kilometers (291,571 square miles) of water. The country touches 3 oceans—the Atlantic, the Arctic, and the Pacific—and its coastline is 243,791 kilometers (151,473 miles) long. Canada's border with the United States is 8,893 kilometers (5,526 miles) in length and includes a 2,477-kilometer (1,539-mile) border with Alaska. Toronto is the largest city in Canada with a population of 4.3 million. Other major cities include Montreal (3.3 million people), Vancouver (1.8 million people), and Ottawa (1 million people). Located in the southeast corner of the nation, Ottawa is the nation's capital. The climate and geography of Canada vary greatly from temperate in the south to arctic in the north and from islands and plains in the east to mountains in the west.

POPULATION.

For its size, Canada has a small population. Although physically it is the second-largest country in the world, its population was only 31,281,092, according to a July 2000 estimate, or just under one-tenth the size of that of the United States. The nation has a low birth rate of 1.64 children born to each woman, or 11.41 births per 1,000 people. The mortality rate is 7.39 deaths per 1,000. However, the infant mortality rate is low with 5.08 deaths per 1,000 live births. Average life expectancy for males is 76.02 years and 83 for females. The population growth rate is moderate at 1.02 percent, although the positive growth rate is chiefly due to immigration . Each year there is an average of 6.2 immigrants for every 1,000 people. Canada has a liberal immigration policy and it goes to great lengths to accept refugees and asylum seekers from around the world. In 2000, Canada allowed 41,800 asylum seekers to settle in the country.

Despite the vastness of the nation, 90 percent of the Canadian population is located within 160 kilometers (100 miles) of the U.S. border. With the exception of some notable groups, most of the nation's people live in urban areas. By 2000, 75 percent of Canadians lived in cities or towns. The nation is ethnically diverse. People of British ancestry make up 28 percent of the population, while the French comprise 23 percent. Other Europeans, mainly Eastern Europeans, make up 15 percent. There is a small but visible Native American population (2 percent). About 6 percent of the population is divided between people of Asian, Arab, African, and Hispanic descent, while the remaining 26 percent of Canadians are of mixed ancestry. Canada is almost evenly divided between Protestants and Roman Catholics. There are deep divisions between the English-speaking Canadians and the French-speakers who are concentrated in the province of Quebec. The people of Quebec have a distinct culture and the government accepts and even encourages efforts to maintain Quebec's identity. Because of these divisions, the nation has 2 main official languages, English and French. The government also recognizes several Native American languages. However, tensions between the English and French have led to repeated efforts by nationalists in Quebec to break away and form their own nation. The debate over independence for Quebec is Canada's most serious political issue and there is yet to be a permanent settlement of the question.

There are other regional differences in Canada that are similar to the differences in the United States. People in the maritime provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island have a similar culture to those in the New England region of the United States, while the western regions of both nations are also closely related with numerous ranches and farms. Also like the United States, the population of Canada is aging. The fastest growing segment of the population is over age 65, which now makes up 13 percent of the population. Meanwhile, 19 percent of the population is under the age of 15.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

Canada has the seventh-largest economy in the world. Most of the businesses are privately-owned, although the government does play a major role in the health-care system and operates many services including transportation and utility companies. The Canadian economy is diverse and highly developed. It is very similar to the American economy, although smaller in size. In the aftermath of World War II, the nation was transformed from a rural economy, based on agriculture, to one based on industry and mining. The nation's economy has been further transformed since the 1970s and services now provide the main economic output.

The foundation of the Canadian economy is foreign trade and the United States is by far the nation's largest trade partner. Foreign trade is responsible for about 45 percent of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP). Free trade agreements between the 2 nations have increased trade by eliminating tariffs . Each day approximately US$1 billion worth of goods crosses the U.S.-Canadian border. To understand the scale of U.S.-Canadian trade, it is important to point out that the United States sends more products to Canada than it does to all of Latin America.

Despite the small size of its population, the Canadian economy is one of the most prosperous in the world. For instance, its GDP per capita was US$23,300 in 1999, reflecting Canadian workers' high wages compared to many other countries. Prospects for continued positive economic performance are good. Canada has a highly skilled and productive workforce. In 1999, there were 15.9 million people in Canada's workforce, and the nation had an unemployment rate of 7.6 percent, which was almost twice the American rate.

Like Americans, Canadians tend to have high levels of disposable income . This disposable income drives the Canadian economy as consumers spend their excess wages on a variety of products and services. This creates demand for increased production and the development of new products, which also means more and better-paying jobs. Also like the United States, advertising has a major impact on Canadian consumer spending. Television is the number-one form of advertising in Canada.

The nation's infrastructure is excellent and most of its factories and manufacturing plants are modern. In fact, Canada's transportation network is ranked as the best in the world by the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report. Canada has a variety of natural resources, including petroleum and natural gas, and a variety of metals and minerals. Over the past decade, Canada has also emerged as one of the leading nations in the high-tech and computer industry. Most of this growth has occurred in central Canada, mainly Ontario and Quebec, and is responsible for the increased migration of people to these areas. Much of the economic growth in Canada today is fueled by small-to mediumsized companies. Because Canada has abundant energy resources, the global oil crisis which began in 1999 has helped its energy companies increase their outputs and profits. The nation has abundant natural resources that include iron ore, nickel, copper, zinc, gold, lead, silver, timber, fish, coal, petroleum, natural gas, and hydropower.

Regionally, the Canadian economy varies greatly. In the Eastern provinces, marine industries—including fishing, telecommunications, and energy production—are the main components of the economy. In the French-speaking region of Quebec, the city of Montreal has become one of the nation's centers for high-technology firms. This includes a large number of computer software companies. There is also a large industrial base which includes companies that produce pharmaceuticals, aerospace products, and telecommunications equipment. Ontario is the nation's main industrial center. About half of all Canadian manufactured goods are produced in Ontario. The province is second only to Michigan as the largest producer of automobiles and car parts in North America. Ottawa, the nation's capital, is located in Ontario. Other industries include chemicals, aerospace, steel, and food processing. The plains (or prairie) provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan are the home to four-fifths of Canada's agricultural lands. They are also the home to the majority of mining and fuel production. Alberta itself provides 90 percent of the nation's energy exports and is the home of Canada's oil and natural gas industry. British Columbia is in the Pacific Northwest. Forestry and tourism were traditionally the main elements of the region's economy, but financial services, including banking and insurance, have grown dramatically over the past decade. There is also a growing high-tech sector that is bolstered by the province's proximity to American firms such as Microsoft in the state of Washington. The Northern territories of the nation comprise one-third of its total size, but are home to only 100,000 people. These areas are home to Canada's Native American population, many of whom continue to follow traditional lifestyles based on hunting and fishing. Mining is the principal industry and there has been steady growth in diamond mining and finishing. Tourism also provides a substantial part of the region's economy.

Each of the nation's main economic sectors is highly developed. Although the agricultural sector is small, it takes advantage of the nation's generous natural resources. Increasingly, agriculture and fishing are concentrated in certain geographic regions of the country, mainly the west and southeast. The United States is the main market for all Canadian agricultural exports. In addition, the United States is the main destination for most of Canada's timber exports. Canada is also a major supplier of energy resources, including electricity and petroleum, to the United States. While industry has declined since the 1970s, it remains an important component of the country's economy. Automobile products provide one of Canada's principal exports, but the nation also produces a variety of consumer products and machinery. Nonetheless, large companies such as Ford and General Motors provide a significant percentage of the nation's industrial output. Services have seen the most dramatic growth in the Canadian economy over the past 2 decades. In addition to consumer-based businesses such as retail and tourism, financial services and telecommunications firms have grown dramatically. The government has offered significant support to these new technologies. For instance, the government has supported the development and installation of the only fiber-optic network in the world which carries only Internet traffic. The system, CA*Net3, will have 16 times the capacity of the largest U.S. system.

Budget surpluses over the past 3 years have allowed the government to begin paying down Canada's national debt . The debt has been reduced by Can$19 billion, and in 2000 it stood at Can$565 billion. The surpluses have also allowed the government to spend more on federal programs and to reduce some taxes. The nation is a net donor of foreign aid. In 1997, it provided US$2.1 billion in international aid.

There are several potential problems facing the Canadian economy. The most significant is the continuing question over the status of Quebec. Should Quebec become independent, it would significantly disrupt the Canadian economy, and the nation would lose a sizable proportion of its GDP. The second most pressing problem for Canada has been the migration of some of its best educated and trained workers to the United States. This "brain drain" is the result of lower taxes and higher wages in the United States. Finally, Canada's dependence on trade makes it vulnerable to slow downs in the economies of its major trade partners. This is especially true of the United States. In the 20th century, when the United States experienced economic recessions or depressions, Canada soon after suffered similar economic problems.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

Canada was formerly a British colony that gained independence in 1867. The nation is a parliamentary democracy and a confederation (a system in which the regional governments have a high degree of power). Canada is divided into 10 provinces and 3 territories. Each of the provinces has a substantial degree of political independence and power, more so than an American state.

The head of state is the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. She is represented in Canada by a governor-general whom she appoints on the advice of the prime minister for a 5-year term. The actual head of the government is the prime minister, who is the leader of the majority party in Parliament. Parliament itself is bicameral (2-chamber). The upper house is the Senate, whose 104 members are appointed for life by the governor-general upon the advice of the prime minister. Most of the real political power in Canada is in the lower chamber, the House of Commons. It consists of 301 members who are directly elected by the people to serve 5-year terms. Each province has an elected premier and a unicameral (single chamber) assembly. There is also a lieutenant-governor who is appointed by the governor-general.

Unlike the United States, which has only 2 main political parties, Canada has a number of different parties. The Bloc Québécois represents those who wish independence for Quebec. The Liberal Party is moderate and similar to the American Democratic Party, while the Progressive Conservative Party and the Canadian Alliance are similar to the American Republican Party. There are also a number of other minor parties, including the New Democratic Party. All of the major political parties support private enterprise to varying degrees, although the New Democratic Party favors more government oversight of the economy. There are also disagreements among the parties over free trade.

While the majority of businesses in Canada are privately owned, the government does play a major role in the economy. This is true of both the national and provincial governments. When the 2 levels of government are combined, they account for 21 percent of the nation's GDP. At times the provincial and national governments have disputes over economic policy. For instance, there is an ongoing disagreement between the national government and the maritime provinces over control of fishing rights and mineral resources in the Atlantic. Western provinces want more control over their own mineral and energy deposits while the central region of the nation seeks increased government spending to support economic development.

Often economic differences focus on environmental issues and worker concerns. The national government tends to favor more environmental regulation, even if it is economically disadvantageous. The same is true of issues such as worker safety and pay. However, since 1984 the national government has been engaged in a broad effort to return control over social and economic policies to the provinces. The main reason for devolution is economic; the national government has not had the financial resources to enforce many of its programs and regulations, so it has divested itself of them. In 1999, the national and provincial governments reached a sweeping agreement that called for combined authority over new social spending. Furthermore, the national government has given control of job training and worker retraining back to the provinces, but it has strengthened its role in regulating trade between the provinces and attempted to develop national regulations on stock trading and other financial services.

In 1998, the Canadian national government had revenues of US$121.8 billion and expenditures of US$115.1 billion. Compared with the United States, Canada's taxes are high, about 30 percent higher for the average person. In Canada, people with low incomes pay 16 percent of their income in taxes; the tax rates rise to 22 percent, then to 26 percent for those with incomes between Can$61,000 and Can$100,000, and finally to 29 percent for those with incomes over Can$100,000 per year. In 1998, taxes accounted for 38 percent of the nation's GDP. Significantly, taxes accounted for 60 percent of the growth in the Canadian economy from 1990-96. The country has a national 7 percent sales tax known as the Goods and Services Tax (GST). The GST is particularly unpopular among the Canadian people. Because of these high taxes, it is estimated that the underground economy is responsible for as much as 20 percent of economic activity. In 1999, the Canadian government estimated that it lost US$9 billion in tax revenues because of the underground economy.

On the other hand, these high taxes allow all Canadians to have full access to health care. The Canadian system is known as "Medicare" and it allows people to go to private doctors and a network of 950 hospitals and have their costs paid for by the government. The individual provinces and territories direct health-care planning and financing. The nation's taxes help keep the cost of prescription drugs low for individuals. However, limits on care and lengthy delays in care have led more and more people to pay for private care out of their own pockets. Some 30 percent of all new health-care spending is made in the private sector . In addition, education costs are low. Canada spends more per person on education than any of the other industrialized countries and the cost of college is very low compared with the United States. Nonetheless, the high tax rate has contributed to the brain drain from Canada and has caused some foreign companies to invest in the United States rather than Canada.

Although Canada is dependent on foreign investment to fuel its continuing economic expansion, it restricts investment in several key areas of its service sector. There is only 1 special trade zone in Canada and no free trade zones . Instead, Canada pursues free trade through multinational forums such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). It also works to deepen trade with partner countries such as the United States.

The United States and Canada cooperate on environmental issues and border disputes. The main mechanism to facilitate this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (ICJ). The 2 major environmental accords are the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972, which controls water pollution in the Great Lakes, and the Air Quality Agreement of 1991, which helps coordinate policies on problems such as acid rain.

Canada spends only a small percentage of its GDP on defense. In 1998, it spent 1.2 percent of GDP or US$7.4 billion, compared with an average of around 2.5 percent of GDP for most developed nations. The long border with the United States does not need to be militarily defended, but Canada is a frequent contributor of troops for United Nations peacekeeping forces. It is also a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, a military alliance consisting of Canada, the United States, and many European countries). As a NATO member, Canadian military forces have participated in the peacekeeping mission to Bosnia and in the military action against Serbia as a result of the atrocities in Kosovo in 1999.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

Canada has one of the best-developed infrastructures in the world. It meets the requirements for high-tech business and international trade. The telephone system is state-of-the-art and supported by a satellite system and 300 earth-based relay centers. There are also 5 international underwater cables (4 across the Atlantic and one across the Pacific). In addition, there are 750 Internet providers. All major cities have high-speed Internet capabilities. The nation's new CA*Net3 Internet system is scheduled to be completed in 2001. Canada has the lowest Internet access costs of the developed world. In 1997, there were an estimated 7-8 million Internet users, or about 1 in 4 Canadians.

Canada is an energy exporter. Its main exports are natural gas and oil. However, in 1998 the majority of electricity in Canada was produced by hydroelectric plants (59.77 percent). Fossil fuels provided the second-largest share of electricity with 27.18 percent of the total. Atomic power provided 12.25 percent. Total electric power production was 550.85 billion kilowatt hours (kWh). The nation consumed 484.51 billion kWh of electricity. It exported 39.5 billion kWh of power and imported 11.72 billion kWh of power.

The transport system is a blend of private and government-owned firms. Canada has 36,114 kilometers (22,441 miles) of railways, including 2 transcontinental systems. In 1995, the government privatized the freight carrier Canadian National. Passenger service is provided by the government-owned company VIA. There are 901,902 kilometers (560,442 miles) of roadways in the country, of which 318,371 kilometers (197,390 miles) are paved, including 16,571 kilometers (10,298 miles) of expressways. The nation's main east-west route is the 4,500-kilometer (2,796-mile) Trans-Canada Highway. All major cities have well-developed and inexpensive public transportation systems that are subsidized by provincial and local governments. The nation's trucking and rail systems are well-integrated with American distribution networks and vice versa. Each year some 400 million tons of goods are transported across Canadian highways. Trucks carry 70 percent of the goods that Canada annually exports to the United States. Canada has 1,411 airports, but only 515 have paved runways. Of these, 10 are international airports. There are also 15 heliports. U.S. and Canadian air carriers have unrestricted access to each other's airspace. Air Canada is the nation's major airline, but there are 25 U.S. and 47 other international airlines that fly into Canada. Air Canada controls 80 percent of the domestic market and this has led to higher than average air fares.

There are 3,000 kilometers (1,864 miles) of navigable waterways, including the massive Saint Lawrence Seaway which allows ocean-going vessels to sail from the Atlantic to ports such as Chicago and Thunder Bay, Ontario. There are 20 major ports, including Halifax, Montreal, Quebec, Saint John, Thunder Bay, Toronto, Vancouver, and Windsor. The busiest port is Vancouver, on the west coast. The nation's merchant marine consists of 114 ships, not including smaller vessels that travel only on the Great Lakes. Canada has an extensive network of pipelines to support its large energy industry. There are 23,564 kilometers (14,642 miles) of crude or refined oil pipelines and 74,980 kilometers (46,593 miles) of natural gas pipelines. Many of these pipelines deliver energy across the U.S.-Canada border.

ECONOMIC SECTORS

Since the 1970s the Canadian economy has been transformed from one based on industry and mining to one dominated by the service sector. Concurrently, the nation's agricultural sector has declined significantly. All sectors of the economy have incorporated increasing levels of technology. As a result, the economy has become less labor-intensive and more high-tech. In the past, as much as 60 percent of the nation's exports were based on minerals or other resources. However, by 2000, resource-based exports only accounted for 35 percent of Canada's exports. The world oil shortage continues to fuel Canada's energy exports and Canada remains the world's fifth-largest energy producer when oil, natural gas, hydropower, and atomic power are combined. Major energy companies include Shell Canada, Petro-Canada, BP-Amoco, and Burlington Resources.

The majority of exports are now based on sophisticated technologies. These types of exports include telecommunications equipment, computer software, various environmental technologies, and aerospace products. Canada's Nortel Networks is one of the largest and most respected telecommunications and networking companies in the world. But like many companies, Nortel was hit hard by the downturn in this market niche in 2001, when it announced it was laying off thousands of employees and would take a loss of over US$19 billion in the second quarter of that year. Automobiles and car parts remain the leading cash export, followed by machinery and equipment. Exports of service-based items increased by 11.3 percent in 1999. Since 1992, the Canadian economy has experienced continued growth. Much of this is the result of trade with the United States, which enjoyed a sustained period of economic progress through the end of the 20th century. The strength of the nation's economy has led to increased levels of foreign investment. In 1999, foreign investment in Canada increased by 10 percent to reach a total of $240 billion. This accounted for 25 percent of the nation's GDP. Financial services, including insurance, accounted for the largest percentage of foreign investment.

The agricultural sector in Canada is undergoing increasing consolidation. Smaller family farms are being consolidated by large agricultural businesses. Since 1991, the number of farms whose output exceeded US$100,000 per year has increased by 10 percent. These large farms were concentrated in Quebec and Ontario, but there was substantial growth in the west. For instance, the province of Saskatchewan has experienced a 30 percent growth in large farms since 1991. There is also an overall decline in the total area of land being used for agriculture. Nonetheless, agriculture remains highly diverse. Crops range from wheat and barley to tobacco and vegetables. There is also significant timber production. Livestock production includes beef and veal, swine, poultry, duck, turkey, and goose. Furthermore, the nation is one of the world's largest fish harvesters. Agriculture accounts for 3 percent of the nation's GDP and 3 percent of its work-force. In 1999, 12 percent of the rural population lived on farms.

Canadian industry has become more efficient and productive by adopting ever-increasing levels of technology in manufacturing. Industrial productivity has increased by an average of 3 percent per year over the past decade. The principal industrial growth sectors include the automotive industry, electronics, computers and computer equipment, aircraft parts and equipment, and building supplies. The automotive sector is Canada's largest industrial employer and is dominated by companies such as Ford and General Motors. The implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), a trade agreement between the United States, Mexico, and Canada which eliminates taxes on goods traded between the 3 nations, has expanded industrial opportunities by opening new markets for Canadian exports in the United States and Mexico. However, NAFTA is a double-edged sword in that inefficient industries face increased competition from companies in Canada's NAFTA partners.As a percentage of the overall economy, industry continues to decline although there is sustained growth in specific areas. In 1999, industry accounted for 31 percent of the nation's GDP and 16 percent of employment.

The service sector is the fastest growing segment of the Canadian economy. The nation's highly developed infrastructure has helped support the expansion of services by providing state-of-the-art telecommunications, transportation, and utilities. Services account for 66 percent of the nation's economy and employ 74 percent of the country's workforce. Of Canada's skilled workers, 80 percent are employed by the service sector. The strength of the service sector varies from region to region. Tourism and retail dominate areas of the southeast and west, while financial services are key components of the economy of central Canada. The banking sector is strong and composed of both domestic and foreign banking firms. In an effort to protect domestic businesses, Canada has a number of restrictions in place that limit foreign ownership of companies in the service sector that do business in the country.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture in Canada is among the most sophisticated and technologically advanced in the world. Farmers use scientific crop and soil analysis as well as state-of-the-art equipment. By 1996, more than one-quarter of all Canadian farmers used a computer in the management of their crops and livestock. In 2000, there were 7,100 square kilometers (2,741 square miles) of irrigated land. While it produces substantial quantities of food for domestic consumers and for export, Canada also imports a significant amount of agricultural products. Total agricultural imports in 1999 amounted to US$10.8 billion. The United States supplies Canada with roughly two-thirds of its total agricultural imports. Conversely, the United States is Canada's main market for agricultural goods. In 1999, the United States was the destination for one-third of Canada's exports of crops, livestock, and fish.

While the overall number of Canadian farms continues to decline, the decline has slowed in recent years and several provinces are in fact adding or gaining new farms. The decline in farms has slowed to under 1 percent per year, the lowest level of decline since 1941. Since 1991, British Columbia has increased its number of farms by 12.6 percent, Alberta by 3 percent, Nova Scotia by 1 percent, and Newfoundland by 0.8 percent. Ontario continues to have the largest overall number of farms—over 68,000—followed by Alberta with 58,000, and Saskatchewan with 56,000. The total number of farms in Canada is approximately 275,000. The average size of a Canadian farm is 608 acres. Contrary to the trends in the rest of the country, British Columbia has experienced dramatic growth in the number of its small farms. About half of all new farms in the province have gross profits of US$10,000 or less. The number of new small farms in British Columbia has increased by 14.7 percent since 1991.

The nation's main crops are wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, soybeans, rice, and sugar beets. The dominant crop is wheat. In 1998 Canada produced 24,076,300 tons of wheat. However, there is less wheat under cultivation in Canada than at any time in the 20th century. This is the result of increased diversification and low worldwide wheat prices. The number-two crop was barley and the country harvested some 12,708,700 tons of it. Total crop output in 1998 was 53,701,500 tons. The primary livestock products are beef, chicken, duck, turkey, goose, and pork. Beef production is concentrated in the western areas of the nation while poultry production is concentrated in the east. About two-thirds of all poultry farms were in eastern Canada. Most livestock is consumed domestically. For instance, in 2000 beef production was valued at US$1.5 billion. Of this, US$70 million worth of beef was exported while the rest was consumed in Canada. The country also imported US$140 million of beef, almost all of it supplied by the United States. One out of every 4 farms in Canada raised beef.

One of the fastest growing segments of Canadian agriculture is organic products (food grown naturally and without pesticides, and sold without preservatives or additives). The organic food industry has been growing at a rate of 20 percent per year. There are now about 1,500 registered organic food producers in Canada. Organic production is strongest in the western areas of the country. There are also a growing number of specialty farms. For instance, there are now 1,593 farms whose main output is Christmas trees. In addition, the number of bison raised on farms for buffalo meat has tripled since the early 1990s, and the total number of head are around 45,000. There are also a number of exotic species, including llama and elk, being raised for sale in specialty markets. For instance, elk and deer antlers are sold to Asian nations for use in food products and tea. Specialized crop products include various herbs and spices such as garlic, ginseng, and coriander, cut flowers such as roses or lilies, and tobacco.

While fishing remains a prominent part of the economy of some provinces, depletion of fish stocks caused by over-fishing have led to significant declines in fish production. Fishing now accounts for only about 0.1 percent of the nation's GDP or US$3.2 billion per year. Since the early 1990s, fishing's share of the nation's GDP has declined at an average of 2 percent per year.

Environmental problems have created concerns for Canadian agriculture. One of the major problems is that of animal waste and fertilizer runoff contaminating waterways. In 1996, there were 61 million acres that were treated with some form of chemical fertilizer and 57 million acres treated with herbicides. This represents a 15 percent increase in fertilizer use since 1991, and a 7 percent increase in herbicide use. A second major problem is that of soil erosion caused by overproduction.

INDUSTRY

Although the automotive industry is the dominant industrial force in Canada, the nation's industrial base is highly diversified. In addition to the manufacture of cars and car parts, major Canadian industries include electronics, processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper products, chemicals, and petroleum and natural gas. Manufacturing accounts for about 18 percent of total industrial output. The most significant growth areas in industry are electronics, which grew by 15 percent in 2000, communications with 7.5 percent growth, furniture and fixtures with 7.4 percent growth, and crude oil and natural gas, which grew by 4.5 percent. Meanwhile transportation equipment declined by 5 percent while textiles were off by 3 percent.

MINERALS AND RESOURCES.

Mining and fuel extraction and production accounted for 4.5 percent of Canada's GDP or some US$36.1 billion. Fuel exploration and production dominate this sector, but the processing of other types of mineral resources has grown significantly. In 1996, the top non-fuel minerals were gold with production of US$2.05 billion, copper US$1.47 billion, nickel US$1.45 billion, and zinc US$1.25 billion. There was also significant production of lead and iron. There are about 50 major gold mines in Canada and the country leads the world in technologies which extract gold from rock and soil. The nation is the world's largest producer of zinc and the fifth largest producer of lead. Among the provinces, Ontario is the top producer of non-fuel mineral resources, followed by Quebec, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland. Each year Canadian companies spend over US$600 million to find or develop new mines and fuel supplies. However, environmental concerns and increased regulation have led many Canadian mining companies to shift exploration elsewhere. Latin America is becoming a favorite choice for Canadian mining companies.

While overall mineral production is dispersed throughout Canada, fuel production is concentrated in the west, with a few major exceptions. Canada is a major exporter of energy and fuels. In 1998, natural gas was the main export with 34.2 percent of total, petroleum was next at 28.6 percent, hydroelectricity at 20.7 percent, coal at 11.4 percent, and atomic energy at 5.1 percent. The United States has traditionally been Canada's largest market for energy exports, purchasing 90 percent of the nation's fuel and energy exports. Energy production accounts for 8 percent of the nation's economy. Approximately 65 percent of energy production is in Alberta, which is also the home of the nation's oil industry. The number-two producer was British Columbia at 13 percent, followed by Saskatchewan at 8 percent, and Quebec at 5 percent. The atomic industry is centered in Quebec.

MANUFACTURING.

The manufacturing sector is dominated by the auto industry. Including imports, Canadians purchased 1.4 million new vehicles in 1999. That same year, there were 2.8 million new cars and light trucks produced in Canada, or 4.5 percent of the world's total output. About 90 percent of Canadian-built cars are exported to the United States. In 1999, exports to the United States alone equaled US$64.7 billion. Exports to the EU ranked second and amounted to US$299 million. Canada is the world's ninth-largest market for the purchase of new automobiles. In 1999, the auto parts market in Canada was worth US$33.8 billion. Of this total, US$22.7 billion worth of parts were produced in Canada. Canadian companies exported US$18 billion of the parts produced. The United States is both the main market for Canadian auto exports and the main supplier of the nation's imports. The strength of the auto sector is founded on the U.S.-Canada Auto Pact of 1965 which provided for free trade in cars and car parts. The pact also served as the model for later trade agreements between the 2 countries.

Electronics and electronic components constitute the main growth industry in Canada. These products include telecommunications equipment, computer software, home electronics equipment, and industrial and automotive electronics. Most electronics producers are located in Ontario and Quebec, although a growing number of firms are building plants in the south of British Columbia. Total production of electronics exceeded US$5.2 billion in 2000 and Canada had US$3.3 billion in exports. This does not include computers and computer hardware equipment, which accounted for an additional US$6.7 billion in production and US$6.4 billion in exports. One of the fastest growing electronics markets in Canada is that of personal communications, including mobile phones and pagers. Since 1995, this market has expanded 150 percent. In 1999, there were 3 million mobile phones in use.

There is a variety of other manufacturers in Canada. Aircraft and aircraft parts provide US$7.9 billion to the nation's GDP and some US$7.3 billion in exports. This makes Canada the world's fifth-largest producer of aerospace products and estimates are that the nation will take over the number-three spot by 2004 as the industry continues to expand. The main products are airframes, which form the main body of jet aircraft, and engines. Some of the major Canadian aerospace firms include Lockheed Martin Canada, Canadian Marconi Company (CMC), and Sextant. Canada's Bombardier company, with over US$10 billion in revenues in 2001, is a major producer of business jets, and is the world's third-largest civil aircraft producer, behind Boeing and Airbus. Canada also has a major building products industry which in 2000 produced goods worth US$29 billion. It produces goods such as lumber, plywood, and shingles. About three-quarters of these materials are used in the domestic construction market. The other quarter is exported. Canada also imports a large amount of construction and building materials. The majority of these imports come from the United States (75 percent) and the remainder from Asian nations. Furniture and furniture accessories account for US$6 billion worth of products annually, including US$3.4 billion in exports. A staggering 97 percent of Canada's furniture exports go to the United States. The plastics industry manufactured some US$4.8 billion in products in 2000 while environmental concerns have created a thriving pollution control industry with goods worth US$4.3 billion that same year. Other major industrial sectors include medical equipment and pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper products, and sporting goods and recreational equipment. Canadian sporting goods manufacturers have strong brand identification for a number of products, including ice hockey equipment, snowboards, and swim goggles.

SERVICES

Services employ the greatest number of Canadians and account for the largest share of the nation's GDP. Some 10.4 million Canadians are employed in the sector, which also accounts for two-thirds of small businesses and the self-employed. Since 1976, employment in services has increased by 46.5 percent. With 1.7 million employees, retail is the number-one employer in the service sector. Retail is followed by business services at 1.3 million, personal services at 1 million, transportation and communications at 980,000, and financial services with 789,000. Financial services is the highest paying employment category in the sector. Workers in this field earn an average of Can$700 per week while retail workers only average Can$350 per week. The average overall wage in the services sector is Can$580 per week.

The wholesale, retail, and food service sectors are very similar to their counterparts in the American economy. In fact, American retail stores and restaurants are common throughout most of Canada. The banking and financial services sector is also very comparable to that of the United States. Finally, Canada is the number-one foreign destination for American tourists. These close ties between the service sectors of the 2 nations mean that Canadian companies watch the development of new services, products, and techniques in the United States very closely.

BANKING AND FINANCIAL SERVICES.

The banking sector in Canada is highly developed and, following reforms in the 1990s, it is open to foreign investment and the establishment of foreign-based banks in the country. However, it was not until 1999 that foreign banks were allowed to open branches in Canada without first establishing a subsidiary company (a local or domestic branch of a foreign firm that is incorporated in the country in which it operates, not in the country of the parent company). In January of 2000, Canada had about 8,200 bank branches and close to 15,500 automated teller machines (ATMs). This includes 11 domestic and 42 foreign-owned banks. However, Canada's banking system is dominated by 6 domestic banks which together control about 90 percent of the nation's total assets. Even though foreign banks are now allowed to enter Canada's banking market, most choose to concentrate on peripheral services, including credit cards or commercial lending, because of the domination of the 6 banks which prevent any real market openings in retail banking.

Banking and financial services represent 5 percent of the country's GDP, and provide over Can$22 billion a year in payroll. Each year they also provide Can$50 billion in exports. Access to foreign markets has become a critical component in the success of this sector. For instance, 5 of the country's largest banks each have approximately 30 percent of their assets overseas. In addition, the 2 largest Canadian insurance companies make more profits abroad than they do in Canada. The nation's 4 largest insurance companies are Mutual Life Assurance of Canada, Manufacturers Life Insurance Company, Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada, and the Canadian Life Assurance Company.

RETAIL.

Retail sales in Canada in 1999 were Can$260 billion (including automotive sales). Excluding car sales, food was the number-one product sold in retail outlets (mainly supermarkets). Food sales totaled Can$59 billion in 1999 with Can$55 billion of that sold in supermarkets and grocery stores. Clothing was number-two with Can$14.3 billion in sales, followed closely by drug and medicine sales with Can$13.3 billion. Supermarkets had the highest sales volume, followed by general merchandise stores and department stores.

Unlike the United States, Canada's retail sector is not dominated by large chain stores. Independent stores make up 61 percent of the market, chain stores comprise 32 percent, and department stores 7 percent. Stores with 1-4 employees make up 53 percent of the sector, shops with 5-9 employees comprise 23 percent, and those with more than 50 employees only account for 3 percent. There are regional differences in the retail trade. Ontario leads the nation in retail sales with Can$7.9 billion in sales. Quebec is number-two with sales of Can$3.3 billion. In Newfoundland, there are 2 grocery stores per every 1,000 people, but in Ontario there are only 0.5 per 1,000. One potential problem for retail is the increasing number of part-time workers employed in the sector. In 1999, 32 percent of retail workers were part-time. Because they work part-time, these workers usually do not have benefits and therefore must rely on government social services for health care and retirement.

TOURISM.

Canada ranks number-nine in the world in terms of tourist revenues, and has 2.2 percent of the world's total tourism market. In 1998, there were 93.3 million tourists who had overnight stays in Canada. This included 18.8 million foreign visitors and 74.4 million domestic tourists. The majority of domestic tourists traveled to overnight destinations within their home province (70.8 million) while only a small number of Canadians stayed overnight in a different province (3.4 million). In 2000, tourism employed 524,300 people. In 1999, tourism receipts amounted to Can$50.1 billion or 6.2 percent of GDP.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Canada's economy is dependent on international trade. Roughly 59 percent of its economy is based on trade. In 1999 Canada exported US$277 billion worth of goods and services and imported US$259.3 billion. While the overwhelming majority of the country's trade is with the United States, the Canadian government supports the expansion of foreign trade through international treaties and agreements. In 1989, Canada and the United States signed the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) which eliminated many tariffs and taxes on goods that were traded between the 2 nations. As a result, trade increased by 50 percent before NAFTA superceded the FTA in 1994. In 1999, trade between the 2 nations equaled US$365 billion. When investments and services are included, the total rises to US$450 billion. Canada now has a trade surplus with the United States that in 1999 was US$32.1 billion. With NAFTA, trade between Canada and Mexico

also increased substantially. Canada's major export partners are the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, South Korea, the Netherlands, and China. The majority of the country's imports come from the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Mexico, Taiwan, and South Korea.

Because of the success of the FTA and NAFTA, Canada has sought to enter into similar agreements with other nations. It has started negotiations with nations including Costa Rica, Israel, and Singapore. In 1997, it initiated a version of the FTA with Chile. This agreement is designed to prepare Chile for entry into NAFTA. Canada is a member of a number of international economic organizations including the WTO, the Free Trade Area of the Americas, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.

While the United States and Canada generally cooperate on trade issues, there are a number of areas where the 2 countries have disagreements. When disputes arise between the 2 nations, they are usually submitted to international bodies for resolution. The WTO and NAFTA are the most common forums to arbitrate controversies. The main areas of dispute most commonly involve agriculture and cultural industries. A major fisheries dispute that centered around the Gulf of Maine was settled by the International Court of Justice in 1984. In 1990 the United States and Canada signed the Fisheries Enforcement Agreement that was designed to discourage illegal fishing. This was followed by the 1999 Pacific Salmon Agreement that settled disagreements over salmon fishing.

One of the main areas of contention between the United States and Canada is over trade with Cuba. Since the 1960s, the United States has maintained a trade embargo on Cuba. However, Canada conducts trade with Cuba. In fact, Americans who want to travel to Cuba often go to Canada and then depart from there, since direct travel between the United States and Cuba is prohibited by the U.S. government.

The most significant barriers Canada has to free trade are restrictions on the ownership of companies that are headquartered in the country. Foreign individuals and companies are limited to 25 percent ownership in Canadian airlines and 20 percent ownership of telecommunications companies. They are also restricted to 49 percent stakes in commercial fishing ventures. Furthermore, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Saskatchewan limit real estate sales to people or companies from outside of the province.

Because of the potential influence of American culture, Canada has taken steps to try to preserve its culture from being overwhelmed by the United States. For instance, the Canadian government exempted cultural industries such as movies, music, or literature from the provisions of NAFTA. In addition, Quebec requires that all products marketed in the province be labeled in French, and throughout Canada both French and English are used in packaging and labels.

While 90 percent of all goods enter Canada without any form of tax or tariff, certain products face tariffs that range from 0.9 percent to 13 percent. The highest level of tariff is applied to goods such as vegetables, cut flowers, sugar, wine, textiles, clothing, footwear, and boats. These tariffs apply to 35 different countries. In addition, Canada uses 300 percent tariffs to protect the dairy and poultry industry from competition, although in 1999 the WTO agreed with the United States and New Zealand that such tariffs were in violation of WTO regulations.

MONEY

In August 2001, 1.51 Canadian dollars equaled 1 U.S. dollar. The value of the Canadian dollar has remained fairly constant in relation to the U.S. dollar since hitting an all-time low in 1985. In 1995, 1 U.S. dollar equaled 1.3724 Canadian dollars. Recent weaknesses in the Canadian dollar have helped the nation's economy by making its exports cheaper for countries like the United States, a development that has helped spur the increase in Canadian exports.

The Bank of Canada is the nation's central bank. Its main purpose is to regulate monetary policy . The Bank of Canada prints paper currency and mints coins and is responsible for setting interest rates. The Bank is a private institution that is independent of the government. However, the members of the board of directors that oversee the Bank are appointed by the federal government's Finance Minister for 3-year terms. It is not a regular commercial bank and it loans money only to other banks or government bodies. The Bank is also in charge of administering the national debt and making payments on the debt. In an effort to combat the drug trade and counterfeiting, the Bank has undertaken a variety of measures in recent years, including adding new security features to

currency and eliminating the Can$1,000 bill (since it was rarely used by legitimate businesses, but commonly used in the drug trade).

The Toronto Stock Exchange (TSE), founded in 1852, is one of the largest in North America. Its "TSE 300" index, which lists the 300 largest companies on the exchange, is usually used as the major Canadian stock index. Other major Canadian stock exchanges include the Alberta, Montreal, Vancouver, and Winnipeg stock exchanges. The total value of these exchanges in 1998 was US$543.4 billion. There were 1,384 domestic companies listed in these exchanges in addition to a host of international companies.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

Canada is a prosperous and affluent country. It has a highly developed social welfare system that includes a progressive health-care system. The nation aggressively pursues policies which emphasize human rights. In terms of the welfare of its citizens, Canada is one of the world's most progressive nations. The combination of a thriving economy and generous social benefits gives Canada one of the highest standards of living in the world. In the Human Development Report 2000, published by the United Nations, Canada ranks number-one in the world in human development. Furthermore, over the past 25 years Canada has consistently ranked number-one or two in the report. The GDP per capita in 1999 was US$23,300. Education is mandatory through age 15 and the literacy rate exceeds 97 percent.

The highest 10 percent of the population accounts for 23.8 percent of all income. At the same time, the lowest 10 percent makes only 2.8 percent of all income. The majority of Canadians fall into what is considered to be the middle class. While most people in Canadian society share in the nation's prosperity, there are several groups that are generally excluded from the affluence of the country. Among these groups are the native people of Canada and recent immigrants. Women and the disabled

also face inequities in employment and wages. While women have the same property rights and are guaranteed equal employment under the law, many women are paid less than male workers in similar jobs. Women head over 85 percent of single-parent households and these households have a higher level of poverty than their traditional 2-parent family counterparts.

Native Americans in Canada generally do not share in the nation's prosperity. They have higher rates of unemployment, alcoholism, suicide, and poverty than the national averages. Increasingly, the tribes have sought greater autonomy and political control over themselves and their land. In response, the government has allocated US$400 million for programs designed to alleviate the worst problems of the tribes since 1996. The federal government is also currently in negotiations with over 350 different tribes over issues of self-government.

The Canadian health-care system is often described as a model for other nations. The system is a combination of public financing and private delivery of medical care. In other words, private doctors and health-care providers treat people, but the costs are paid for by the government. The federal government sets standards and provides funds for the provincial governments. Each province is responsible for specific planning, public health, and the financing of the health-care system. Over 95 percent of Canadian hospitals are private non-profit ventures that are run by community boards and municipalities.

For-profit hospitals exist mainly to provide long-term care. In 1998, total health-care expenditures were Can$82.5 billion or Can$2,694 per person. Each year, health care usually accounts for about 10 percent of GDP, and about one-third of total spending by the provincial governments. The main complaint about the system is the length of time that patients often have to wait before they receive certain treatments. In 1999, the average time between referral by a primary care doctor and treatment by a medical specialist was 14 weeks.

WORKING CONDITIONS

Total employment in Canada in 1999 was 15.9 million. That same year, the unemployment rate was 7.6 percent. Unemployment in Canada has remained fairly constant at this rate during the 1990s, despite the strong economy. However, there were real declines in unemployment compared with the 1980s, when unemployment hovered near 10 percent.

With the exception of members of the armed forces, all workers in Canada have the right to form unions. Unions may organize strikes, but employees of the government who provide essential services, including law enforcement and medical care, are forbidden to strike. In 2000, there were a number of notable strikes, including one in British Columbia that closed the province's seaports for 10 days. The province also saw an illegal nurses strike in 2001, as well as a crippling public transit strike in Vancouver which shut down the bus and light rail system for 4 months. Specific laws that oversee the formation and conduct of unions vary from province to province. Unions are independent of the government and often form coalitions with other trade organizations or international bodies. Outside of the government, union membership is 29.5 percent nationwide. The government vigorously enforces union protections, and there are provincial and federal agencies that monitor and investigate working conditions and worker safety.

The standard work week varies from province to province. It ranges from 40 to 48 hours per week, but all provinces mandate at least one 24-hour rest period during the week. The minimum wage rates are set by each province and also vary widely. The lowest minimum wage is Can$5.25 per hour in Newfoundland and the highest is Can$7.60 in British Columbia. In addition, Alberta and Ontario have lower minimum wages for workers under the age of 18. The minimum wage is not sufficient for a single worker to support a family and, in fact, those families with only a single wage earner making minimum wage are classified as being below the national poverty line. There are prohibitions on child labor, and children under the age of either 15 or 16—depending on the province—are not allowed to work without parental consent. Some provinces also have restrictions on youths working at night or in hazardous jobs.

Several groups are under-represented in the workforce and are often paid less than their counterparts in similar occupations. Native American peoples are particularly subject to discrimination and their proportion of the workforce is far lower than their proportion of the population. The same is true of people with disabilities. People with disabilities who are capable of work represent 6.5 percent of the total population, but only 2.7 percent of current employees. Women are employed in all sectors of the economy and laws guarantee equality in all areas of employment except the military. Under the terms of a 1998 court decision, the federal government has been paying back wages to women who were paid less than their male counterparts in the same occupation. However, disparities in income still exist between men and women with similar jobs.

Although the nation is officially bilingual, cultural pressure and regulations force many English-speakers in Quebec and French-speakers elsewhere in the country to use the language of the majority of that particular province. For instance, the provincial government of Quebec limits access to English-language schools and places restrictions on the use of English for commercial purposes and in advertising.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1600. King Henry IV of France grants a fur trading monopoly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence to a French company.

1608. Samuel de Champlain founds Quebec, the fist permanent European settlement in Canada.

1644. Wheat is planted and harvested for the first time in Canada.

1670. The Hudson's Bay company is formed by British merchants to trade in the Hudson Bay area.

1731-43. French fur trappers go into the territory beyond Lake Winnipeg and begin to send furs back to the east, establishing a lucrative trade.

1756-63. French and Indian War or Seven Years War results in British control of Canada, including Quebec.

1775-83. American Revolutionary War. British and Canadian forces defeat several American invasion attempts. Thousands of Americans loyal to England emigrate to Canada during the war.

1791. Many British loyalists settle in western Quebec, leading to the division of Quebec into Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec). A year later George Vancouver begins his explorations of the Pacific Coast.

1807. Slavery is abolished in Canada.

1812-14. The War of 1812 is fought between the United States and Great Britain. The Americans burn York (Toronto), the capital of Ontario, but British forces retaliate by burning Washington, D.C.

1821. The 2 major economic forces in Canada, the Hudson's Bay Company and the Northwest Company, merge. This creates widespread unemployment.

1838. Rebellions by Native Americans and French-speaking Canadians break out across the colonies.

1841. The Act of Union unites Upper and Lower Canada into the single colony of Canada.

1857. Ottawa becomes the capital of Canada.

1867. Great Britain's North American colonies are united in a confederation to form the Dominion of Canada and are given semi-independent status, including self-government.

1870s. The northern bison herds are decimated. This leads to the collapse of the west's economy.

1880-84. A transcontinental railway is built, mainly by immigrant Chinese laborers.

1897. Gold is discovered in the Klondike. This leads to a widespread gold rush that attracts thousands, including many Americans.

1917. The income tax is adopted during World War I, but never repealed.

1922. The Canadian Northern and Canadian Transcontinental Railways merge to create Canadian National Railways. Four Canadian scientists share the Nobel Prize for their discovery of insulin.

1923. Anti-immigration sentiment leads the government to virtually halt Chinese immigration.

1931. The Statute of Westminister grants Canada full control over internal and external affairs. The governor-general becomes the representative of the British monarch.

1932. The Ottawa Agreements establish preferential trade between Canada and the other British Commonwealth nations.

1935. The Bank of Canada is established as the nation's central bank.

1937. Trans Canada Air Lines establishes regular flights.

1945. Canada joins the United Nations. The nation's first atomic reactor is built in Ontario.

1959. St. Lawrence Seaway opens.

1962. The Trans-Canada Highway opens. Canada becomes the third nation in space with the launch of a satellite.

1965. Canada and the United States sign the Auto Pact. The Maple Leaf flag is adopted.

1980. In a referendum in Quebec, voters reject independence from Canada.

1982. Canada gains a new constitution. The most severe economic recession since the Great Depression begins.

1984. The Gulf of Maine dispute between Canada and the United States is settled by the International Court of Justice.

1987. The Meech Lake Accords fail to solve the question of the status of Quebec.

1989. U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement goes into effect.

1990. The Goods and Services Tax (GST), a 7 percent national sales tax, is enacted. Canada and the United States sign the Fisheries Enforcement Agreement.

1992. Canada is the first nation to sign the bio-diversity treaty following the United Nations Earth Summit in Brazil.

1994. Trade restrictions between the provinces are eased and cigarette taxes are lowered following widespread smuggling from the United States. Canada joins the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

1995. Voters in Quebec narrowly reject independence.

1996. Substantial cuts in government spending are announced.

1997. Canada initiates a free trade agreement with Chile.

1999. Canadian forces participate in the NATO-led military operation against Serbia in Kosovo. Canada and the United States sign the Pacific Salmon Agreement.

FUTURE TRENDS

The most pressing problem for the future of Canada is the question of Quebec's independence. A significant percentage of the Canadian economy is centered in Quebec. Independence for Quebec would raise a variety of problems since it would require a division of the assets of the federal government and require Quebec to assume part of the federal debt. Since the 1980s, there have been repeated efforts to reach some sort of permanent solution to the problem. However, the Bloc Québécois continues to push for independence. In 1998, the nation's Supreme Court ruled that a unilateral declaration of independence by Quebec would be illegal, but if a majority of the residents of Quebec vote for separation, then the federal government has to negotiate eventual independence. The English-speaking residents of Quebec and the province's native peoples both oppose independence and have expressed their wish to remain part of Canada if Quebec gains its independence.

Another problem facing the Canadian economy is the high level of taxation. On the positive side, these taxes provide the basis for the nation's very generous social benefits, including health care and education. On the negative side, taxes increase the cost of living for average Canadians and increase the costs of business for companies. In addition, even with the high level of taxation, the government has been forced to deficit spend in order to pay for services. As a result, the nation's debt increased substantially during the 1990s and only recently has the government begun to pay down the debt. The most pressing problem related to the high level of taxation is the aforementioned brain drain. Many younger Canadians who are highly skilled and/or educated are moving to the United States where they can earn much higher wages while paying lower taxes. Canada's tax burden is also blamed for the continuing unemployment levels of around 7 percent (while the American unemployment has been around 4 percent for several years).

Canada's pursuit of free and open trade has led it to join a number of international organizations. Membership in these organizations has allowed the country to take advantage of international trade so that it now contributes a significant portion of the Canadian economy. Much of the country's future growth is dependent on trade. Because of this dependence, Canada is particularly sensitive to downturns in the economies of its major trade partners, especially the United States.

DEPENDENCIES

Canada has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bretton, John N.H., editor. Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography of Structural and Technological Change. Buffalo, NY: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996.

Burke, Mike, Colin Moers, and John Shields, editors. Restructuring and Resistance: Canadian Public Policy in the Age of Global Capitalism. Halifax, Canada: Fernwood, 2000.

Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade. Investing and Doing Business with Canada, 2nd edition. Ottawa: Dept. of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 1997.

"Dog Watch: Nortel Networks." Forbes.com. <http://www.forbes.com/2001/06/15/0615dog.html>. Accessed August 2001.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Canada. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2001.

Green, Randy. "U.S. Wins Panel Decision On Canadian DairyPractices." Agriculturelaw.com. <http://www.agriculturelaw.com/links/seattle/dairy.htm>. Accessed August 2001.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed August 2001.

U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Canada. <http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/index.cfm?docid=2089>. Accessed February 2001.

U.S. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 1999: Canada. <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/1999/index.cfm?docid=378>. Accessed December 2000.

U.S. Department of State. FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Canada. <http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2001/wha/index.html>. Accessed February 2001.

Watson, William. Globalization and the Meaning of Canadian Life. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998.

—Tom Lansford

CAPITAL:

Ottawa.

MONETARY UNIT:

Canadian dollar (Can$). One Canadian dollar equals 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, and 25 cents as well as 1 and 2 dollar coins. Paper currency comes in denominations of Can$1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Motor vehicles and parts, newsprint, wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum, machinery, natural gas, aluminum, telecommunications equipment, electricity.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Machinery and equipment, crude oil, chemicals, motor vehicles and parts, durable consumer goods, electricity.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$722.3 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$277 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.). Imports: US$259.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.).

Canada

History & Background

Canada, the world's second largest country, stretches 4,000 kilometers from north to south and 3,500 miles from east to west. The nation is divided into smaller governing units known as provinces and territories. Located east of the U.S. state of Alaska and north of the northernmost boundaries of the lower 48 U.S. states, Canada has 10 provinces and 2 national territories. One of those latter units, the Northwest Territory, is itself politically broken into two separate territories. The provinces are divided into the Atlantic Provinces (Newfoundland and Labrador, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia); Quebec, Ontario, British Columbia, and the Prairie Provinces (Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan); and the territories of Yukon, Nunavut and the Northwest Territory. Nunavut (meaning "Our Land" in the Inuit language) became a separate territory from the Northwest Territory in 1999.

Canada's capital city is Ottawa, and each state and territory has a capital. Canada's legislative branch is an elected House of Commons and an appointed Senate. A prime minister serves as the government's leader. Since the Constitutional Act of 1982, Canada's constitution has been under the Canadian Parliament's own management. Previously, from 1867 to 1982, the dominion of Canada's constitution was subject to the control of Great Britain's Parliament (acting upon the request of Canada's bicameral Parliament). The roots of the Canadian educational system are found in the two countries most energetically involved in its colonial settlement and early exploitation: France and Great Britain. Though these influences were great, educators have long looked to the geography and climate of Canada as additional influences on educational development.

Since so many early schools were small—often a cabin or tiny schoolhouse—and isolated, some of the more elitist vestiges of French and British schools vanished. In their place, a school system evolved that was more attuned to life in a frontier society that trumpeted the ideals of equal educational opportunities for all. In that regard, early schoolhouses then housed both the children of poor trappers and rich merchants alike, and some characteristics of that early social democracy still clung to Canadian schools even when the population shifted to urban centers and schools consolidated and grew large (Johnson 1968). Also, Canada's proximity to the United States, particularly since the majority of the population lives so close to the U.S. northern border, has been a factor in the evolution of the nation's educational system—a system that may indeed see additional changes because of an influx of immigrants to Canada's vast land mass.

While Canada has borrowed from the United States, it is in no way a mere U.S. clone since individual sections of the nation show strong adherence to British or French traditions. Canada's native Indian peoples have developed an educational tradition drawing from American, British, and/or French education, but also with their own cultural distinctions differing from these three. However, due to immigration, the uniting features of the Internet, and modern media outlets, even sprawling Canada has acquired in many areas the so-called "melting pot" characteristics that occurred in the United States when diverse populations underwent a process of integration.

According to 2000 figures, Canada's ethnic groups are broken down into British (28 percent); French (23 percent); miscellaneous European (15 percent); Asian, Arab, or African (six percent); aboriginal Indian and Eskimo (two percent); and mixed background (26 percent). The population of people of British and French origin in Canada has dropped since 1985 when 40 percent of the total population was British and 27 percent were French.

As early as A.D. 1000, explorers from Norway landed on the shores of what would become the eastern seaboard of Canada. Unheralded Basque and Norman sailors may have arrived in the fifteenth century. Great Britain's exploration of Canada began in 1497 when John Cabot, a Venetian representing and financed by British merchants, visited the eastern coast of (the land that would become) Canada in search of riches or a shorter route to the Indies. Cabot mistakenly thought he had located an unsettled section of Asia. His explorer son, Sebastian, also mistakenly boasted that he had located the Northwest Passage through the Americas. It is likely that he sailed instead to massive Hudson Bay. Because the Cabots found neither a passage to India nor the gold the Spaniards had looted from the Incas in the southern hemisphere, English backers in time lost whatever excitement they possessed for the exploration of the New World's far north. England's former interest, however, was taken over by France until the Hudson's Bay Company generated wealth from fur trading after 1670, and the English vied for this colonial land prize. Although disappointed no waterway linked the great Atlantic and Pacific oceans, French excitement was stirred by the founding of a settlement in 1605. In 1524, France had sent the Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazano on a mission, and his ship traveled as far to the north as Newfoundland and as far south as North Carolina. The King of France claimed the land he explored in Canada.

The adventurer and explorer Jacques Cartier in 1524 went inland and explored the St. Lawrence River. Cartier and his men brought back furs and stories about the native aborigines they met in Kanata, a native term for "village." (Other theories as to how Canada got its name abound, but none are definitive.) The furs brought back to Europe raised hopes that other treasures might be found. The Indian tribes also inspired droves of black-robed missionaries to voyage to the New World in quest of religious conversions. Cartier's explorations brought him to sites that later would become the province of Quebec and the city of Montreal, which sprung up from an island village on the St. Lawrence River.

Since England and France saw Canada as a nation of conquest, hostilities in the late seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century erupted into numerous battles and all-out war. Hostilities ceased in 1632 when England and France signed a treaty that returned Acadia and Quebec to the French, but peace was short-lived. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, an intermittent series of battles occurred between the two great empires, England and France, for control of the northern empire. These frontier squabbles, massacres, and political wrangling culminated in the French and Indian War between 1754 and 1763. Some intellectuals in France questioned Canada's importance; the philosopher Voltaire, for example, dismissed the importance of "acres of snow."

Each nation put its generals to the test as France and Great Britain struggled for supremacy in Canada. In 1759, Quebec was wrested away from French control. Great Britain was ultimately the victor of the French and Indian War. The Treaty of Paris in 1763, among other things, ended France's claim to Canada and established Britain's supremacy. Jesuit lands and the schools on them were taken over by the British. Nonetheless, from the eighteenth through the twenty-first century, nationalistic fervor in Quebec has remained high as that province continued to embrace the customs and language of France.

In 1774, Britain passed the Quebec Act of 1774, which established Britain's Parliament as law in Canada, a political display of power much despised by the American colonies and cited as one of the causes of the American Revolution. Canada became a place of refuge for American colonists who remained loyal to King George, and these Loyalists continued to settle many years after the Revolution because they found themselves despised in America.

In an attempt to keep the peace in Canada after the successful American Revolution that drove Loyalists in great numbers to settle in Canada, the British created, out of Quebec, British-speaking Ontario (formerly Upper Canada) and French-speaking Quebec (formerly Lower Canada) in 1791. The two areas were reunited in 1841 as Canada Province, but in 1867 the British divided the newly named Dominion of Canada into the provinces of New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, and Nova Scotia. In 1869, following their purchase from the Hudson's Bay Company, the Northwest Territories were established (with Yukon splintering off as a territory in 1898). In time, separate provinces were founded as Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871), Price Edward Island (1873), Alberta (1905), Saskatchewan (1905), and Newfoundland (1949). Nunavut became a separate territory from the Northwest Territory in 1999, and some 85 percent of the population was located in a single city, Iqaluit.

Latter-day Canada is a land of geographic contrasts. It has great hot and frigid temperature extremes and an uneven distribution of natural resources and lands suitable for settlement or farming. A great disparity exists in wealth generated by some sections of the country as opposed to others, allowing the wealthier sections such as Ontario to provide educational services, up-to-date technology, and higher teacher salaries more readily. In July of 2000, Canada's population was 30,750,087. With fewer people in all Canada than residing in the single U.S. state of California, the nation ranks as one of the world's more sparsely settled countries. Its unemployment rate was 7 percent in April 2001.

Unlike the United States, Canada conducts a census twice a decade, sending questionnaires to citizens in years ending in a "1" or "6." Thus, unless otherwise specified, data contained here refers to information obtained in the 1996 census. The 1996 census provided a comprehensive look at the aggregate educational attainments of Canada's citizenry by highest degree. Of 22,628,925 citizens 15 years of age or older, 8,331,615 had neither degree nor diploma, 5,217,20 had a secondary school diploma, 525,560 had a community college degree or other certificate below bachelor level, 1,979,460 had a bachelor degree, 501,505 had a master's degree, and 103,855 had an earned doctorate in 1996. These numbers represented a significant gain in one decade. In 1986, of the 19,634,100 people 15 and older, 9,384,100 had neither degree nor diploma, 3,985,820 had a secondary school diploma, 381,580 had a community college degree or other certificate below bachelor level, 1,254,250 had a bachelor degree, 293,335 had a master's degree, and 66,955 had an earned doctorate degree.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

The British North America Act of 1867 was a statute providing for the unification of the country a few years after the disastrous Civil War in America provided a valuable lesson in the dangers of secession, as French-speaking Quebec has often threatened to do from the rest of Canada. In addition, some of Canada's desire to unite its disparate provinces no doubt was incited by periodic U.S. political discussions about the possibility of annexing Canada; to be sure, a minority of Canadian leaders, mainly in Montreal, also touted what they claimed would be the economic benefits of annexation. In the end, Canadians, proud of their country and seeing the effect civil war had on the United States, expressed desire for a strong federal government. In 1866, at talks at an important conference in England, a confederation then called "The Dominion of Canada" was begun. The British North American Act became law on 1 July 1867. That date became Canada's Independence Day.

Of utmost importance, the constitution and bylaws offered citizens the assurance that the governing body of each province would be empowered to make laws related to education. This was particularly important in Canada where the primary language in a province or territory might be French, English, or even Inuit.

The Constitutional Act of 1982 reaffirmed many of the resolutions present in the 1867 BNA Act. Citizens in a province whose first language is French or English have the right to have their children given a primary and secondary school education in that same language. If enough children of a minority language are in the system, they have the right to an education taught in that language that is financed by public funds.

Rather than a federal educational system, the schooling of Canada's citizens is a responsibility assumed by provinces and territories. Such a system was the most practical way to permit the diverse cultures to address concerns and values different from those of other provinces. Each province has its own department of education under the administration of an elected minister. Each province mandates a curriculum and funnels grants to institutions under its jurisdiction.

Educational System—Overview

Canadians historically have believed that formal education should turn out not scholars so much as educated citizens capable of achieving and sustaining useful, self-sufficient lives (Johnson 1968). The educated citizen is therefore ideally equipped to use his knowledge to benefit his community and nation.

The ideal of a unified school system is one that evolved over time, since originally the French and British cultures generally founded schools unlike each other's.

In what would become the province of Quebec, the growth of towns was very slow in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The missionaries who served the children of the merchants, traders, and farmers first began their work in 1616. In the next 15 years, Jesuit missionaries also turned their talents to the education of native Indian children. The Jesuit order also founded a small college in colonial Quebec, creating a campus on lands designated for that purpose by the French crown.

Perhaps the low-water mark in the education of Canada's citizenry occurred in the areas once known as New France after the French defeat by Britain in 1763. The driving out of the French governors ended years of financial support for church schools in the form of grants. Worse, many of the teaching clergy and French missionaries elected to return to Europe or take assignments outside Canada following the defeat. In Quebec, accounts of the day by travelers report an astounding number of Canadians unable to read or write well into the nineteenth century.

The alarming number of illiterate children and adults in Canada during the nineteenth century spurred reform attempts among educators that recommended the creation of nondenominational elementary and secondary schools open to the young of all religious sects. Around the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, many provinces arranged the construction of public, tax-supported schools to be overseen by government-connected boards or education departments. Decade after decade, province by province, these nondenominational schools became the primary institutions designated for public moneys. Some remnants of the past continue to be changed. In 1998, for example, the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador revamped some existing Pentecostal schools into a school system regulated by nondenominational guidelines.

Canada's prime minister and ruling government are involved tangentially in the running of schools. The government budgets grant moneys for postsecondary education, vocational training for the adult populace, and second language training to meet the goals of a nation committed to bilingualism. Government moneys assist with student loans, as well as meeting the needs of Indians pursuing an education, the education of those serving in the armed forces, and schooling and vocational training for those undergoing rehabilitation in federal prisons.

In May of 2001, in spite of strong objections from officials in the Ontario Department of Education, the provincial government recommended a measure that would give financial relief to parents of private school children in the form of a hefty tax credit (similar to vouchers in the United States) with a cap of $3,500. By June of 2001, public meetings between government officials and parents of public and private school children had deteriorated into name-calling sessions, making the educational issue one of the most controversial in Ontario's history of education.

The country of Canada also traditionally has differed province to province in the administration of rural schools, many single-room schoolhouses harboring several grade levels. A 1998 oral history report by education faculty member Barbara Mulcahy of Memorial University of Newfoundland reported that two-thirds of all Newfoundland and Labrador schools were classified as single-room schoolhouses. She cites the Report of the Royal Commission on Education and Youth in 1967 that found this percentage reduced to less than one-third. By 1998, there were but three such schools in existence, according to Mulcahy's research.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, educators recognized a wide disparity in the greater amount of moneys that the United States was spending on its educational system as compared to what Canada spent. This was remedied in the late 1960s when Canada expenditures by the government surpassed even the amounts spent by the governments of the United States and Sweden. As occurred in the United States, Canadian provinces began to consolidate smaller schools into larger school districts. However, as Canada faced hard economic times in the 1970s through 1990s, many school districts struggled to meet expectations of the highest educational standards while facing budget cuts and the need for costly educational equipment such as computers.

Nonetheless, according to a 1999 United Nations survey, in spite of Canada's struggling economy, the nation devoted 7 percent of its gross national product (GNP) to education, which was second only to Norway with 7.5 percent of its GNP devoted to education. The United States trailed Canada at 5.4 percent of its GNP devoted to education. In the late 1990s, wide public attention was directed toward Canada's Fraser Institute as it collected data on Alberta and British Columbia kindergarten through twelfth grade private, public, and separate school systems, providing statistics that showed where schools are exceeding expectations and where they are failing. In 2000, Quebec schools were also given report cards, followed by Ontario in 2001. By 2001, the system also offered comparisons over a five year period to indicate where schools have made improvements or where conditions have deteriorated. Provincial ministries of education provided information. The report cards have received wide praise from the public and some condemnation from educators and government leaders, particularly in Ontario, that claim some data analyzed was flawed, leading to lower rankings by some schools. In general, however, school critics have insisted that test scores by Canadian students ought to be higher, a complaint frequently heard in other industrialized nations such as the United States.

Enrollment: Enrollment in elementary and secondary schools combined rose from 5,141,003 in 1990 to 1991 to 5,386,301 in 1997 to 1998. During the 1990s, the year of greatest enrollment was 1995 to 1996 when 5,430,836 children enrolled in elementary and secondary schools across Canada. By 1998-1999, the number had dropped to 5,369,716.

Of the 22,628,925 persons that are 15 years of age or older living in Canada, 2,801,280 attended school at one level or another full time, according to the 1996 census. Another 1,167,820 attended part time. This represented only a slight change from 1991 census figures. Of the 21,304,740 persons at least age 15 living in Canada, 2,537,715 attended school full time and 1,243,450 part time.

Technology in the Schools: Canadian politicians have long said that the Internet seemed made for Canada as an important way to link its outer provinces and territories. In 2001, a spokesperson for the Canadian government claimed that Canada boasted the highest percentage of population using the Internet in the world. Quickly putting emphasis on wiring the schools, Canada as a nation succeeded in linking every school and library to the Internet in the 1990s. Even in remote provinces, Canada's schools have vowed to have one computer for every five students by 2005. It has more computers in households than any other country. Canada's universities, though few in number, are the envy of most industrialized countries in quality of computer technology programs.

Compulsory Education: Canada's primary and secondary public school system is co-educational and paid for by the Canadian government. Canada is one of the many nations signing a United Nations resolution guaranteeing children the right to an education. Compulsory education laws, by province or territory, generally decree that children attend school from 6 or 7 years old until they are 15 or 16 years old.

About one-half of all Canadians have a high school graduation certificate. Individual provinces can also require certain classes to be taught. In Ontario, compulsory classes include Grade 7: History and Geography; Grade 8: Geography; and Grade 10: Canadian History in the Twentieth Century. In all provinces, physical education is mandatory from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Following lobbying attempts by Canadian war veterans who expressed shock at student ignorance about their country's participation in World War Two, the province of Nova Scotia made Canadian history mandatory in grade 11.

In 1871, Canada's first compulsory attendance statute was passed in Ontario. By 1890, nearly all provinces and territories followed Ontario's lead as many legislators were upset by an alarming increase in child labor in factories.

Because so much of Canada consists of remote outposts and homesteads, particularly in the nineteenth century, territories and provinces have recognized the right of parents to home school their children as an alternative to school-based classes. Generally, the parent applies to a provincial Department of Education officer to seek permission to home school and for an exemption from compulsory schooling in a classroom.

Minority Education: After the United States passed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which allowed or even required police officers and citizen trackers to return escaped slaves to their "owners" after capture, many slaves and their children crossed the northern border to begin anew in Canada. Religious organizations, most prominently the Colonial Church and School Society, welcomed children—black or white—into its schools.

Canada took a little longer to provide for the educational needs of Indians and mixed culture peoples known as métis who were at loose ends in the nineteenth century with the reduction in buffalo herds and fur-bearing animals. Acting on the recommendation of Catholic religious leaders in the territories, the government began to establish residential schools in the 1880s.

In the twentieth century, Indian schools in the Northwest Territories came under the management of the Federal Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development's Education Division under a superintendent. The Canadian government maintained these schools, open to other races under different budgetary line items.

As of 2001, the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (DIAND) funnels educational grant moneys to First Nation education authorities. Moneys pay for the expenses needed to operate First Nation reserve schools run either by the federal government or First Nation tribal authorities. The government also pays for the tuition and many incidental costs of on-reserve students that choose to attend provincial schools.

In 1997, founding members of the First Nations Adult and Higher Education Consortium (FNAHEC) created a charter. Numerous Indian schools of higher learning were represented, among them Blue Quills First Nations College, Maskwachees Cultural College, Nakoda Nation Post-Secondary Education Center, Red Crow Community College, and Old Sun Community College. According to a FNAHEC position paper on the Internet, FNAHEC exists "to provide quality adult and higher education, controlled entirely by people of the First Nations"' tribes. FNAHEC was modeled after the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC), but it contains its own distinguishing characteristics.

As the mission statement of the University of Saskatchewan Native Studies Department states, today's academic research involving aboriginal peoples strives to end a long-standing parasitical exploitation system between non-Indian researchers and their subjects. Instead of past "intellectual colonialism, today's researchers attempt to carry out studies and uncover data in a way that is both intellectually and ethically sound."

To meet the demand for more professionals in under-represented professions such as law, University of Victoria offered a cooperative law school program in 2001 that would allow up to 20 Inuit students to enter Akitsiraq Law School in Iqualuit to earn their professional degrees in law. The program was offered on a one-time basis and would not be repeated.

In 2000, after Canadian legislators received test scores demonstrating that minority student scores trailed drastically behind those of non-minority students, parents and legislators nationwide demanded reforms and an infusion of public moneys into the lower grades of the poorest performing schools to raise scores. However, the wide debate showed that the Canadian public differed widely as to what should be done to help raise minority test scores.

By 2001, the new government was debating plans for a new school in Iqaluit that would have classes taught only in Inuit. There also was adopted a cooperative program with the law school at the University of Victoria that would allow up to 20 Inuit students to enter Akitsiraq Law School in Iqualuit and earn their professional degrees in law.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Unlike some other countries such as France, which has a high preschool enrollment by age three, Canadian children generally wait until age four to enter preschool. According to 1992 figures, 46 percent of all 4 year olds and 69 percent of all 5 year olds attended public or primary schools of education. Canada's children average 1.2 years in preschool as of 1992, far below France (3.4 years) and the United States (1.8 years).

According to 1995-1996 figures, enrollment in Canadian preprimary schools had risen to 509,589 students. Of that total, 248,071 students were gender classified as female. While many 5 year olds in the United States enroll in kindergarten, Canada enrolls 30 percent of its 5 year olds in primary schools of education, according to 1992 statistics.

The first primary schools were French and related to the Catholic Church. Each parish priest was responsible for starting and maintaining a school where reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught. These most often were broken into separate schools for boys and girls by 1750. The most widely known school for French and Indian girls before 1750 was run by the Ursuline Order of nuns; it was opened in Quebec on a spacious campus in 1642. The Congregation of Notre Dame founded other schools in Montreal and other communities. Some convent schools founded by the latter order still exist. British forces destroyed one convent school in 1758, however. Marguerite Bourgeoys, one of Canada's earliest and best known pioneering female personages in education, began the Congregation of Notre Dame. The Congregation of Notre Dame de Montreal was one of the first boarding schools in North America for girls. The reputation of the school and its foundress Bourgeoys led citizens in the American colonies to request similar missions. Additional missions were built in diverse Canadian locations such as Cape Breton Island and Trois Rivières, Quebec. The Congregation of Notre Dame de Montreal was literally built in a forest cleared by local supporters and farmers. In the territories, the Hudson's Bay Company encouraged the education of the Indians and the sons and daughters of settlers.

The seventeenth century also saw the establishment of Anglican and other Protestant schools in Canada, particularly where English was the primary tongue. However, other Protestant sects rebuffed Anglican leaders in their attempts to establish their church elementary and grammar schools to the extent that such schools found recognized acceptance in other British possessions such as Northern Ireland. Catholic church leaders in 1789-1790 also successfully objected to a proposal in lower Canada that would begin a system of free parish schools, but contained a proposal for the building of a college in which theology was noticeably absent from the curriculum. After the departure of France, the Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning was instrumental in setting up nondenominational schools, not an easy or controversy-free task in many parts of Canada where French-Catholic settlers were in the majority.

One of the more progressive educational decisions was the 1790 publication of the Means for Promoting Education, which was the work of a special legislative council committee headed by Chief Justice William Smith. The committee recommended the establishment of free elementary schools in all parishes and villages, as well as schools for older, more advanced students roughly equivalent to secondary schools.

Primary education was conducted on a haphazard basis throughout Canada around 1800. That is, while all or nearly all cities and most towns of any size possessed such schools, their quality varied greatly, and neither provincial nor territory governments established standards. Under such conditions, the way was open for charlatans posing as itinerant scholars to set up shop in smaller schools and one-room schoolhouses; the situation was quite like the situation with frauds posing as dentists or preachers in North America in the nineteenth century. Finally, according to historian Edgar McInnis, legislatures in Upper Canada and Nova Scotia established schools in 1807 and 1811 respectively, but public funding of the schools lagged by a few years. The most important single piece of legislation for elementary schools in the nineteenth century was the Common School Act of 1816.

Not until the nineteenth century and in many provinces not until near mid-century did educational reformers obtain political support for nonsectarian primary, grammar, and secondary schools. Sociologists Wilfrid B.W. Martin and Allan J. Macdonell note that, until the nineteenth century, education was a right of the privileged and wealthy that was too often denied the common citizen. Local school boards under the watchful eyes of government education departments administered these early schools, depending upon the locale. Such schools grew rapidly in number and acceptance. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, nondenominational schools supported by public moneys were the norm in many parts of Canada such as Ontario. Nonetheless, Catholic, Anglican, and miscellaneous Protestant denominations fought for the recognition of tax-supported church-related schools, particularly in fiercely Catholic areas of Quebec. The influence of the church schools cannot be overestimated in contributing to high literacy rates in many Catholic and Christian strongholds in Canada prior to the departure of France.

By 1850, the Canadian West was a stirred pot with reformers clamoring to reduce the influence of churches on schools and political issues. The need for more diverse schools became clear between 1897 and 1912 when great numbers of immigrants from the United States and parts of Europe, neither British nor French, streamed into the country at the invitation of Canada, which then favored a policy of so-called "national expansion" (McInnis 1969). While standardized school systems and a common curriculum had elevated educational standards in Ontario and other settled provinces, the Northwest and Western provinces battled over such issues as restrictions on Catholic schools and parochial school instruction, administrative structure of schools, and unifying scattered schools into comprehensive school systems. In short, these squabbles focused on ways to serve the majority of citizens while taking into the account the needs of a minority of citizens, some of whom had established roots long before the newcomers built homes.

In modern Canada, elementary schools are overseen by locally elected school boards, which are sometimes known as school commissions. These boards are responsible for fiscal matters, the employment of teaching professionals, and the carrying out of the curriculums provided by the province's department of education.

In terms of enrollment, according to 1990-1991 government figures, 2,375,704 students were enrolled in Canada's primary grades. Of that total, 1,147,503 students were female. The student to teacher ratio was 15 to 1. During the 1995 to 1996 school year, according to government records, the total enrollment in primary grades rose slightly to 2,448,144. Of that total, 1,185,025 were female. The student to teacher ratio had changed slightly to a 16 to 1 ratio.

An attempt to begin elitist schools reminiscent of British schools in Eton and other grammar schools was doomed to failure in egalitarian Canada. A public corporation that administered many common schools in the nineteenth century, the aforementioned Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning, in 1816 founded two such classical schools supervised by headmasters. These Royal Grammar Schools struggled for three decades, closing in 1846, according to educational scholar John Calam.

The early grammar schools were important for two reasons. They were created by legislation, the District Public Schools Act of 1807, and they showed the government's willingness to support the costs of education and even the salary of a schoolmaster. Second, the law involved the state in education, an important first step in the creation of nondenominational schools. These schools were much like today's private schools in that tuition and fees were required. The schools themselves proved highly unpopular. Canadians thought them too elite and too close to the class-conscious schools of England such as Eton.

Secondary Education

The Jesuits founded the first secondary institution in Canada. Its curriculum was closely based on Jesuit colleges in Europe.

High schools in Canada actually were modifications of grammar schools. They were late taking hold in Canada, not finding supportive voices among educators until the mid and late 1860s. By the 1870s, high schools in Ontario would prove to be the model for future secondary schools in Canada. Just as common schools became known as public schools in that era, so too were grammar schools known always as high schools in Canada. The high schools by then offered a sophisticated collegiate curriculum, although the percentage of students attending college would not increase substantially until the twentieth century.

Similar to elementary schools, Canada's secondary schools fall under the governance of elected school boards at the local level. Board members establish guidelines for budgets and teacher employment. They are responsible to the province's department of education regarding curriculum matters.

In Canada, students for the most part pursue one of two high school tracks. One track serves the interests of students intending to attend a university. The other track is more geared to students that will enter the workforce after either education or who will do so after getting additional training in a vocational or technology school or from a community college. Remedial programs meet the needs of students having difficulty with their high school studies.

In enrollment at the secondary level in Canada, 2,292,497 pupils were enrolled during the 1990 to 1991 academic year. Of that total, by gender breakdown, 1,118,112 were female. During the 1995 to 1996 academic year, 2,505,389 pupils were enrolled for a slight increase. Female students represented 1,218,403 of that total.

Higher Education

With few exceptions, Canadian postsecondary schools break down into universities and colleges. In the twenty-first century, the term "colleges" usually refers to community colleges.

Because of bickering and cultural differences among the nation's disparate groups, it took hundreds of years before the people of Canada concentrated on their common beliefs and values to form a quality system of higher education. Canada's early schools of higher education were then called colleges. All these colleges possessed denominational affiliations, often instituted by ministers, dioceses, or colonists with strong religious ties. Consequently, their early offerings stressed religious studies or theology and a classical education such as was pursued in Europe at the University of Paris or Oxford or at Harvard College in the American colonies.

Canada's first "college," the Collège des Jésuites, established in 1635 by the Jesuit Order in Quebec, actually was a primary school (petite école ) for children and young Indians. To give some idea of this accomplishment, Harvard College would not be established in Massachusetts until 1636. In short time, Latin was taught and eventually the school offered seminary studies. By the 1660s, a full college course and the opportunity for a classical education were also offered. The British closed this school in 1768 after the French defeat.

Until late in the eighteenth century, British authorities frowned upon French Catholic educational institutions, but eventually came to tolerate and even support them. However, the Petit Séminaire de Montréal (formerly the Collège St. Raphaël) was begun by Catholic religious in 1773, offering a partial classical course. Université Laval was founded in 1663 as the Séminaire de Québec; the school still exists today.

The aforementioned 1790 Means for Promoting Education, the special legislative council committee headed by Chief Justice Smith, recommended the formation of a college similar to the great universities of Europe, but theology-free, an attempt to suppress Catholic teachings. This was blocked.

Higher education was not absent from Canada through 1860, but colleges were in very short supply. Potential students had the choice of attending two major institutions at Quebec or Montreal that were similar to the classical universities of Europe or attending five smaller institutions, specifically Nicolet (1803), St. Hyacinthe (1811), Ste. Théresé-de-Blaineville (1825), Ste. Anne-de-la-Pocatière (1827), and L'Assomption (1832) (Harris 1976). A number of short-lived institutions failed to outlast the nineteenth century. All these were propelled by the enthusiasm and entrepreneurial abilities of various parish priests and their bishops who, perhaps less nobly, were attempting to keep Catholic students from choosing to enter British, non-sectarian institutions such as McGill University.

Not surprisingly, one of the important reasons for the establishment of institutions of higher learning in English-occupied Canada was the training of missionaries and ministers. Until 1763, the British lagged behind the French in higher education, having established no colleges up to that time. Other institutions, particularly those large non-denominational schools such as McGill (first operating in 1821 with a medical faculty and then eventually expanding to include numerous professional and academic disciplines) and Dalhousie (1818) Universities, were founded to preserve British culture, traditions, and way of life. The King's Colleges at Frederickton, Windsor, and Toronto consciously and warily attempted to preserve Canadian traditions, lest Canadian schools become "Americanized" culturally. The founders of the Windsor, Ontario, and Frederickton, New Brunswick institutions were United Empire Loyalists. Many of today's universities originally had different names at the time of their founding. The University of Toronto was King's College in Toronto when chartered in 1827. The Frederick institution begun in 1829 is now the University of New Brunswick.

Canada's colleges tended to have denominational roots. Four colleges were independent as of 1867, while the remaining 13 had denominational ties, according to the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. Rather than continue to work against one another, Canada's nondenominational and religious universities formed cooperative, if sometimes uneasy, alliances. For example, the nonsectarian University of Toronto collaborated with three religious colleges that were Anglican, Catholic, and Methodist by the early 1900s (McInnes 1969).

As of 2000, Canada possessed 92 universities ranging from small liberal arts institutions mainly or exclusively for undergraduates to extensive, heavily enrolled research communities of knowledge. A few offer specialties such as art and design; others contain every imaginable specialty study. (Some of the specialty schools are comparable to community colleges in the U.S.)

Some of the more noteworthy universities in Canada and the dates of their founding include the following: Carleton University (1957, formerly Carleton College with a 1942 founding), Lakehead University (1965, formerly Lakehead Technical Institute), Memorial University of Newfoundland (1949), University of Alberta (1906), University of Guelph (1965), University of Lethbridge (1967), and University of Sasketchewan (1907). Like U.S. state universities, many universities in Canada have a similar relationship to province governments.

In spite of attempts by the government and universities to minimize U.S. influences on higher education, sociologists and educators frequently note the tendency of institutions to form boards of governors similar to trustee boards in the United States. Like those of the U.S., these boards tend to be heavily populated with members outside the immediate university community. Other American influences can be seen in the methods of operation Canadian universities employ in their graduate and professional schools, according to sociologists Wilfrid B.W. Martin and Allan J. Macdonell. Finally, the four western provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan established universities that borrowed from the model of U.S. land grant colleges, according to the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada.

In the twentieth century, Canada's government and people placed growing importance on higher education, requiring trained and educated employees and management for the knowledge-based industries. Approximately 8 percent of Canada's gross domestic product (GDP) goes toward education expenditures. A little over one quarter of Canadian citizens possess a university or college degree.

Not surprisingly, Canada's biggest boom in university enrollments came during the Baby Boom era. Enrollment in full-time studies more than tripled from 1960 to 1970, with more than 350,000 students enrolled during the 1970-1971 academic year. All told, student enrollment (including part time students) exploded to 493,000 students during the 1973-1974 academic year. By the 1998-1999 school year, attendance of full and part time students had increased to 580,376 full time students and 245,985 part time students. Of these totals, Ontario is the leader by province in student numbers with 229,985 full time students and 72,958 part time students. Quebec is second with 134,162 full time students and 98,116 part time students. Not all provinces have prospered equally in recent years. From 1994-1995 to 1998-1999, the provinces of Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Manitoba recorded slight drops in full time student enrollment.

Community Colleges & Technical Colleges: In Canada, in addition to the universities offering degreed programs, there are also in operation a wide number of community colleges, technical schools, agricultural colleges, schools of agriculture, two-year colleges of art, and schools of nursing.

Canada has built a significant number of these schools in a relatively short time. As late as the 1960s and 1970s, community colleges were struggling to find a niche in the country's educational system. Many of the educational offerings and vocational courses are designed to be completed in two years. Often students transfer to four year institutions after attending community colleges.

In 1996-1997, Canada awarded 85,908 degrees in career programs. These were broken down into business and commerce (23,327), engineering and applied sciences (18,279), social sciences and social services (16,779), health sciences (11,618), the arts (7,191), the natural sciences (4,819), humanities (1,235), arts and sciences (2,531), and miscellaneous unreported categories (129).

Vocational Training: The first trade school in Canada offered not only vocational courses but also training in the arts such as painting and sculpture. The school was founded in Quebec at St. Joachim around 1670. In the early 1700s, a similar institution opened in Montreal. The Jesuits ran both schools. These schools served mariners, artisans, and students aspiring to become farmers.

In modern times, when the presence of a skilled work force increasingly demands that workers bring skills to a job instead of getting them on the job, trade and vocational training has become nearly mandatory for Canadians lacking a community college or college education. The types of vocational programs and the number of programs vary from province to province. Both community colleges and vocational centers advertise classes in advance. The applicant pays for most programs, although some are government-funded such as language skills for newcomers or courses for aboriginal peoples. Many trades require skills that increase as one advances. For example, an electrician may move from an apprentice to a journeyman.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Both the provinces and federal government invest in Canada's attempt to cultivate an educated populace through aid programs benefiting students in need of some or all financial resources. The federal government, in addition to loan guarantees through the Canada Student Loans Program, works closely with provinces to provide student aid. In 1991-1992, the last year for which data was available, student aid totaled nearly $800 million combined from the federal government and province governments.

Teaching Profession

Canada takes pride in being a pioneer in teacher training in North America. The first teacher training institution, then referred to as a "normal school," operated in 1836 in Montreal. This was the first teacher training school in North America, opening three years before the United States began a normal school under the direction of pioneer educator Horace Mann. However, normal schools were slow to catch on in Canada, unlike the United States where they proliferated. Nonetheless, a handful of schools for teachers did open in Upper Canada and New Brunswick (1847), Nova Scotia (1855), Prince Edward Island (1856), and Quebec (1857).

A failed experiment in the late nineteenth century was the opening of model schools for teachers that required the briefest of courses and very little practice teaching. They largely died out in the early years of the twentieth century, but hung on in remote provinces until 1924, according to author-educator F. Henry Johnson who refers to the model schools as a "travesty."

The more rigorous normal schools flourished in most urban centers in Canada, but critics frequently objected to relaxed admission standards and failure to require a high school diploma for entry in many cases. The Roman Catholics also established normal schools for the training of nuns and laity in the twentieth century. Even by 1940, many normal schools such as one in Prince Edward Island still failed to require a diploma from high school for admission to their programs. Others, however, were more demanding in entrance requirements and curriculum improvements included the offering of classes in educational psychology (Johnson 1968). Many reform efforts were internal, the work of professional teacher associations. These groups advocated curriculum standardization, formal textbook adoption procedures, and the inclusion of teacher training at respected Canadian universities.

In modern Canada, teacher education programs are now part of university course offerings at numerous institutions, nearly all offering a curriculum overseen by departments of education. Teacher training is typically a vigorous one year program (in some cases two years), and would-be teachers spend an additional three or four years to receive their university degree. Standardization has not fully occurred, and teacher certification programs vary, depending upon the province or territory. Teachers typically specialize in elementary, middle, or secondary school programs. Others specialize in subjects such as the teaching of English or French as a second language. Many focus on specialty subjects such as music, the arts, or physical education.

Teacher education programs stress the learning of not only educational theory and academic subjects, but also require mastery in the classroom before actual students during practice teaching stints called practicums. By the twenty-first century, in spite of abundant reforms from 1940 to 2001, it became clear that teacher reform was an unfinished business. In New Brunswick, reformers frequently mounted platforms for methods to ensure that teachers experienced continuous growth and improvement over the course of their careers. The Canadian Association of Deans of Education (CADE) and the Association francophone des doyens, doyennes, directeurs, et directrices d'éducation (AFDEC) stress that good teachers need to continuously update their skills by reading, taking workshops, traveling, and participating in teacher exchange programs.

Summary

Education in Canada has contributed to a remarkable era of prosperity in the nation during the late 1990s and first part of the twenty-first century. Reforms in the educational system have been apparent in primary and secondary education, colleges and universities, and vocational training. Although there has been recent dissatisfaction with the test scores of students in the primary and secondary grades, the rising number of Canadians with degrees and advanced degrees has offered some consolation. Conflicts between French and British interests in the far-flung provinces have been eased by the government's strong support of bilingual education. Likewise, the government has been supportive of attempts by the aboriginal peoples to better their lot in life through education, even as they preserve their customs and language.

While Canada's economy is expected to lose some of its luster as the United States and other industrialized nations experience economic downturns in 2001 and lower population rates will certainly lead to declines in university and college enrollments in certain provinces, the future of Canada overall looks brilliant in the twenty-first century as its ample resources and educated or trained workforce give the nation benefits many other nations only can envy.

Bibliography

Calam, John. "The Royal Grammar Schools." Educational Record 79(4) (October-December 1963): 256ff.

Cochrane, J. The One-Room School in Canada. Toronto: Fitzhenry and Whiteside, 1981.

Fraser Institute, The. Report Cards. Available from http://www.fraserinstitute.ca.

Harris, Robin S. A History of Higher Education in Canada: 1663-1960. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976.

Katz, Michael B. and Paul H. Mattingly. Education and Social Change: Themes from Ontario's Past. New York: New York University Press, 1975.

Johnson, F. Henry. A Brief History of Canadian Education. Toronto: McGraw-Hill of Canada, 1968.

Martin, Wilfred B.W. and Allan J. Macdonell. Canadian Education: A Sociological Analysis. Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice-Hall of Canada, 1978.

McInnis, Edgar. Canada: A Political and Social History. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, 1969.

McNaught, Kenneth. The Penguin History of Canada. London: Penguin, 1988.

Mulcahy, Dennis. Learning and Teaching in Multi-grade Classrooms. St. John's: Faculty of Education Monograph, Memorial University, 1993.

——. The One-Room School in Newfoundland and Labrador. An Oral History Project. 19 January 1999. Available from http://www.ucs.mun.ca.

Robinson, Laura. Crossing the Line. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1998.

Statistics Canada. 1996 and 2001 Census Information. 2001. Available from http://www.statcan.ca.

UNESCO Statistical Overview: School Enrollment. Canada. 1999. Available from http://www.ibe.unesco.org.

University of Sakatchewan. Native Studies Review. 31 October 1999, Available from http://www.usask.ca.

U.S. Department of Education. Condition of Education: 1995. 2001. Available from http://www.ed.gov.

—Hank Nuwer

Canada

1. Introduction

As a British Dominion, Canada's attitude at the beginning of the Second World War was one of resignation. The memory of the heavy casualties in the First World War, when 60,000 Canadians died and 172,000 were wounded, naturally weighed heavily on the nation. The Great Depression had devastated the economy for ten years and continued unabated in its severity. And French Canadians, bitterly resentful of the way in which the anglophone majority had imposed conscription in 1917, had no desire to see Canada enter into another ‘British’ war in Europe that might lead to heavy casualties and inevitably to renewed demands for compulsory military service. On the other hand, many, perhaps most, English Canadians still assumed that when Britain was at war, so was Canada. The Liberal government of Mackenzie King managed to bring this reluctant, divided country into the war through King's political skill, a feat that was accomplished by promising that there would be no conscription for overseas service and by pledging a war of ‘limited liability’. Those attitudes prevailed for ten months. Not until the fall of France did most Canadians, including their government, take the war seriously as a struggle for survival; not until the summer of 1940 did war orders from the UK or the Canadian government begin to reach the factories in quantity. From that point until the victory over Japan in August 1945, the Canadian war effort increased exponentially.

2. Domestic life, war effort, and economy

Canada's population in 1939 was only 11.5 million scattered across a vast area reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Just under half the Canadian people were of British origin, with another third being French Canadians. The remainder were of immigrant stock, largely European (with Germans and Ukrainians predominating). A majority of the population lived in cities, though only eight urban populations were bigger than 100,000 and none was greater than a million.

The economy in 1939 was still caught in the toils of the Depression. Official estimates, probably understating the problem, had 400,000 workers unemployed and a million men, women, and children on direct relief. On 1 October 1939, only 3.8 million were gainfully employed, with 2 million men and women in agriculture and the rest in non-agricultural industry or self-employed. The country's Gross National Product was $5.6 billion. The war dramatically altered these numbers. The GNP in 1945 was $11.8 billion, a figure slightly below the 1944 total. Unemployment had disappeared and 5.1 million were gainfully employed, with 3.2 million in non-agricultural industry and 1.9 million working in agriculture. The manufacturing sector of the economy had almost doubled in six years, and war industry at its peak in October 1943 employed 1.2 million men and women, or 13.3% of the total population over 14 years of age.

Production quantities increased dramatically in every sector. In agriculture, good weather helped produce bumper crops of grain—556 million bushels in 1942, for example. The production of pork more than doubled and of beef increased by more than a third, and the country's agricultural exports rose from $332 million in 1939 to $1.12 billion in 1944, $409 million of that total going to the UK.

In the iron and steel sectors, increases were similarly dramatic. Pig iron and steel ingot production more than doubled between 1939 and 1944, and this fuelled astonishing developments in war industry. A country that in 1939 had built no merchant ships had produced 345 by 1944; aircraft production was 14,700 by the end of 1944; while 707,000 military vehicles and 45,710 armoured vehicles were built. Plant expansion was heavily financed by government which established numerous Crown corporations (for example, to produce synthetic rubber) and which financed corporate expansion.

The total of war production in Canada, supervised by C. D. Howe, was $10.9 billion by 1945, fourth among the Allies. Canada's war production amounted to one-seventh of total British Empire production, but only 30% of this production was used by the Canadian forces. Virtually all the rest was given freely to Canada's allies as gifts or under Canadian Mutual Aid, with the lion's share going to the UK. Mutual Aid, its financial planning directed by a team headed by the finance minister, J. L. Ilsley, was a contribution to the Allied war effort, but it was also an investment in full employment in Canada, something of which the government was fully aware. In effect, Ottawa decided it was better to give war production away rather than to see the economy run down in the middle of the war. For the hard-pressed British, the aid was important. As a Dominions Office paper noted in August 1946, ‘during the war we were never, from shortage of finance, prevented from securing all Canada could let us have for the war effort’.

Extraordinarily, the economic war effort simultaneously raised living standards at home to peaks never before attained. It was not that wages rose so much as that there was work for everyone. Full employment and all the overtime anyone wanted meant that families, often with every member over the age of 15 gainfully employed, had the money to eat better, even with rationing of meat, butter, sugar, tea, and coffee. Moreover, the fact that consumer goods were unavailable meant that savings rose, a cushion for the expected post-war downturn. The government's tough economic policies controlled inflation well. From the beginning of the war until October 1941, when wage and price controls were imposed, the cost of living rose by 17.8%; but from October 1941 to April 1945, the increase was a mere 2.8%. This was the most successful record of all the belligerents.

3. Government

The federal election of 1935 had replaced the Conservative government of R. B. Bennett with the Liberals under King, previously prime minister 1921–6 and 1926–30. King was cautious and colourless, a fussy bachelor in his sixties, but he was a consummate political tactician with a clear idea of the forces that weighed on his country—the USA, with whom Canada shared the continent, and the UK, the Mother Country across the sea. The struggle between continentalism and imperialism was as old as Canada, as current as today's newspaper, and King had to deal with it. He also had to handle the tensions within the country. French-speaking Canadians, largely but not exclusively concentrated in Quebec, were separated by language and by religion from most of their English-speaking and Protestant country-men (see also religion). Their political support was traditionally given to the Liberal Party, and King, dependent on it, had to tread carefully on foreign policy questions and on any prospect of Canadian involvement in war.

The Statute of Westminster in 1931 had declared that Canada, like the other Dominions, was independent in foreign policy, just as it had been in domestic matters, but there still remained some doubt that Canada had a right to neutrality, or whether it was bound by a declaration of war issued by its sovereign, George VI, on behalf of Great Britain. Neutralist sentiment had a powerful voice in King's key foreign policy adviser, Dr Oscar Skelton, but the Gordian knot was cut by King in September 1939. The UK declared war on 3 September and, the Canadian parliament approving, the government asked King George to declare war on its behalf on 9 September. The next day Canada was at war with Germany. In the week between Britain's and Canada's declarations, the USA had considered Canada to be neutral, sending some war supplies across the border. Canada's independent decision to enter the war, the fulfilment of a much-repeated promise by King, did much to bring a relatively united country into the Second World War.

King then had to withstand a challenge to the war effort in Quebec when, later in September, Premier Maurice Duplessis called a snap election and charged Ottawa with using the conflict as an excuse to pursue centralist policies. Extraordinarily, the federal cabinet ministers from Quebec told the province's voters that they would resign if Duplessis was re-elected. That, they said, would leave Quebec exposed to conscription. The voters listened and elected a Liberal government. In January 1940, by contrast, the Ontario legislature voted to condemn the federal government's lackadaisical war effort. King seized the opportunity to call a snap election of his own for 26 March which he won with 51.5% of the popular vote and a majority of 117 over the combined opposition parties. The Liberal government was in power for the duration.

As important, King had got the election out of the way before the phoney war turned into an Allied disaster. The defeats in Scandinavia, the Low Countries, and France put enormous pressure on the government to step up the war effort, and King responded by personally drafting the National Resources Mobilization Act (NRMA) which he introduced into the House of Commons on 18 June 1940. This act authorized conscription for home defence and called for a national registration. The prime minister pledged again that his government would not implement conscription for overseas service. While there was some opposition in French Canada to the NRMA, the prompt internment of the mayor of Montreal, Camillien Houde, who had urged his compatriots not to register, ended it quickly.

By late 1941, however, there were pressures for ‘total war’ everywhere in the country. At a meeting in November the opposition Conservative Party selected Arthur Meighen, the draftsman of the First World War conscription measure and twice prime minister in the 1920s, to be its leader, and the press began calling for full conscription. Within King's cabinet, his minister of national defence, J. Layton Ralston, and several of his colleagues supported conscription. The attack on Pearl Harbor, the entry of the USA into the war, and the developing threat to the west coast from Japan increased the pressure. But King felt bound by his repeated pledges to Quebec, and his solution was to stage a plebiscite on 27 April 1942 to ask the electorate to release the government from its past commitments restricting methods of raising men for military service. This plebiscite, asking all Canada to release King from promises made to Quebec, outraged French Canadians. A ‘non’ campaign was run by La Ligue pour la défense du Canada that effectively out-organized the feeble ‘oui’ campaign in Quebec. The result saw 72.9% of Quebeckers vote ‘non’, an overwhelming majority of the French-speaking population. Elsewhere in Canada, though the ‘yes’ vote won very large majorities, the French-speaking, German, and Ukrainian populations voted ‘no’ by large margins. King's response, once he had recovered from his shock, was to introduce a bill in parliament to delete the clause in the NRMA restricting the use of conscripts, by now known derogatorily as Zombies, to Canada. But his policy, brilliantly expressed in the phrase, ‘Not necessarily conscription but conscription if necessary’, remained unchanged. Canada still would not send conscripts overseas unless it was necessary; the definition of necessity was nowhere specified.

Not until the autumn of 1944, by which time the Canadian Army was heavily engaged in the Italian and Normandy campaigns, did necessity become an issue. Because of General Staff miscalculations of the numbers of infantry reinforcements, because Canada relied on outdated British ‘wastage’ rates, by October 1944 there was a projected shortage of some 15,000 infantrymen. Expedients had already been tried and failed, and the only source for trained infantry seemed to be the 60,000 NRMA soldiers in Canada. An enormous political crisis erupted in late October and November, one that saw King sack Ralston in one of the most dramatic cabinet confrontations in Canadian history. His replacement was General McNaughton, until late 1943 the General Officer Commanding the First Canadian Army. McNaughton failed to find reinforcements, and his army commanders in Canada were increasingly rebellious. King then used the military's unhappiness as the excuse to reverse course on 22 November: the government now would dispatch 16,000 NRMA infantry overseas. The reaction of Quebec MPs was bitter and public opinion angry at what was seen as a betrayal. But clearly King had delayed the inevitable as long as possible, and the anger died away quickly.

What, after all, could Quebec do? The Conservatives were for all-out conscription and had scarcely any French-speaking supporters; the social-democratic Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) was mistrusted in Quebec; and the francophone Bloc Populaire Canadien, while nationalist in its orientation, was woodenly led. King seemed the only option.

In part that was because the Liberal government had run the war superbly, the question of conscription aside. Quebec received its share of war contracts and prosperity, too. Moreover, the Liberals had announced in September 1943 their intention of creating a social welfare state, largely because the mandarins of the federal financial bureaucracy had concluded that only through government outlays could a post-war return to depression be averted. To some extent, as well, the new government thrust was a response to political pressures. In 1942, the Conservative Party had changed its name to Progressive Conservative, elected a new leader in the Liberal-Progressive Premier of Manitoba, John Bracken, and adopted a programme that included social welfare measures. The CCF, with its firm commitment to welfare policies, was making substantial gains in opinion polls, in federal by-elections, and in provincial elections in Ontario and Saskatchewan. But the Liberals were in power, and beginning in 1944 they moved into action. Family allowances were introduced, offering mothers a cash payment for each child. Through an order in council (PC 1003, 17 February 1944), employees' rights to join and form unions were confirmed and machinery for defining and certifying bargaining units laid out. In effect, Canadian labour had its Magna Carta. At the same time, massive sums were pumped into housing, into the re-establishment of veterans, into export promotion. The government even pledged itself to the goal of full employment early in 1945. Keynesianism had arrived in Canada with a vengeance, and the era of small government was gone. In 1939, the federal budget had been $680 million; by 1945, swollen with war expenditure, it was $5.1 billion, and Ottawa was making clear that it was prepared to spend just as freely in the peace.

At the same time, the country had begun to assert itself in Allied councils. Arguing that Canada had contributed more in certain areas than all but the Great Powers, the department of external affairs, its able staff now headed by Norman Robertson, insisted on and won a seat on some of the Anglo-American Combined Boards (see Combined Chiefs of Staff) and on UNRRA's supply committee. King also played a prominent role in the formation of the United Nations in 1945 (see San Francisco conference), and his people, despite themselves and despite their ambivalence toward their prime minister, were impressed.

Thus when the federal election was held on 11 June 1945, fortuitously after the war in Europe had ended and before Canada's promise of a division for the Pacific war had time to be implemented. King's government was re-elected with 41% of the popular vote and 125 seats, a bare majority. In Quebec, however, King won 53 of 65 seats and, as one academic noted in an election analysis, ‘Quebec Saves Our King’. It was precisely true, though the Liberals did win more seats outside Quebec than any other party.

4. Canada–US relations

Before the outbreak of the Second World War, Canada's diplomatic relations with the USA were, while close, largely limited to economic and boundary matters. Prime Minister King and President Roosevelt were friendly enough, something that helped with the crafting of major trade agreements in 1935 and 1938, but Canada remained a British country, more than a little suspicious of the Yankee power to the south. The war changed all this, forcing Canada and the USA closer together economically, militarily, and politically.

The economic pressure produced by wartime expansion led to substantial increases in imports from the USA and the incorporation of American-made components into munitions and matériel destined for the UK. But the British could not pay for their needs, and Canada's burgeoning trade deficit with the USA was out of control by 1941. The answer was the Hyde Park Declaration of 1941. This resolved the short-term problem but the resulting integration of the two North American economies would never be undone.

The same thing happened with defence. While there had been secret talks between the two countries' Chiefs of Staff before the war, little had been done to prepare continental defences. But the fall of France, coupled with the possibility that the UK might be occupied, obliged the two countries to co-ordinate their efforts. In August 1940, King and Roosevelt met and drafted a plan for a Permanent Joint Board on Defence that began at once to work out plans to defend both the east and west coasts. The two countries worked closely together in fighting the battle of the Atlantic from 1941 on, and plans were made to move US troops into the maritime provinces to meet any Nazi threat. The Japanese threat similarly sped the process in the Pacific, both countries informally co-ordinating their actions with respect to treatment of their citizens of Japanese origin (see Japanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians). More directly, American troops moved into Canada to build the Alaska Highway (see Alaska), a number of weather stations (see also meteorological intelligence), and an oil pipeline in the north. The trend was not one-sided, however. When Japan occupied two islands in the Aleutians, Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squadrons were based in Alaska. In 1943 a Canadian infantry brigade, equipped with US weapons, participated in the attack on Kiska during the Aleutian Islands campaigns. At the same time, Canada provided troops for the First Special Service Force (see USA, 5(f)), which fought in Italy and elsewhere.

There was, however, a certain tension in the military relationship, a fear that the USA had designs on Canada. The Canadian government insisted on paying full value for every American base and fixed installation in Canada at the end of the war, an all-too-obvious effort to eliminate every vestige of an American claim on Canada. None the less, the military links forged during the war remained and they were restored and refurbished when the Cold War began.

Politically, the relations between the two countries also strengthened during the war. The friendship between King and Roosevelt grew, and the American government, while not according Canada a place at the Allied council tables when high strategy was being discussed, paid more attention to Ottawa than did London. Sometimes this caused difficulties, as in 1941 when Free French forces occupied St Pierre and Miquelon and Secretary of State Cordell Hull ordered Canada to evict them, a demand that was ignored. But Churchill and Whitehall all too often still treated Canada like a colony, and the Americans shrewdly used Ottawa's resentment to foster increased links. This was evident in trade matters, for example, where London's parlous financial plight led to restrictions on hard currency imports before the end of the war. Ottawa and Washington reacted similarly to this, and significantly Ottawa imposed the same terms as the USA on the British loan negotiated in 1946.

5. Civil defence and defence forces

At the outbreak of war, the federal government established a civil defence organization in areas it designated as dangerous. Some provincial governments, such as those in Ontario and Saskatchewan, supplemented this service with organizations of their own, and occasionally, as in the latter province, such home guards sniffed out suspect foreigners and verged on vigilantism. By 1943 the federal organization had a strength of some 225,000, including 45,000 women. Nurses, doctors, stretcher-bearers, and rescue squad members formed units in the designated areas and awaited the call which happily never came. In February 1945, except for specified areas in Nova Scotia and, more specifically, British Columbia, where Japanese balloon bombs were posing a minor threat to the province's forests, the organization disbanded.

6. Armed forces

(a) Introduction

Canada's armed forces at the outbreak of war were organized on a British model, including a Chiefs of Staff Committee composed of the heads of the three services. These services were tiny, ill-trained for the most part, and equipped with obsolescent weapons. The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) had a regular force strength of 1,990 officers and ratings, ludicrously small but still double its complement three years before. There were in addition 1,700 reservists. Its fleet consisted of four relatively modern destroyers, two older ones, and four minesweepers. The Permanent Force of the Canadian Army had a strength of 4,261 officers and men, along with 4 modern anti-aircraft guns, 5 mortars, 82 Vickers machine guns, 10 Bren guns, and 2 light tanks. Even trucks were in short supply. The militia numbered some 51,000. Nor was the situation any better for the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Regular force strength was 298 officers and 2,750 airmen and, although it had 270 aircraft of 23 types, only 37 were remotely combat-ready. There were in addition 1,000 reservists organized in seven auxiliary squadrons. It was a slender base on which to build the British Empire Air Training Scheme, which the British requested Canada to start, but the plan became the country's major air contribution to the Allies' victory.

From under 9,000 regulars, the armed forces expanded more than a hundredfold over the course of the war. The navy enlisted 106,522 men and women, the army 730,159, and the air force 249,662. Officers who had never seen a company in the field, let alone commanded one, led divisions in action. Inevitably, there were serious problems in all three services as demands outpaced resources and training, but on the whole the military effort was more than creditable.

Overall, Canadian military casualties were heavy: 42,042 dead, 54,414 wounded, and 8,995 taken prisoner. The direct cost of the war, in monetary terms, was $21.7 billion, a total that does not include pensions or long-term medical care. Was it worth it? Few Canadians, in 1945 or later, would argue that it was not. And they were very proud of their role in the war, something that the world seemed to notice too. At the San Francisco conference in the spring of 1945, a Soviet delegate told a Canadian ‘that there were only four countries that had really fought this war and they were the USSR, the US, the UK, and Canada.’ There was political guile in that Soviet comment, but Canadians wanted to believe it.

(b) Army

The government's policy of ‘limited liability’ declared in September 1939 meant that Canada would fight the war with volunteers and without exerting itself, in the First World War phrase, ‘to the last man and the last dollar’. For a brief period there seemed some doubt that the cabinet would even authorize the dispatch of a division overseas, but on 19 September the people were informed that Canada would raise two divisions, of which one was to be prepared immediately for overseas service. To command this 1st Canadian Division, the government called on McNaughton, a scientific soldier, one who believed in using modern science to keep casualties low. That exactly suited the government which desperately feared high casualties which would inevitably lead to conscription. At the outset there was no shortage of volunteers—54,844 came forward in September, more than enough to get training under way. The first drafts of the 1st Division left Canada for England in December 1939.

The army's expansion proceeded slowly until the fall of France galvanized efforts. Fewer than 35,000 men enlisted between October 1939 and May 1940, but in June and July 60,000 volunteered. In all, 122,000 enlisted in 1940, 94,000 in 1941, 130,000 in 1942, 77,000 in 1943, and 75,000 in 1944. By 1942 the army had defined its overseas plans: a First Canadian Army of two corps incorporating three infantry and two armoured divisions with an additional two armoured brigades. By mid-1943, there were also the equivalent of three divisions defending the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. This was a very substantial force indeed for a small country, and its size greatly troubled the prime minister who continued to fear the effect of casualties on national unity.

But for three years army casualties were light. The 1st Division, training in England, became involved in the débâcle in France only peripherally. After Dunkirk, elements of the division landed in France as part of an effort to re-establish a defence line, but this was quickly abandoned—along with some of the division's equipment. Thereafter the Canadians, soon joined by the 2nd Division and now organized into a corps, shared in the defence of the UK. For a time, the 1st Division was the only well-equipped and trained formation available for this task. But after the likelihood of invasion receded, the Canadians, their numbers always expanding, continued to train.

The hunger for action of the Canadian people was substantial, and that pressure undoubtedly led to the army's two major disasters. In September 1941, Ottawa accepted a request to send troops to Hong Kong, and in late November two infantry battalions and a brigade headquarters arrived there. The Japanese attack on 8 December involved the Winnipeg Grenadiers and the Royal Rifles of Canada in a desperate struggle that ended with surrender on Christmas Day 1941. Of the 1,975 Canadians, 40% were killed or wounded in the fighting; 268 subsequently died after brutal treatment in prisoner-of-war cages in Hong Kong and Japan. The swift Japanese victory—and the stunning speed of Japan's victories throughout the Pacific—caused near panic in British Columbia, led to the enforced evacuation of 23,000 Japanese-Canadians (see also Japanese-Americans) from the coast, and obliged the government to increase substantially its military presence on the Pacific coast.

Even more costly than the Hong Kong débâcle was the Canadian raid on Dieppe on 19 August 1942 which involved 4,963 men of the 2nd Canadian Division. Only 2,211 returned to England, almost half of whom had never been sent ashore, 656 died in the raid, and 1,946 became prisoners-of-war, more than in the whole campaign in north-west Europe after D-Day. But the lessons of Dieppe were said to have played their part in the success of the Sicilian campaign (HUSKY) and OVERLORD, and Canadians were heavily involved in both operations, though General McNaughton, from 6 April 1942 in command of the First Canadian Army, had resisted efforts to divide his force. The Canadians were to be the spearhead pointing at Berlin in his view. But public pressure for action more successful than that at Hong Kong and Dieppe, as well as the obvious necessity to get some officers and men experienced in combat, led the government to overrule McNaughton and to agree to participate in HUSKY.

The 1st Canadian Division, led by Maj-General Simonds, and the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade landed near Pachino on 10 July 1943, and quickly moved inland. The Wehrmacht was not encountered for five days, but then the unblooded troops quickly learned what it meant to face a skilful defence. Operating in difficult terrain, the Canadian advance through the centre of the island was repeatedly slowed by well-planned delaying actions. The most notable of these occurred at Valguarnero (after which Field Marshal Kesselring reported that his troops had encountered ‘Mountain Boys’ trained for Alpine fighting), Leonforte, and Assoro before the division was pulled from the line on 2 August. Casualties in Sicily numbered 2,310, including 562 dead.

Although Ottawa's intention had been that the Canadians would return to the UK once Sicily was taken, the division then participated in the Italian campaign, going ashore at Reggio Calabria on 3 September. It was soon joined by the 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the 1st Canadian Corps HQ under General Crerar. As part of the Eighth Army, the corps participated in the advance up the Italian boot, most notably in the cracking of the German Bernhardt Line which was anchored at the River Moro on the Adriatic, two miles south of Ortona. The 1st Division had the task of taking Ortona, defended by the 90th Light Panzer Grenadiers and the 1st Parachute Division. It took nearly all of December 1943 and some of the most savage fighting of the war, but Ortona fell on 27 December at a cost of 2,339 Canadian officers and men.

Crerar returned to the UK in March 1944 to take over the First Canadian Army and was succeeded by Lt-General Burns. The 1st Division played a major part in the attack on the Gustav Line on 16 May, and the Canadians, fighting for the first time as a corps, cracked the Hitler Line a week later. The Germans' brilliant defence dissolved into a rout that did not stop until well north of Rome. Then the Gothic Line was breached in late August as the 1st Canadian Corps aimed for Rimini. By September 1944 the Canadians had broken through the Apennine barrier, and by December they stood at the River Senio. Now led by Lt-General Foulkes, the corps waited out an appalling winter—and an eventual transfer to join up with the First Canadian Army in the Netherlands. Almost 93,000 Canadians served in Italy and more than a quarter of them became casualties: 5,399 killed, 19,486 wounded, and 1,004 captured.

In north-west Europe the Canadians played a major part in OVERLORD. The 3rd Canadian Division and the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade landed on JUNO Beach, overcoming stiff defences, and some units actually surpassed their D-Day objectives. The first German counter-attacks, launched by the 25th SS Panzer-Grenadier Regiment, then fell heavily on units of the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade on 7 June, and the result was a bloody nose. The untried teenage Germans were better trained than the equally raw Canadians; and German equipment, especially tanks, was better, too. A series of brutal struggles occurred over the next few days, and the Canadians learned everything their training had not taught them: the 3rd Division lost 2,831 casualties in six days. Later during the Normandy campaign the Canadians closed the Falaise pocket and then took the Channel flank of the advance and moved through Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, and into Belgium. There followed the long and wearing battle of the Scheldt Estuary, the Canadians fighting in the mud on both banks of the estuary. Fierce fighting took place on Walcheren Island, where Simonds demonstrated a high degree of tactical innovation, and in the Breskens pocket. The Scheldt was cleared by 3 November, but 6,367 casualties had been the price.

Not until February 1945 did the First Canadian Army go back into action, a respite that greatly eased the pressures in Canada after the conscription crisis of November 1944. With Crerar now commanding thirteen divisions (including British, American, Dutch, and Polish), it was the largest force ever led by a Canadian; its task was to clear the German forces west of the Rhine. Again the fighting took place in dreadful conditions, the Canadian divisions having to clear the Reichswald and Hochwald forests. By the beginning of March the task was complete, and the First Canadian Army, now including the 1st Corps from Italy, crossed the Rhine on 23 March. The final tasks assigned to the Canadians were to liberate the north-eastern and western parts of the Netherlands and occupy the German coast east to the Elbe, and these were accomplished before the German capitulation. Fatal casualties in north-west Europe in eleven months of operations were 11,336.

(c) Navy

The Royal Canadian Navy's major contribution to the war, and arguably the major Canadian contribution to victory, came in the battle of the Atlantic. The war for the convoys pitted the navy's corvettes, manned by prairie farm boys and Toronto clerks and captained by weekend yachtsmen, against Hitler's U-boats. In February 1940, Ottawa placed contracts for 64 corvettes, the first of 122 to be built in Canada. As soon as the little escorts, initially with a 47-man crew, came off the ways they were crewed, worked up, and thrown into the unequal struggle. Initially, training was below standard, and convoy escorts had to learn their trade on the job. Moreover, few Canadian ships had radar, and when they got Canadian-designed and -built sets, they were inadequate. Naval Service Headquarters in Ottawa always seemed to be slow to get new equipment and armament fitted on RCN vessels.

Still, as resources improved, the quality of the naval escort began to rise. By mid-1941, the RCN had assumed responsibility for all convoy escort in the area of Newfoundland. Thus convoys leaving Halifax were escorted by the RCN to a rendezvous point at which the Newfoundland Escort Force took over. At 35° West, ships of the Iceland Escort Force joined, and at 18° West, British-based ships took responsibility. Air cover, provided by RAF Coastal Command and the RCAF was also complete, except for the air gap in the RCN's North Atlantic sector. Advantage still lay with the U-boats, however, as the fate of Convoy SC-42 in September 1941 demonstrated. The convoy's 64 ships were initially protected by one RCN destroyer and three corvettes; two additional corvettes joined while the convoy was under attack by at least eight submarines. Sixteen merchantmen were sunk while the RCN claimed one U-boat. After-action evaluation concluded that the escort had been too small, that group training was inadequate, and that the fundamentals of anti-submarine warfare had yet to be learned.

It took time for those lessons to be mastered. In 1942 the U-boats moved right into the Gulf of St Lawrence, sinking two escorts and fourteen cargo ships in Canadian waters. Ottawa's panicky response was to close the Gulf to shipping for most of the rest of the war, a measure that enormously increased the strain on Canada's rail network and the port of Halifax. The strain was heaviest, of course, on the navy which seemed to be falling further behind in the struggle. After RN assessments showed in November and December 1942 that four-fifths of merchantmen recently sunk had been lost under RCN escort, the hard decision was taken to pull RCN escort groups out of the North Atlantic for re-training on the easier UK–Gibraltar convoy route.

But now the tide turned, as new technology, improved air cover, and better anti-submarine weapons arrived at last. In March 1943, the RCN took over responsibility in a newly created North–West Atlantic Command, west of the meridian 47° West and south to 29° North and quickly established command of the sea in the area. Of the 33 submarines sunk by the RCN, 22 were destroyed after March 1943.

The navy was also doing more than fighting U-boats. RCN destroyers played a major role in the English Channel before and after the Normandy landings. armed merchant cruisers served in the Mediterranean, the Pacific, and the Normandy invasion. In 1944, the RCN operated two aircraft carriers, except for their air crews, and that year and the next it acquired two heavy cruisers. The idea that the RCN, which had begun the war with under 2,000 men, would man 365 ships by 1945, and be the third largest Allied navy, would have been thought simply incredible a few years before. The navy's fatal casualties numbered 2,024 and 24 ships were lost.

(d) Air Force

The Royal Canadian Air Force sent 48 squadrons and 94,000 officers and men overseas. Tens of thousands served in RAF squadrons, most quite happily, but it took enormous pressure on London from the air minister, C. G. Power, to get substantial Canadian formations created. Power's policy of Canadianization succeeded none the less, and there were soon RCAF fighter wings and a bomber group. Fighter pilots fought in the battle of Britain, in Malta, in the Western Desert campaigns, and in north-west Europe; two transport squadrons flew out of Burma; and a Catalina squadron served notably on Ceylon. The RCAF also had responsibility for home defence, notably on the east and west coasts. It also provided fighter squadrons in support of US forces in Alaska.

But it was in the bomber war that Canada made its greatest operational contribution. The RCAF formed its first bomber squadron in June 1941, entirely from Canadians serving with the RAF. The next year, seven more squadrons took to the air, and on 1 January 1943, No. 6 Group of eight squadrons came into being. Based in Yorkshire, a long distance from their targets, the RCAF Group suffered serious teething problems. It flew older Wellington bombers; it had bad luck, and it lost more than a hundred aircraft and crews between March and June 1943; it suffered in consequence from morale problems. Not until the disciplinarian Air Vice-Marshal ‘Black Mike’ McEwen took over command in January 1944, and not until Lancasters and Halifaxes had replaced the Group's Wellingtons, did matters improve. Thereafter the Canadians played their part well. In all, the group's aircraft flew 41,000 operations and dropped 126,000 tons of bombs, one-eighth of Bomber Command's total. The cost was 3,500 dead; another 4,700 RCAF officers and men died in other Bomber Command squadrons. In all, 17,101 members of the RCAF were killed during the war, a number almost exactly equal to the army's combat losses in the European theatre.

7. Intelligence

Canada's overall share in the secret war was small. In 1939 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police provided the country's intelligence and security service, and not very effectively. Its Intelligence Branch consisted of some 20 men across the country and two at HQ; all were obsessed with the communist threat and neglected the dangers posed by Nazi and fascist groups, and supporters of Japan. However, in a clumsy fashion happily mitigated by an appeals procedure that allowed for the correction of mistakes, suspects were swept up and interned in September 1939, June 1940, and December 1941.

The armed forces, tiny and undermanned as they were at the beginning of the war, operated a few listening stations in Ottawa to pick up German communications between South America and Hamburg. Military intelligence officers also kept watch, as in British Columbia where 23,000 Japanese-Canadians lived, on ‘suspect’ elements in the population. As the war progressed, the RCN's signals interception work (see signals intelligence warfare) made a substantial contribution to monitoring U-boat communications, and by 1942 its Operational Intelligence Centre in Ottawa had earned sole charge of the Western Atlantic area.

The key player, however, soon became the Department of External Affairs. In 1940, after the military rejected the idea of establishing a cryptographic bureau on grounds of cost, the department, in co-operation with the National Research Council, established the Examination Unit, so-called because it suggested little to the curious, and hid its modest costs under the NRC's budget. The amateurishness of the operation, which never grew very large, instantly became apparent when Ottawa recruited as the Unit's first head Herbert Yardley, the US cryptographer who in 1931 had published a book that compromised American efforts against Japan. Yardley was persona non grata in Washington and London, and the Examination Unit effectively received nothing from Canada's allies until he was dismissed. His successors came from the British deciphering centre, Bletchley Park, and the unit then did useful work in monitoring Vichy French communications from the legation in Ottawa, the embassy in Washington, and French Indo-China, in deciphering Abwehr traffic from South America, and in reading Japanese wireless communications intercepted by a station at Victoria, BC, including messages that implicated Spanish diplomats in Tokyo's spying. In September 1942, the unit created a Special Intelligence Section to analyse the last product; the section did especially well because its head was E. Herbert Norman, a Canadian diplomat who was one of the leading academic experts on Japan. As the unpublished history of the unit noted, ‘Ottawa grew in three years to the stature of London and Washington in those two fields (French and Japanese) on which we have worked’. That was perhaps a pardonable exaggeration.

The Examination Unit put Canada in close contact with US intelligence agencies, British Security Co-ordination in New York, and Bletchley Park. In effect, the war led Canada into the Allied signals intelligence network, and made it a de facto member of its intelligence community from the beginning of formalized Anglo-American co-operation.

8. Merchant marine

In 1939, Canada had a tiny ocean-going merchant fleet: 37 ships averaging under 6,000 tons and manned by 1,450 seamen. There had been no merchant ship construction during the inter-war years, and there were only a handful of yards capable of building a ship of 10,000-ton capacity. All this changed during the course of the war as shipbuilding accelerated dramatically under the control of a crown corporation, Wartime Shipbuilding Ltd. By July 1943, ships delivered and on order numbered 366 of 10,000 tons and 36 of 4,700 tons. By the end of the war, 410 ships had been delivered, their cost being $692 million. Shipbuilding employed 126,000 men and women.

At sea, the government moved to control the use of this new construction. Another crown corporation, Park Steamship Co. Ltd., was formed in April 1942 to supervise and control the shipment of munitions and supplies; its ships were leased to private companies. At its peak, Park received from the yards and operated 176 vessels, six of which were lost. All the remainder were sold or chartered at the end of the war.

During the war 68 Canadian flag carriers were lost, taking 1,148 seamen to their deaths.

9. Culture

Canada produced no great cultural achievements during the war. Canadian literature in French and English was in its infancy, the native theatre scarcely existed, and little music of note was being written. Aside from some armed forces shows, such as the immensely popular Meet the Navy, what stood out were two areas: war art and documentary films.

Canadian war artists, commissioned and attached to units of all three services, produced a splendid array of oils, water-colours, and sketches. Artists such as Bruno and Molly Lamb Bobak, Charles Comfort, and Alex Colville produced some of their most powerful work, portraits that convey the shock of war on the human spirit, and battlefield studies that capture the impact of modern technology on human flesh. It was all too true to be propaganda.

The National Film Board of Canada, created on 2 May 1939 just before the outbreak of war, and led by its commissioner, the Scottish filmmaker John Grierson, presented open propaganda with brilliant effect. Its astonishing output, efficiently distributed to every corner of the land, glorified Canadians to themselves at the same time as it tried to explain the causes and purposes of the war in which they were involved. Nor were Canada's allies ignored—for example, films on the Soviets' struggle against Hitler were immensely popular. Fulfilling its commissioner's ideas, the NFB also used its short features with didactic intent to crusade for a new, more progressive world in peacetime. If the ideas were sometimes simplistic, the NFB's films undoubtedly had a major impact on Canadians.

J. L. Granatstein

Bibliography

Granatstein, J. L. , Canada's War: The Politics of the Mackenzie King Government, 1939–1945 (2nd edn., Toronto, 1990).
Stacey, C. P. , Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939–1945 (Ottawa, 1970).

CANADA

CANADA. Canada is a vast country touched by three oceans, and it holds within its boundaries prairies, hills, mountains, semidesert and desert country, rocky thin-soiled lands, a multitude of lakes, enormous forests, and Arctic tundra. While the terrain varies greatly, there is a commonality across Canada, and that is the severity of winter. Few European immigrants in Canada's early history were prepared for the cold, and from the beginning, Canadians struggled with the elements for their survival. This was a defining factor in the development of Canadian cuisine. But it is the people of Canada who, more than the land and weather, created Canada's cookery. From the First Nations people to the waves of immigrants from every country in the world, Canada's cuisine became distinctly regional.

Diversity has been a characteristic of Canadian cuisine from the beginning of settlement. In the seventeenth century, the first Europeans in Canada encountered a highly varied population of Native Peoples, for example, hunters and gatherers including the Inuit in the Arctic; agricultural people in parts of southern Quebec and Ontario; buffalo hunters on the plains; and fishermen on the West Coast among the nearly sedentary Pacific North Coastal people.

By the end of the eighteenth century, the dominant groups in Canada were British (particularly English and Scots), French, and American Loyalists. The cuisine that developed during the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century reflected these influences. There were strong overtones of French cookery in Quebec, British influences in English-speaking Canada, and a strong import of culinary culture from the United States. While there were many ethnic groups in Canada by the end of World War II, British-American cookery dominated Canadian cookery. A partial exception to this generalization was the Chinese influence. Peasants from southern China immigrated to "Golden Mountain" (Canada or, more specifically, British Columbia) beginning in the 1850s. Many were employed in construction and the building of the railroad. As with other cultural groups, they were discriminated against, but they introduced Canadians to Chinese cuisine by opening Chinese restaurants in nearly every village and city across Canada.

In spite of the cultural dominance of English-speaking Canadians, other ethnic immigrant groups often settled in regional pockets where they maintained their language and their culinary traditions. Coming from different regions in their home countries, they melded traditions together. For example, in the Ukraine, women made pysanky (eggs decorated with ritualistic symbols) according to their local traditions, but in Canada, they drew designs from many regions of Ukraine. Northern and Southern Italian foods such as pasta and polenta, likewise, were simply "Italian" in Canada.

Until after World War II, ethnic foods were rarely written about in Canadian food magazines or cookbooks, and ethnic recipes were highly modified. In a 1920s community cookbook, for example, a chop suey recipe was a mixture of fried hamburger, rice, tomatoes, and onions, baked for an hour; and spaghetti was cooked meat, spaghetti, onion, butter, green pepper, and canned tomato soup, baked with buttered bread crumbs; both were seasoned only with salt and pepper. In the 1970s the milieu changed when, under the leadership of Pierre Trudeau, Canada adopted a policy of multiculturalism. It then became the fashion to share ethnicity, and the easiest way was through cookery. The foods that ethnic groups had eaten in the privacy of their homes became de rigueur.

After World War II, fast-food eateries and chain restaurants serving inexpensive, mass-produced foods swept across North America. Franchises on the U.S. model were adopted and Canadians quickly developed their own fast food restaurants for hamburgers, fried chicken, and pizza. A favorite fast-food chain is Tim Horton Donuts, a coffee and donut shop. Popular Canadian restaurant chains that developed were "road houses" serving grilled foods and pasta. The Americanization of Canadian foods and foodways was influenced also by food articles in American magazines and by television food shows.

Canadian cuisine is strongly regional in character with American influences. The eating pattern of three meals a day, the popularity of many foods, the importation of fresh produce and manufactured foods, and the eating of particular foods at the feasts of Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter are common denominators of the cuisine of both the United States and Canada. The real difference is the highly visible regional cuisines of Canada, based on the available ingredients and the ethnic groups who settled in these regions. Canadian cuisine cannot be understood without examining these regional traditions.

Newfoundland: A Survival Cuisine

From the early sixteenth century, the huge and lucrative cod fisheries on the coasts surrounding this island province and the Grand Banks offshore attracted fishing vessels manned by Basque, Portuguese, French, and British sailors. Before settlement, these groups salted cod in summer fish-drying camps, and then dried it on "flakes." A product that could keep indefinitely, salt cod was eaten in Europe for centuries. Eventually the English settled in the north and west, followed by the Irish, in St. John's and the east coast, and French along the south shore. Newfoundland's environment is harsh and demanding with deceivingly warm but short summers. The cuisine that developed was simple and entrenched.

Only a few ingredients are needed to make ribsticking, hearty, and soul-satisfying meals. Fish (cod) and root vegetables form the basis of the Newfoundlanders' diet. There is little agriculture on the island, but root vegetables can be grown there, and tiny vegetable garden plots are often found along the roadside on the western coast. Potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, parsnips, and cabbage are mainstays.

In 1992 the cod stocks crashed on the Grand Banks, and a moratorium was placed on commercial fishing in Canadian waters on the Banks. Although a way of life for Newfoundlanders seemed to have been lost, cod remains their favorite food. While the major cod fisheries are still closed, some fish is available on the southern coast, and local inhabitants are allowed to "jig" for cod two weekends a year. When a Newfoundlander says the word "fish," he or she means "cod," which, over the centuries, has been the preferred dish. A fresh cod dinner is Newfoundland comfort food. A thick piece of cod, usually grilled or poached, is served with mashed potatoes, mixed peas and carrots, coleslaw and fluffy white rolls. Delicacies are cod tongues and cheeks, either sautéed or deep-fried. Salt cod is prepared most commonly as fish 'n' brewis (also called "fisherman's brewis"). The salted fish is soaked, shredded, and cooked with dried bread chunks (hardtack) until thick, and schruncheons (fried diced salt pork) with its fat is poured over the mixture.

Pea soup (a thick potage of yellow split peas with diced turnips, carrots, and potatoes) can be traced back to the daily fare of sixteenth-century fishermen—with salt beef added on Sundays. Split peas are also used to make pease pudding by dropping a pudding bag of peas into Jigg's dinner, a boiled dinner of salt beef, onions, potatoes, carrots, and turnips.

To supplement and vary the fish and salt-beef diet, many men hunt partridge, ptarmigan, rabbits, turr (a seabird), moose, caribou, and deer. Moose is preferred only because it will fill the hunter's freezer—and his neighbors'—and last through the winter. A traditional wild-game dish is flipper pie made from seal flippers, carefully prepared and cooked in a pastry. The wilds also provide berries in abundance, eaten fresh and preserved for the long winter, either frozen for pies and other desserts or made into jams. Favorites are blueberries, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, partridgeberries (lignonberries), and yellow baking apples (cloud berries).

More than anything else, Newfoundlanders are known for fun: parties, Newfoundland fiddling, and rum. Screech, a dark rum, was named because American servicemen during World War II found it made them "screech." Those "from away" may undergo a Newfoundland initiation by tossing back Screech and reciting an intonation, always with good humor, and sometimes accompanied by kissing a cod.

The Maritime Provinces: An Entrenched Cuisine

The cuisine of the Maritime provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island (P.E.I.) is a bittersweet one—bitter because so many people were dislocated, either within the Maritimes or because they had to leave their homelands, sweet because the Maritime cuisine was a result. Early migration into the Atlantic provinces generally took place of necessity. Power struggles between France and England led to the forced displacement of the French Acadians in 1755, and American planters took over their rich farmlands. Scattered to many countries, some Acadians returned after 1763, not to their rich farmlands but to less desirable land, or they turned to fishing. Settling in parts of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Quebec, they developed a distinct cuisine in each area: buckwheat pancakes, poutine râpée (dumpling stuffed with salt pork), râpure (grated potato and chicken or seafood pie), fricots (stews), rabbit pies, and many other traditional dishes.

Later in the century, in 1783, United Empire Loyalists, scorned in the United States, made their way into the Maritimes. These American Loyalists brought New England food traditions, popularizing corn in many forms (corn-on-the-cob, johnnycakes, corn puddings, and Anadama or Yankee bread), and the Saturday night custom of baked beans and brown bread. Freed African loyalists and others of African descent also came north. Blacks settling in the Shelburne area brought Southern American cooking: deep-fat frying, barbecued meat, the use of corn meal and hominy, pork, rice, and fish. Germans left for Lunenberg, Nova Scotia, in 1753 and contributed Solomon Gundy (pickled herring), soused eels, and sauerkraut. Scots in Cape Breton brought oat cakes and porridge bread. These early settlers created distinct regional cuisines. But the one traditional meal common to the Maritimes is Dutch mess, also called hugger-in-buff, fish and schrunchions, or house bankin, depending upon where one lives. Salt cod is soaked, then cooked; potatoes are boiled in the fish broth; salt pork and onions are fried, vinegar and cream added and poured over the cod and potatoes. The next day, leftovers are mashed and made into fish cakes.

The abundant fish and shellfish were the key ingredients defining early Maritime cuisine, and they continue to do so today. These seafoods, along with root vegetables, dried peas, cabbage, and trade goods from Britain formed the basic components used in early eastern Canadian cookery. Early English colonists were dependent upon Great Britain for food, and these supplies grew into a thriving trade of tea, sugar, spices (ginger was a favorite), and dried fruits. The triangular trade between England, New England, and the Caribbean brought molasses, rum, and ginger from the Caribbean. Halifax, the early center of British social life, retains a distinct English character. Gaily signed pubs serve meat pies and fish and chips. British dishes linger—roast beef with York-shire pudding, trifle, and gingerbread.

Each Maritime province has vast coastal areas, and cod is common to all. Products of the sea vary somewhat in each province. Prince Edward Island is associated with lobster fisheries, aqua-cultured blue mussels, Malpeque oysters, and Irish moss. Nova Scotia is known for Digby scallops and dulse (a reddish seaweed). New Brunswick fishes for Fundy salmon, smelt, trout, and shad. Samphire greens (eaten locally) are harvested from the shores of each of these provinces. In countryside Nova Scotia, roadside "canteens," one-room buildings, sell some of the region's best seafood: lobster or clam rolls, fried scallops, or fried fish—all seafoods cooked fresh from the sea.

The harvest from the land is also regional. Nova Scotia is known for its Annapolis Valley apple orchards, New Brunswick for its maple syrup and wild chanterelles, and P.E.I. for its potatoes. New Brunswick fiddleheads from the Ostrich fern are a gourmet delicacy picked in early spring before the fronds open, and are cooked as a vegetable.

By the early 1800s, established food traditions had become associated with a way of life, and to a great extent, have remained impervious to change. Even the large migrations of ethnic groups after World War II were insufficient to displace these three-hundred-year-old culinary traditions.

Quebec: A Distinct Cuisine

Quebecois consider themselves a distinct society, and this is reflected in their cuisine. Restaurant menus are written in French, and the cuisine is distinctly French, but with a difference: most of all, the love of—even obsession with—good food and its celebration, the use of flavorful sauces, the elaboration of courses, the use of fresh ingredients, and the respect for their chefs. The first European settlers in Canada in the early seventeenth century were French. They maintained close ties with their mother country until after the English conquest in the mid-eighteenth century. At that time, communication with France was cut off.

Thus, many traditional Quebec dishes resemble those prepared in medieval and early Renaissance France. Well-known favorites across Quebec are cretons (a rich pork pâté), tourtière (meat pie), ragoût de pattes et de boulettes (pigs' feet and meatball stew), les cipaille or cipâte (baked casserole made by layering pastry with meat, poultry, and/or seafood), and galettes de sarrasin (buckwheat pancakes). A hearty fare, originally cooked for fishermen, farmers, and loggers, they are today reserved for family gatherings and holidays.

The abundance of wild game and the land available to provide forage for it probably influenced Quebec's cuisine more than any other factor. This provided ordinary settlers with meat and gave them an equality with royalty unknown to the seventeenth-century French peasant. Indeed, in France at that time, food was frequently scarce. It is not surprising that the Quebecois' diet was rich in meat, poultry, and fish and that regional dishes were made with these ingredients.

Although maintaining their French heritage, the Quebecois incorporated ingredients and dishes from other cultures. From the beginning, the French had close ties with aboriginal peoples whose culture dictated that they share game and fish with their friends. The Native Peoples showed them the edible wild flora and fauna, and the French were quick to incorporate wild game, berries, and maple sugar into their diet. It should be noted that corn, beans, and squash had already been introduced into France before Quebec was colonized, and potatoes are thought to have been introduced by the British. American Loyalists and British immigrants after 1755 also influenced Quebec cookery; the French especially liked sweet British desserts, many of them made with molasses. Cultural influences continue today as with the Middle Eastern innovation mechoui, a popular party at which a whole animal is barbecued, usually wild game like buffalo or wild boar. Quebec cities, like other Canadian centers, have a multicultural character. This is especially true of Montreal, where there are more French-speaking immigrants than in other major Canadian cities: Haitians, Lebanese, and Vietnamese have all influenced Quebec's cookery, particularly in their family-owned restaurants and their ingredients in small grocery stores. Moreover, Montreal's population contains a mix of people speaking a multitude of languages who have contributed their foodways to the cultural mix of this city.

Quebec's cuisine is a highly regional one. The Institut de Tourisme et d'Hôtellerie du Québec has identified at least seventeen gastronomical regions within the province and has searched out more than 30,000 regional recipes. In the Gaspé, for instance, salt is used liberally and salmon layered with pastry is their version of cipâte. People from the Lac Saint-Jean area are called "les Bluets" (blueberries), and these berries are made into grandpères (dumplings cooked in blueberry sauce) or a blueberry cipaille. Gourgane beans brought from Europe are unique to this area and are often made into soupe aux gourganes, a filling bean, barley, and vegetable potage.

Today, young Quebec-trained chefs search out local ingredients, experiment with them, and to some extent are turning to France for inspiration. Artisanal breads, soft cheeses, goat cheeses, Normandy-style apple cider, local wines, organically grown vegetables, white asparagus, fresh herbs (especially summer savory), wild mushrooms, rabbits, caribou, and wild game birds are some of the ingredients finding their way onto the Quebec table. The Quebec diet is changing but the accent remains distinctly French Quebec.

Ontario: A Dynamic Cuisine

The French and then the British and, shortly thereafter, American Loyalist immigrants had close contact with members of the Iroquoian tribes. From these original farming inhabitants, the immigrants learned how to plant corn, beans, squash, Jerusalem artichokes, and sunflowers, and to tap the maple trees for their sweet sugar. In the early days of settlement, wild game and fresh fish from the streams and the many lakes in Ontario were plentiful. The French left little impact upon Ontario's cuisine, but the English foodways became dominant: their style of eating and especially their love of sweets, roasted beef and pork, cooked root vegetables, white bread, and tea. One of the first tasks the settlers had was to build grist mills to grind wheat for their cakes and breads. They found the farmland in southern Ontario to be fertile, and most of the crops from their homelands flourished. Dairy herds were established, which led in the nineteenth century to a significant trade in cheddar cheese with England and the popularity of this cheese in Ontario.

There were two influential groups who came north with the Loyalists at the end of the eighteenth century. The Iroquois under the leadership of Joseph Brant settled near Brandford to form the Six Nations. An agricultural people, they grew the "Three Sisters"—corn, beans, and squash—and reinforced the growth and use of these crops in Ontario. The other group was the Pennsylvania German Mennonites who took up farming in the Waterloo area. When the Ontario Mennonites chose their food preparations from the Pennsylvania German recipe repertoire, a difference appeared. While the recipes they loved best were still distinctly Mennonite, the choices of foods changed. In Ontario, they are known for summer sausages, Nusschinken (cool-smoked ham), smoked pork chops, Koch Käse (a runny cooked whey cheese flavored with caraway seed, smeared on bread with apple butter), shoofly pie made with maple syrup, Dutch apple pie, doughnuts, and mint tea.

In the nineteenth century, southern Ontario was the terminus of the "underground railroad," offering shelter to American blacks escaping slavery. They brought Southern American cookery to Ontario. Irish, Scots, English, and other groups streamed into Ontario during this century, reinforcing British cuisine. Rutabagas (called turnips) were standard winter fare. Steamed carrot pudding became a Christmas tradition. China tea cups were given to brides, and the prescribed wedding cake was a dark fruit cake.

Some ethnic groups entering Ontario in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries formed communities around Ontario: the Poles in Wilno, the Portuguese in Strathroy, the Italians in Guelph, the Scots in the Renfrew valley near Ottawa, the Finns in Thunder Bay, and Ukrainians and Eastern Europeans in Hamilton. This is not to say that myriad cultural groups are not found in these areas; the point is that in these areas, the home cuisine and the language of these settlers was maintained.

Coming primarily from politically troubled parts of the world, approximately 175,000 immigrants annually enter Canada. Of these, about half locate in Ontario, the majority moving into the Toronto area. Immediately after World War II came Italians, Eastern Europeans, British war brides, and many others. In the 1970s, after Canada's newly entrenched multicultural policy, immigrants streamed in from Hong Kong, Vietnam, Somalia, Ethiopia, Croatia, Serbia, India, Sri Lanka, the Middle East, and other countries. Ontario had long served up a meat, potato, and root vegetable table, but the influx of new people and their culinary traditions meant a developing and rapidly changing gastronomy in Ontario, led by Toronto.

Toronto, the most culturally diverse city in Canada, is a reflection of Canadian multiculturalism in the makeup of its population and in its cuisine. There are five Chinatowns in the Toronto area, most recently settled by affluent Chinese from Hong Kong, and Chinese restaurants represent every region in China. Upscale restaurants serve Italian, Portuguese, Greek, Indian, Lebanese, Caribbean, and American cuisine, but the neighborhood dining spots are the best places to find the comfort food of nearly every nation in the world and at a reasonable price.

As a result of this diversity, Ontario is somewhat fragmented in its cuisine, but people in Ontario pride themselves on a receptivity to the flavors of the world. Hoisin sauce, garam masala, baba ghanoush, phyllo pastry, flat breads, tzatziki, pierogies, rice and beans, Jamaican meat patties, and espresso are, if not daily fare, part of Ontario's food repertoire.

The Prairies: Bread and Beef

Traveling west through the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, seemingly endless fields of wheat dominate the landscape. The wheat belt runs through all three prairie provinces, and wheat is an important economic export. Canadian cuisine has been affected by this bountiful crop since it was first planted on the Prairies in the last half of the nineteenth century. Canadians have a history of baking. In 1913 Five Roses Flour Company published a cookbook of recipes collected from women across Canada. By 1915 this book was found in 950,000 or nearly half of the homes in Canada. In addition to bread and pastry flours, durum wheat that is made into semolina flour for making pastas is grown here.

Prairie history, however, was not one of farming. Native Americans who dominated the plains lived primarily on buffalo, which they preserved by drying and mixing it with buffalo fat and berries, usually Saskatoon berries, and storing the mixture, known as pemmican, in containers made of buffalo skin. French and Scottish voyagers of the fur trade were provisioned with pemmican by Native People, and early settlers relied upon it. When overhunting led to the demise of the huge buffalo herds, beef took its place. A favored method of beef cookery is grilling, and some cook it outdoors year round. For community barbecues, a hole is dug with a backhoe large enough for several cords of wood and an entire beef animal. After twelve hours of underground cooking, the beef is sliced and served with baked beans, fresh breads, salads, pickles and relishes, pies and cakes. Calgary, the home of the Canadian cowboy, glorifies the chuck wagon at "stampede," the annual rodeo. Chuck wagon races are an awaited event; the wagons dash pell-mell around a circle and at the finish line the cowboy "cook" must be the first to light the campfire. Chuck wagon expressions humorously included "baked wind pills" (baked beans), "CPR (Canadian Pacific Railroad) strawberries" (prunes), "dough-gods" (dumplings), "paperweights" (hot biscuits), and "yesterday, today and forever" (hash).

Until the 1950s, British settlers strongly influenced prairie cuisine. Stews, roast beef with Yorkshire pudding, and cakes named after British royalty (Prince of Wales, Prince Albert, King George and King Edward cakes) were popular. Today, Alberta is dotted with English tea houses, in as unlikely locations as a grain elevator.

While British cookery dominated the great wave of immigration (over a million) in the early part of the twentieth century, immigrant groups did not sacrifice their culinary traditions. Russian Mennonites settling in Manitoba, Icelandic immigrants in Grimli, Manitoba, Hutterites in Alberta, and the French who came early in settlement, particularly in Winnipeg, continued to cook their favorite recipes, as had their families before them.

Ukrainians, however, influenced prairie cookery. From the time they arrived at the end of the nineteenth century, they brought with them a tradition of wheat farming and cuisine. Mothers taught daughters the ancient art of making traditional breads and pysanky. They introduced varenyky or pierogies (flour-based rounds of dough stuffed with a unique Canadian potato and cheddar cheese mixture), stuffed cabbage rolls, psyrizhky (baked stuffed buns), and paska (Easter bread).

Newer immigration waves have made their mark on Prairie cuisine, particularly in the cities. In Winnipeg there is the largest Philippine population outside of that country. West Indian roti shops, Middle Eastern foods, and other ethnic foods add to the culinary flavors of Winnipeg, Edmonton, Saskatoon, and Calgary.

British Columbia: Aboriginal, English, Chinese, and California Fusion

Because of settlement patterns in British Columbia, Canada's westernmost province, its cuisine is different from the rest of Canada. The aboriginal people included many bands of North Coastal and Interior Coastal Peoples living in small villages along the Pacific Ocean and in the interior mountainous areas. By the 1860s there was a genteel English colony on Vancouver Island enjoying garden parties and afternoon tea. Chinese laborers arrived in the last half of the nineteenth century, and in addition to opening restaurants, frequently became cooks in English homes. In the twentieth century, the Californian free-spirited cookery spread up the coast, espousing the use of fresh local ingredients and healthy cooking, including vegetarianism. Many other cultural groups added to this mix but the dominant cuisine is Aboriginal, English, Chinese, and Californian.

As the cuisine in British Columbia developed, locally grown or harvested ingredients from land and sea respectively were adopted by all groups and each modified them according to their backgrounds. The Pacific harvest focuses on salmon: coho, chinook, pink, chum, and red sockeye salmon. Halibut, black cod, lingcod, tuna, rockfish, and eulachon are also favored fish. Shellfish include crabs (especially Dungeness) oysters, scallops, shrimp, prawns, abalone, and many varieties of clams. Agricultural areas in the beginning were developed in the Fraser River delta, supplying produce for Victoria and Chinese vegetables for early Chinese immigrants. Further inland, microclimates characterize the agricultural areas of the Okanagan and Similkimen Valleys, the fruit-growing regions of British Columbia. This climate is ideal for viticulture, and some grapes left on the vine until January are made into Eiswein. Soapberries, thimble-berries, salmonberries, huckleberries, and many other berries are harvested from the wild, as are pine mushrooms growing in evergreen forests.

The first inhabitants who influenced British Columbian cookery were the North Coast Native Peoples. Salmon was and continues to be their primary foodstuff: it is baked, poached, barbecued, and smoked. Family smokehouses are common in the coastal villages. Women also preserve salmon by canning for times when it is not in season. Eulachon oil and herring eggs are prized foods. Eulachon, a small oily fish (also called "candle fish" because when dried it can be lighted), can be eaten fried or baked, but is prized more for its oil, used as a dip for foods and as a seasoning. Spruce boughs are placed in the ocean water and become a spawning site for herring. The branches are harvested with the eggs still clinging to them and are then dried. It is not uncommon to see these boughs drying on the sides of houses. Roots were gathered in the past but are not as commonly used today with the exception of roasted camas bulbs. Indian ice cream is made by whipping the indigenous soapberries into a froth. These local ingredients still dominate aboriginal cooking, particularly since food must be brought to many native villages by ferry. However, the overall cuisine of the Native Peoples has been affected by Canadian culinary culture and their daily menus are as likely to include pizza, burgers, donuts and coffee, stews, pies and cakes as that of any other Canadian. But they value their distinct culinary traditions.

Victoria on Vancouver Island, more than any other Canadian city, has a decidedly English character. Afternoon tea is still a tradition, and locally brewed ales can be found at English-style pubs. In the warm climate (by Canadian standards), growers around Victoria are able to successfully harvest such fruits as kiwi and figs. Their small farms are often organic, and herbs are grown year-round.

Vancouver, the largest city in British Columbia, although multicultural, has a character all its own. Here there are English, Chinese, Pacific Coast Native, Italian, and Japanese, as well as Californian influences. The Chinese influence is strongest in Vancouver. The Chinese community demands fresh produce and fish—evident in Vancouver food stores. Chinese vegetables such as gai lohn have long been grown in the Fraser River delta. Live fish and shellfish from the Pacific are kept in tanks (goe-duck clams, Dungeness crabs, and rockfish). Recent wealthy immigrants from Hong Kong created a demand for imported Chinese foods and medicines such as ginseng (grown commercially in British Columbia and Ontario), dried abalone, shark's fin, and bird's nest.

Young, well-trained chefs are combining this cooking in various adaptations, creating a fusion cuisine. These young people revere local ingredients, ethnic ideas and styles, organically grown foods, herbs, edible flowers, whole grains, and enjoy the good life.

The North: Finding Food for Survival

Canada's agricultural belt as well as its population is concentrated in approximately the lower one-third of its land mass. The "North" includes the territories of the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and the newest territory, Nunavut. For purposes of describing the regional cuisines of Canada, the forest land south of the tundra and north of the agricultural belt are also included, as are parts of the Prairie provinces, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador.

Indigenous ingredients distinguish the cuisine of northern Canada from other regions. Because food supplies are difficult to transport, there is more of an emphasis upon local foods than in southern Canada. Caribou, muskoxen, moose, deer, ptarmigan, and arctic char are hunted or fished. Today aboriginal people supply wild game to restaurants and the luxury market, particularly caribou, muskoxen, and arctic char. Migratory ducks and geese provide variety to the larder in the fall. Berries grow profusely—blueberries, partridge berries, cranberries, and black currants are made into pies, preserves, jellies, and sauces. These foods all have local habitats—not all are found in every part of Canada's north.

The aboriginal population comprises about twothirds of the northern population. Before European settlement, the Inuit occupied the Arctic, that is, the tundra beyond the tree line that encompasses the northern third of Canada's land mass. The aboriginal tribes of the Mackenzie and Yukon River basins and the Northern Cree occupy the northern wooded areas. Before contact with Europeans, these Peoples of the First Nations were self-sufficient and lived seasonally, either following herds of caribou or moving from place to place where food could be found. Their diet was rich in protein, with plant materials making up an estimated five percent of their food. This diet was healthy and supplied all their nutritional needs. In the twentieth century, attempts to assimilate Native Peoples into white society changed the native culture dramatically. Many were moved to permanent settlements (especially the Inuit) and were no longer able to resume their migratory food patterns. They began to live on foods that could be transported into their villages, usually by plane. These foods were much different from their traditional diet. Carbohydrates were introduced, particularly white flour and refined sugar. Manufactured foods like potato chips and soft drinks became popular, especially because the traditional pattern was to eat when hungry rather than at set mealtimes. Rich in fat and starch, these new foods were detrimental to the health of Native Peoples, leading to diabetes and other dietary diseases. While there is a trend among Native Peoples to return to their traditional diet, permanent settlements make this difficult.

The largest white settlements in the north are in the Yukon and Northwest Territories. Dawson and Whitehorse were settled during the gold rush, and Yellowknife was established as the capital of the Northwest Territories. The Yukon today has predominately British roots. The center of the gold rush beginning in 1897, Dawson drew miners, honky-tonk girls, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). To prevent starvation, miners were required to pack in a year's supply of food before they were allowed into the territory. Provisions were basic and affected the cuisine of the territory: beans, flour, dried fruit, sugar, bacon, and tea were common items. Wild game supplemented their plain diets, but if they struck it rich they could buy luxury foods such as chocolate, champagne, and fresh eggs. Prospectors became known as "sour-doughs" because they craved white bread so much they baked it in their camps. Legend has it that they kept the yeast starter alive by carrying it in their armpits when traveling in the bitter cold.

Today procurement of food for the north still requires a great deal of planning. Winter is unpredictable, and even where there are logging trails or water access to northern communities, food supplies are sometimes delayed. Nearly any food can be shipped in by air, but that option is expensive. With modern communications with the rest of the world, there is demand for many more food products, especially in increasingly popular luxury fly-in hunting and fishing lodges. Overall, diets in the North are simpler than elsewhere, but definitely Canadian in style.

From coast to coast, diverse regional cuisines dominate Canadian cooking. Canadians today value their ethnic origins highly and take pride in preserving their culture, particularly their cuisine. Overlying these regional cuisines is a dominant North American influence, which is not surprising since there was American immigration into Canada early in its history, the language is understood by most Canadians, and the cultural influence of the media has brought trends and new foods to Canada. Canadians also take advantage of fruits and vegetables grown south of the border that lend variety to winter meals. One cannot say that there is a national cuisine, as there is in Mexico, but one must experience and enjoy the diverse regional cuisines of Canada, which together create a diversity of foodways that reflect Canadian society.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aitken, Julia, and Anita Stewart. The Ontario Harvest Cookbook: An Exploration of Feasts and Flavours. Toronto: Macmillan, 1996.

Armstrong, Julian. A Taste of Quebec. Toronto: Macmillan, 1990.

Barer-Stein, Thelma. You Eat What You Are: People, Culture and Food Traditions. 2nd ed. Toronto: Firefly Books, 1999.

Canadian Historical Association. Canada's Ethnic Groups, series of booklets. Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association, 1982–1991.

Driver, Elizabeth. A Bibliography of Canadian Cookbooks (1825–1949). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, forthcoming.

Ferguson, Carol, and Margaret Fraser. A Century of Canadian Home Cooking: 1900 through the '90s. Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice Hall, 1992.

Five Roses Cook Book. Montreal: Lake of the Woods Milling Co., 1913.

Institut de Tourisme et d'Hôtellerie du Québec. Cuisine du Québec. Montreal: Les Éditions TransMo, 1985.

Lafrance, Marc, and Yvon Desloges. A Taste of History: The Origins of Québec's Gastronomy. Montreal: Les Éditions de la Chenelière, 1989.

Nightingale, Marie. Out of Old Nova Scotia Kitchens. New York: Scribners, 1971.

Ontario Historical Society. Consuming Passions: Eating and Drinking Traditions in Ontario. Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1990.

Powers, Jo Marie, ed. Buon appetito! Italian Foodways in Ontario. Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 2000.

Powers, Jo Marie, ed. From Cathay to Canada: Chinese Cuisine in Transition. Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1998.

Powers, Jo Marie, and Anita Stewart, eds. Northern Bounty: A Celebration of Canadian Cuisine. Toronto: Random House of Canada, 1995.

Stechishin, Savella. Traditional Ukrainian Cookery. Winnipeg: Trident Press, 1957.

Stewart, Anita. The Flavours of Canada: A Celebration of the Finest Regional Foods. Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 2000.

Turner, Nancy J. Food Plants of Interior First Peoples. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997.

Jo Marie Powers

The Order of Good Cheer

The small band of French explorers at Port Royal, Nova Scotia, anticipated the winter of 1606 with dread. The previous winter many of their men had died from a mysterious "land-sickness." The illness was thought to be caused by ill-temper, idleness, and discontent. Samuel de Champlain, a member of the band, founded L'ordre de bon temps (the Order of Good Cheer) to prevent the illness. The object of the society was to go hunting and fishing for wild game and seafood that could be served up in a series of feasts held throughout the winter.

The feasting was met with great enthusiasm by Chief Henri Membertou and his Mi'kmaq followers, who joined the hunting forays and were invited to the grand dinners. It was the custom of the Mi'kmaq to share their food with whoever was in the vicinity, and the French reciprocated this generosity. The variety of raw ingredients for their meals was extensive—venison, moose, beaver, ducks and geese, salmon and trout caught through the ice, scallops, cockles, sea urchin, crabs, and lobster. In addition to these foods, there was plenty of wine and provisions from France.

Although we do not know the dishes prepared for the feasts, the gentlemen in the group were accustomed to sophisticated food. Champlain had been a visitor to the court of Henry IV; one of the men wrote in his diary that their food was as good as roastmeats from the cook shops of Paris. As well, Champlain kept stocked fish ponds near the Habitation.

The Order did help to fend off the illness (scurvy) during the winter. More than anything else, however, the lasting benefit of the dinners was an enduring friendship between the Mi'kmaq and the French. As others have found, the dining table is much better than a negotiating table for mediating conflicts between cultures. The spirit of the Order of Good Cheer is a culinary legacy to Canadians.

Poor Man's Fare

Pâté à la râpure (or rappie pie, the English name) is a traditional Acadian dish with its roots in the frugality of French women. After the British victory in Nova Scotia in the late eighteenth century, some families who had been expelled from the fertile Annapolis Valley returned, but to fishing or to farming marginal land. Times were extremely hard, but they were able to cultivate potatoes—and the men liked their white shirts starched. The women made starch by grating potatoes, squeezing out the starch, and boiling the white shirts in the extract. Since they couldn't waste the potato gratings, they put them into a pan with lobster or fish and baked this mixture. The result, distinctly different from sliced and baked potatoes, was a gelatinous, translucent mixture flavored with seafood, called râpure. Today the tradition continues and, although they still squeeze out the starch to give râpure its distinct character, the starch is seldom used for stiffening white shirts.

Cabin au sucre

Where the sugar maples grow in Quebec, there will be "sugar shacks." From the beginning of settlement, colonists tapped the clear maple sap to produce sugar for the year's use as a sweetener. "Spiles," originally wooden tubes with sharpened ends and now metal tubes with hooks for buckets or tubing, were placed in holes drilled into the sugar maple trees. When the nights were cold and days warm, the sap flowed. In the old days, horses hauled tubs of the clear liquid to a covered shed where the sap was boiled down day and night. It took thirty to forty buckets of sap to produce one bucket of golden maple syrup. Men and boys stayed for weeks in the bush tending the fires and watching the syrup so that it would not burn. Today, when one drives through Quebec in the early spring before the snow melts, buckets adorning maple trees and smoke billowing from the bush are a common sight. From this, today's cabin au sucre, or sugar shack, has become a Quebec feature that anyone can enjoy. City folk today flock to the cabins au sucre to feast on maple-drenched dishes, to dance, and to drink. Outdoors, children are treated to la tire, syrup boiled down to a taffy and hardened on snow, and horses draw wagons of fun-seekers into the bush to view the miles of plastic tubing collecting the clear sap—Quebec "gold."

Canada , independent nation (2001 pop. 30,007,094), 3,851,787 sq mi (9,976,128 sq km), N North America. Canada occupies all of North America N of the United States (and E of Alaska) except for Greenland and the French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. It is bounded on the E by the Atlantic Ocean, on the N by the Arctic Ocean, and on the W by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. A transcontinental border, formed in part by the Great Lakes, divides Canada from the United States; Nares and Davis straits separate Canada from Greenland. The Arctic Archipelago extends far into the Arctic Ocean.

Canada is a federation of 10 provinces— Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , Quebec , Ontario , Manitoba , Saskatchewan , Alberta , and British Columbia —and three territories— Nunavut , the Northwest Territories , and Yukon . Canada's capital is Ottawa and its largest city is Toronto . Other important cities include Montreal , Vancouver , Edmonton , Calgary , Winnipeg , Hamilton , and Quebec .

Land

Canada has a very long and irregular coastline; Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St. Lawrence indent the east coast and the Inside Passage extends along the west coast. The straits between the islands of N Canada form the Northwest Passage , but until the 21st century the passage was ice-clogged year-round. During the Ice Age all of Canada was covered by a continental ice sheet that scoured and depressed the land surface, leaving a covering of glacial drift, depositional landforms, and innumerable lakes and rivers. Aside from the Great Lakes, which are only partly in the country, the largest lakes of North America—Great Bear, Great Slave, and Winnipeg—are entirely in Canada. The St. Lawrence is the chief river of E Canada. The Saskatchewan, Nelson, Churchill, and Mackenzie river systems drain central Canada, and the Columbia, Fraser, and Yukon rivers drain the western part of the country.

Canada has a bowl-shaped geologic structure rimmed by highlands, with Hudson Bay at the lowest point. The country has eight major physiographic regions—the Canadian Shield, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, the Western Cordillera, the Interior Lowlands, the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachians, the Arctic Lowlands, and the Innuitians.

The exposed portions of the Canadian Shield cover more than half of Canada. This once-mountainous region, which contains the continent's oldest rocks, has been worn low by erosion over the millennia. Its upturned eastern edge is indented by fjords. The Shield is rich in minerals, especially iron and nickel, and in potential sources of hydroelectric power. In the center of the Shield are the Hudson Bay Lowlands, encompassing Hudson Bay and the surrounding marshy land.

The Western Cordillera, a geologically young mountain system parallel to the Pacific coast, is composed of a series of north-south tending ranges and valleys that form the highest and most rugged section of the country; Mt. Logan (19,551 ft/5,959 m) is the highest point in Canada. Part of this region is made up of the Rocky Mts. and the Coast Mts., which are separated by plateaus and basins. The islands off W Canada are partially submerged portions of the Coast Mts. The Western Cordillera is also rich in minerals and timber and potential sources of hydroelectric power.

Between the Rocky Mts. and the Canadian Shield are the Interior Lowlands, a vast region filled with sediment from the flanking higher lands. The Lowlands are divided into the prairies, the plains, and the Mackenzie Lowlands. The prairies are Canada's granary, while grazing is important on the plains.

The smallest and southernmost region is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, Canada's heartland. Dominated by the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, the region provides a natural corridor into central Canada, and the St. Lawrence Seaway gives the interior cities access to the Atlantic. This section, which is composed of gently rolling surface on sedimentary rocks, is the location of extensive farmlands, large industrial centers, and most of Canada's population. In SE Canada and on Newfoundland is the northern end of the Appalachian Mt. system, an old and geologically complex region with a generally low and rounded relief.

The Arctic Lowlands and the Innuitians are the most isolated areas of Canada and are barren and snow-covered for most of the year. The Arctic Lowlands comprise much of the Arctic Archipelago and contain sedimentary rocks that may have oil-bearing strata. In the extreme north, mainly on Ellesmere Island, is the Innuitian Mt. system, which rises to c.10,000 ft (3,050 m).

Canada's climate is influenced by latitude and topography. The Interior Lowlands make it possible for polar air masses to move south and for subtropical air masses to move north into Canada. Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes act to modify the climate locally. The Western Cordillera serves as a climatic barrier that prevents polar air masses from reaching the Pacific coast and blocks the moist Pacific winds from reaching into the interior. The Cordillera has a typical highland climate that varies with altitude; the western slopes receive abundant rainfall, and the whole region is forested. The Interior Lowlands are in the rain shadow of the Cordillera; the southern portion has a steppe climate in which grasses predominate. S Canada has a temperate climate, with snow in the winter (especially in the east) and cool summers. Farther to the north, extending to the timberline, is the humid subarctic climate characterized by short summers and a snow cover for about half the year. The huge boreal forest, the largest surviving remnant of the extensive forests that once covered much of North America, predominates in this region. On the Arctic Archipelago and the northern mainland is the tundra, with its mosses and lichen, permafrost, near-year-round snow cover, and ice fields. A noted phenomenon off the coast of E Canada is the persistence of dense fog, which is formed when the warm air over the Gulf Stream passes over the cold Labrador Current as the two currents meet off Newfoundland.

People

About 28% of the Canadian population are of British descent, while 23% are of French origin. Another 15% are of other European background, about 26% are of mixed background, 6% are of Asian, African, or Arab descent, and some 2% are of aboriginal or Métis (mixed aboriginal and European) background. In the late 1990s, Canada had the highest immigration rate of any country in the world, with more than half the total coming from Asia, and immigration has continued to contribute significantly to the nation's population growth. Over 75% of the total population live in cities. Canada has complete religious liberty, though its growing multiculturalism has at times caused tensions among ethnic and religious groups. About 43% of the people are Roman Catholics, while some 23% are Protestant (the largest groups being the United Church of Canada and Anglicans). English and French are the official languages, and federal documents are published in both languages. In 2001, about 59% of Canadians cited English as their mother tongue, while 23% cited French.

Economy

Since World War II the development of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has led to the creation of an affluent society. Services now account for 68.5% of the GDP, while industry accounts for 29%. Tourism and financial services represent some of Canada's most important industries within the service sector. Manufacturing, however, is Canada's single most important economic activity. The leading products are transportation equipment, chemicals, processed and unprocessed minerals, processed foods, wood and paper products, fish, petroleum, natural gas, electrical and electronic products, printed materials, machinery, and clothing. Industries are centered in Ontario, Quebec, and, to a lesser extent, British Columbia and Alberta. Canada's industries depend on the country's rich energy resources, which include hydroelectric power, petroleum (including extensive oil sands), natural gas, coal, and uranium.

Canada is a leading mineral producer, although much of its mineral resources are difficult to reach due to permafrost. It is the world's largest source of nickel, zinc, and uranium, and a major source of lead, asbestos, gypsum, potash, tantalum, and cobalt. Other important mineral resources are petroleum, natural gas, copper, gold, iron ore, coal, silver, diamonds, molybdenum, and sulfur. The mineral wealth is located in many areas; some of the most productive regions are Sudbury, Ont. (copper and nickel); Timmins, Ont. (lead, zinc, and silver); and Kimberley, British Columbia (lead, zinc, and silver). Petroleum and natural gas are found in Alberta and Saskatchewan.

Agriculture employs some 2% of the population and contributes a similar percentage of the GDP. The sources of the greatest farm income are livestock and dairy products. Among the biggest income-earning crops are wheat, barley, rapeseed (canola), tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. Canada is one of the world's leading agricultural exporters, especially of wheat. Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta are the great grain-growing provinces, and, with Ontario, are also the leading sources of beef cattle. The main fruit-growing regions are found in Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia. Apples and peaches are the principal fruits grown in Canada. More than half of the total land area is forest, and Canadian timber production ranks among the highest in the world.

Fishing is an important economic activity in Canada. Cod and lobster from the Atlantic and salmon from the Pacific historically have been the principal catches, but the cod industry was halted in the mid-1990s due to overfishing. About 75% of the take is exported. The fur industry, once vitally important but no longer dominant in the nation's economy, is centered in Quebec and Ontario.

A major problem for Canada is that large segments of its economy—notably in manufacturing, petroleum, and mining—are controlled by foreign, especially U.S. interests. This deprives the nation of much of the profits of its industries and makes the economy vulnerable to developments outside Canada. This situation is mitigated somewhat by the fact that Canada itself is a large foreign investor. Since the free trade agreement with the United States (effective 1989), and the North American Free Trade Agreement (effective 1994), trade and economic integration between the two countries has increased dramatically.

The United States is by far Canada's leading trade partner, followed by China and Mexico. Machinery and equipment, chemicals, and consumer goods comprise the bulk of imports; crude petroleum and motor vehicles and parts rank high among both the nation's largest imports and exports. Other important exports are industrial machinery, aircraft, telecommunications equipment, chemicals, plastics, fertilizers, forest products, natural gas, hydroelectric power, and aluminum.

Government

Canada is an independent constitutional monarchy and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations . The monarch of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is also the monarch of Canada and is represented in the country by the office of governor-general. The basic constitutional document is the Canada Act of 1982, which replaced the British North America Act of 1867 and gave Canada the right to amend its own constitution. The Canada Act, passed by Great Britain, made possible the Constitution Act, 1982, which was passed in Canada. The document includes a Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees the rights of women and native peoples and protects other civil liberties.

Power on the federal level is exercised by the Canadian Parliament and the cabinet of ministers, headed by the prime minister. (See the table entitled Canadian Prime Ministers since Confederation for a list of Canada's prime ministers.) The federal government has authority in all matters not specifically reserved to the provincial governments, and may veto any provincial law. The provincial governments have power in the fields of property, civil rights, education, and local government; they may levy only direct taxes. Canada has an independent judiciary; the highest court is the Supreme Court, with nine members.

The Parliament has two houses: the Senate and the House of Commons. There are generally 105 senators, apportioned among the provinces and appointed by the governor-general upon the advice of the prime minister. Senators may serve until age 75; prior to 1965 they served for life. The 308 members of the House of Commons are elected, largely from single-member constituencies. Elections must be held every four years, but the Commons may be dissolved and new elections held earlier if the government loses a confidence vote. There are four main political parties: the Liberal party, the Conservative party (formed in 2003 by the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative party), the Bloc Québécois (aligned with the Parti Québécois of Quebec), and the New Democratic party.

History

Early History and French-British Rivalry

Prior to the arrival of Europeans in Canada, the area was inhabited by various peoples who came from Asia via the Bering Strait more than 10,000 years ago. The Vikings landed in Canada c.AD 1000. Their arrival is described in Icelandic sagas and confirmed by archaeological discoveries in Newfoundland. John Cabot , sailing under English auspices, touched the east coast in 1497. In 1534, the Frenchman Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula. These and many other voyages to the Canadian coast were in search of a northwest passage to Asia. Subsequently, French-English rivalry dominated Canadian history until 1763.

The first permanent European settlement in Canada was founded in 1605 by the sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain at Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal , N.S.) in Acadia . A trading post was established in Quebec in 1608. Meanwhile the English, moving to support their claims under Cabot's discoveries, attacked Port Royal (1614) and captured Quebec (1629). However, the French regained Quebec (1632), and through the Company of New France (Company of One Hundred Associates), began to exploit the fur trade and establish new settlements. The French were primarily interested in fur trading. Between 1608 and 1640, fewer than 300 settlers arrived. The sparse French settlements sharply contrasted with the relatively dense English settlements along the Atlantic coast to the south. Under a policy initiated by Champlain, the French supported the Huron in their warfare against the Iroquois; later in the 17th cent., when the Iroquois crushed the Huron, the French colony came near extinction. Exploration, however, continued.

In 1663, the Company of New France was disbanded by the French government, and the colony was placed under the rule of a royal governor, an intendant, and a bishop. The power exercised by these authorities may be seen in the careers of Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac , Jean Talon , and François Xavier de Laval , the first bishop of Quebec. There was, however, conflict between the rulers, especially over the treatment of the indigenous peoples—the bishop regarding them as potential converts, the governor as means of trade. Meanwhile, both missionaries, such as Jacques Marquette , and traders, such as Pierre Radisson and Médard Chouart des Groseilliers, were extending French knowledge and influence. The greatest of all the empire builders in the west was Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle , who descended the Mississippi to its mouth and who envisioned the vast colony in the west that was made a reality by men like Duluth, Bienville, Iberville, and Cadillac.

The French did not go unchallenged. The English had claims on Acadia, and the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670 began to vie for the lucrative fur trade of the West. When the long series of wars between Britain and France broke out in Europe, they were paralleled in North America by the French and Indian Wars . The Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain Acadia, the Hudson Bay area, and Newfoundland. To strengthen their position the French built additional forts in the west (among them Detroit and Niagara). The decisive battle of the entire struggle took place in 1759, when Wolfe defeated Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham , bringing about the fall of Quebec to the British. Montreal fell in 1760. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France ceded all its North American possessions east of the Mississippi to Britain, while Louisiana went to Spain.

British North America

The French residents of Quebec strongly resented the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which imposed British institutions on them. Many of its provisions, however, were reversed by the Quebec Act (1774), which granted important concessions to the French and extended Quebec's borders westward and southward to include all the inland territory to the Ohio and the Mississippi. This act infuriated the residents of the Thirteen Colonies (the future United States). In 1775 the American Continental Congress had as its first act not a declaration of independence but the invasion of Canada. In the American Revolution the Canadians remained passively loyal to the British crown, and the effort of the Americans to take Canada failed dismally (see Quebec campaign ).

Loyalists from the colonies in revolt (see United Empire Loyalists ) fled to Canada and settled in large numbers in Nova Scotia and Quebec. In 1784, the province of New Brunswick was carved out of Nova Scotia for the loyalists. The result, in Quebec, was sharp antagonism between the deeply rooted, Catholic French Canadians and the newly arrived, Protestant British. To deal with the problem the British passed the Constitutional Act (1791). It divided Quebec into Upper Canada (present-day Ontario), predominantly British and Protestant, and Lower Canada (present-day Quebec), predominantly French and Catholic. Each new province had its own legislature and institutions.

This period was also one of further exploration. Alexander Mackenzie made voyages in 1789 to the Arctic Ocean and in 1793 to the Pacific, searching for the Northwest Passage. Mariners also reached the Pacific Northwest, and such men as Capt. James Cook , John Meares, and George Vancouver secured for Britain a firm hold on what is now British Columbia. During the War of 1812, Canadian and British soldiers repulsed several American invasions. The New Brunswick boundary (see Aroostook War ) and the boundary W of the Great Lakes was disputed with the United States for a time, but since the War of 1812 the long border has generally been peaceful.

Rivalry between the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company erupted into bloodshed in the Red River Settlement and was resolved by amalgamation of the companies in 1821. The new Hudson's Bay Company then held undisputed sway over Rupert's Land and the Pacific West until U.S. immigrants challenged British possession of Oregon and obtained the present boundary (1846). After 1815 thousands of immigrants came to Canada from Scotland and Ireland.

Movements for political reform arose. In Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie struggled against the Family Compact . In Lower Canada, Louis J. Papineau led the French Canadian Reform party. There were rebellions in both provinces. The British sent Lord Durham as governor-general to study the situation, and his famous report (1839) recommended the union of Upper and Lower Canada under responsible government. The two Canadas were made one province by the Act of Union (1841) and became known as Canada West and Canada East. Responsible government was achieved in 1849 (it had been granted to the Maritime Provinces in 1847), largely as a result of the efforts of Robert Baldwin and Louis H. LaFontaine .

Confederation and Nationhood

The movement for federation of all the Canadian provinces was given impetus in the 1860s by a need for common defense, the desire for some central authority to press railroad construction, and the necessity for a solution to the problem posed by Canada West and Canada East, where the British majority and French minority were in conflict. When the Maritime Provinces, which sought union among themselves, met at the Charlottetown Conference of 1864, delegates from the other provinces of Canada attended. Two more conferences were held—the Quebec Conference later in 1864 and the London Conference in 1866 in England—before the British North America Act in 1867 made federation a fact. (In 1982 this act was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867.)

The four original provinces were Ontario (Canada West), Quebec (Canada East), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The new federation acquired the vast possessions of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869. The Red River Settlement became the province of Manitoba in 1870, and British Columbia voted to joined in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined the federation, and Alberta and Saskatchewan were admitted in 1905. Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) joined in 1949.

Canada's first prime minister was John A. Macdonald (served 1867–73 and 1878–91), who sponsored the Canadian Pacific Railway . In the west, religious tension and objections to lack of political representation and unfair land-grant and survey laws produced rebellions of Métis, led by Louis Riel in 1869–70 and 1884–85. The Métis were French-speaking Roman Catholics who had considered themselves a new nation combining the traditions and ancestry of Europeans and native peoples.

Under the long administration (1896–1911) of Sir Wilfrid Laurier , rising wheat prices attracted vast numbers of immigrants to the Prairie Provinces. Between 1891 and 1914, more than three million people came to Canada, largely from continental Europe, following the path of the newly constructed continental railway. In the same period, mining operations were begun in the Klondike and the Canadian Shield. Large-scale development of hydroelectric resources helped foster industrialization and urbanization.

Under the premiership of Conservative Robert L. Borden , Canada followed Britain and entered World War I. The struggle over military conscription, however, deepened the cleavage between French Canadians and their fellow citizens. During the depression that began in 1929, the Prairie Provinces were hard hit by droughts that shriveled the wheat fields. Farmers, who had earlier formed huge cooperatives, sought to press their interests through political movements such as Social Credit and the Co-Operative Commonwealth Federation (now the New Democratic party).

World War II to the Present

With W. L. Mackenzie King as prime minister, Canada played a vital role on the Allied side in World War II. Despite economic strain Canada emerged from the war with enhanced prestige and took an active role in the United Nations. Canada joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following the war, uranium, iron, and petroleum resources were exploited; uses of atomic energy were developed; and hydroelectric and thermal plants were built to produce electricity for new and expanded industries.

King was succeeded by Louis St. Laurent , the first French-speaking prime minister. John G. Diefenbaker , a Progressive Conservative, came to power in 1957. The St. Lawrence Seaway was opened in 1959. The Liberals returned to office in 1963 under Lester B. Pearson . After much bitter debate, the Canadian Parliament in 1964 approved a new national flag, with a design of a red maple leaf on a white ground, bordered by two vertical red panels. The new flag symbolized a growing Canadian nationalism that de-emphasized Canada's ties with Great Britain. The Pearson government enacted a comprehensive social security program. The Montreal international exposition, Expo '67, opened in 1967 and was applauded for displaying a degree of taste and interest far superior to that of most such exhibitions.

Pearson was succeeded by Pierre Elliot Trudeau , a Liberal, in 1968. The Trudeau government was faced with the increasingly violent separatist movement active in Quebec in the late 1960s and early 70s. In 1968, Trudeau's government introduced the Official Languages Bill, which encouraged bilingualism in the federal civil service. In elections in Oct., 1972, Trudeau's Liberal party failed to win a majority, but he continued as prime minister, dependent on the small New Democratic party for votes to pass legislation; in July, 1974, the Liberals reestablished a majority, and Trudeau remained prime minister. Except for a brief period (June, 1979–Mar., 1980) when Conservative Joe Clark gained office, Trudeau was prime minister until 1984. Increased government spending and slowed industrial growth were Canada's main problems, in addition to the continuing threat of Quebec separatism.

After Quebec voted (1980) not to leave the Canadian federation, Trudeau began a constitutional debate that culminated with the Canada Act of 1982, which made Canada fully independent from Great Britain by giving it the right to amend its own constitution. Quebec's provincial government, however, did not accept the new constitution.

With the country reeling from the effects of a recession, Trudeau resigned (1984) and was succeeded as head of the Liberal party and prime minister by John Turner . In the elections later that year, Brian Mulroney led the Progressive Conservatives to victory in a landslide. Mulroney's first major accomplishment was the Meech Lake Accord , a set of constitutional reforms proposed by Quebec premier Robert Bourassa that would have brought Quebec into the constitution by guaranteeing its status as a "distinct society." However, aggressive measures by the Quebec government to curtail the use of English, such as forbidding the use of any language other than French on public signs, caused a wave of resentment in Canada's English-speaking population. The accord died on June 22, 1990, when Newfoundland and Manitoba failed to ratify it, leaving Canada in a serious constitutional crisis. In Oct., 1992, Canadian voters rejected a complex package of constitutional changes (the Charlottetown Accord) intended to provide alternatives that would discourage the separatist movement in Quebec.

Canada's new constitution also opened the way for native land claims that have changed the political appearance of N Canada and had effects elsewhere as well. In 1992, as part of the largest native-claim settlement in Canadian history, the Inuit-dominated eastern portion of the Northwest Territories was slated to be separated as the territory of Nunavut, which was completed in 1999. The subsequent years saw the signing of a series of similar self-government agreements with various aboriginal groups to settle additional native claims; none of these agreements, however, established separate province-level territories. In 1998 the federal government issued a formal apology to its indigenous people for 150 years of mistreatment and established a fund for reparations.

The most significant accomplishment of Mulroney's first government was a free-trade agreement with the United States, which was ratified by parliament after Mulroney and the Progressive Conservatives returned to power in 1988 reelection; the agreement came into effect in Jan., 1989. In his second term this pact formed the groundwork for the broader North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), signed in 1992. NAFTA came into effect in Jan., 1994, establishing a free-trade zone that consisted of Mexico, Canada, and the United States.

In 1993, Mulroney resigned and was succeeded by fellow Conservative Kim Campbell , who became (June, 1993) Canada's first woman prime minister.

Widespread anger over recession and high unemployment led to a Progressive Conservative rout in the elections of Oct., 1993, sweeping the Liberals to power and making Jean Chrétien prime minister. The Conservatives were left with only two seats, having lost a total of 151. Two relatively new parties, the Bloc Québécois (a Quebec separatist party) and the Reform party (based in western Canada), won nearly all the remaining parliamentary seats. In Oct., 1995, Quebec voters again rejected independence from Canada in a referendum, but this time the question was only narrowly defeated.

Chrétien's Liberal party held onto 155 seats following the June, 1997, parliamentary elections, and he remained prime minister. The majority of the opposition seats went to the Reform party (60), which in 2000 reconstituted itself as the Canadian Alliance , and the Bloc Québécois (44). In the late 1990s the low Canadian dollar and relatively high unemployment were among the country's chief concerns, but the government made progress in paying down the national debt.

In July, 2000, Chrétien won passage of a bill designed to make it harder for Quebec to secede, by requiring that a clear majority support a clearly worded proposition and that such issues as borders and the seceding province's responsibility for a share of the national debt be resolved by negotiations. In the elections of Nov., 2000, Chrétien led the Liberals to a third consecutive victory at the polls, winning 172 seats in the House of Commons; the Canadian Alliance (66) and Bloc Québécois (38) remained the principal opposition parties. Although the country suffered an economic slowdown in 2001, the government rejected the stimilus of deficit spending, adhering instead to the fiscal discipline established in the late 1990s, and by the end of the year economic conditions had improved. Following the Sept., 2001, terrorist attacks against the United States, a contingent of Canadian forces participated in operations against Al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan.

In 2002, Chrétien's cabinet was hurt by charges of lax ethical standards, resulting in a shakeup; Finance Minister Paul Martin, a likely challenger to Chrétien's leadership, was also forced out. Increasingly active Liberal opposition to Chrétien's continuation as party leader led him to announce announce that he would not seek a fourth term as prime minister. In the weeks before the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq (Mar., 2003) Canada attempted to negotiate a compromise Security Council resolution; the failure of the council to reach agreement led the Canadian government not to participate in the invasion. Beginning in May, 2003, the country's livestock industry was hurt when other nations banned imports of Canadian beef after an occurrence of "mad cow" disease in Alberta. The situation was not ameliorated later in the year when a cow with the disease was found in the United States and was discovered to have been imported from Canada several years before.

Late in 2003 Liberals elected Paul Martin to succeed Chrétien as party leader and prime minister, and Chrétien resigned in December. Meanwhile, conservatives moved to end the divisions on the right by merging the Canadian Alliance and Progressive Conservative party in the Conservative party of Canada. In the ensuing June, 2004, elections, Martin and the Liberals were hurt by scandals, but they retained sufficient parliamentary seats to form a minority government as voters did not rally to the Conservatives' socially conservative positions.

A scandal originating in a federal advertising sponsorship program begun in the mid-1990s and designed to promote national unity in Quebec increasingly undermined Paul Martin's government in 2005, though he appeared not to have been involved personally. Under Chrétien Quebec advertising firms aligned with the Liberal party received millions of dollars but apparently did little or no work, and some money was funneled illegally to Liberal party coffers. It was unclear whether the former prime minister knew of the scandal, but one of his brothers was implicated in testimony in 2005. The scandal was first uncovered in 2002, and hurt the Liberals in the 2004 elections.

New, detailed revelations about the scandal in 2005 threatened to bring down the government, which narrowly survived a confidence vote in May, 2005. Parliament subsequently passed an appropriations bill and a gay-marriage bill by more comfortable majorities. In Nov., 2005, Martin's government finally collapsed after the New Democrats joined the Conservatives and Bloc Québécois in a no-confidence vote; the vote had been preceded by the release of an investigative report into the advertising sponsorship scandal that called it an elaborate kickback scheme designed to funnel money to individuals and the Liberal party.

The Jan., 2006, elections saw the Conservatives, led by Stephen Harper , win a plurality of the seats in parliament and 36% of the vote, but the results did not indicate a significant rightward shift in Canadian attitudes, as the majority of the vote (and seats) went to left of center parties (the Liberals, the Bloc Québécois, and the New Democrats). Issues concerning the extent of Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic and Canadian control over the Northwest Passage became more prominent in 2006 as Harper's government sharply rejected U.S. assertions that Canada was claiming international waters.

Seeking to strengthen his minority government, Harper called a snap election in 2008, and in the October vote won an increased plurality (with 37.6% of the vote) but failed to secure a parliamentary majority. Two weeks into the new parliamentary session, the opposition agreed to bring down the government over what they denounced as an inadequate economic stimulus plan in the face of a worsening economy, and the Liberals and New Democrats were prepared to form a minority government with Bloc support. However, Harper secured the governor-general's suspension of the session until late January in order to avoid the December confidence vote and buy time to mount a publicity campaign against the opposition plans.

Harper subsequently proposed a significant government stimulus package, and the Liberals supported (Feb., 2009) the budget after the Conservatives agreed to an amendment requiring regular reports on government spending and its effects. In June a Conservative-Liberal agreement to study unemployment insurance reform and to permit a no-confidence vote in September preserved the minority government. Harper survived that vote and another in early October, and in December he again secured the suspension of parliament, this time until Mar., 2010. In Mar., 2011, however, the government lost a confidence vote. In the elections in May the Conservatives won a majority of the seats and almost 40% of the vote. The Liberals and Bloc Québécois suffered large losses as the New Democrats emerged as the largest opposition party, with more than a hundred seats.

Bibliography

Classic works on early Canada are those of Francis Parkman. See also G. M. Wrong, The Rise and Fall of New France (2 vol., 1928; repr. 1970); D. G. Creighton, The Story of Canada (rev. ed. 1971); R. C. Brown and Ramsay Cook, Canada, 1896–1921: A Nation Transformed (1974); Robert Bothwell et al., Canada Since 1945: Power, Politics, and Provincialism (1981); L. D. McCann, Heartland and Hinterland (2d ed. 1987); R. T. Naylor, Canada in the European Age, 1453–1919 (1988); George Woodcock, A Social History of Canada (1988); H. Crookell, Canadian-American Trade and Investment Under the Free Trade Agreement (1990); R. C. Vipond, Liberty and Community: Canadian Federalism and the Failure of the Constitution (1991); R. K. Weaver, The Collapse of Canada? (1992). See also The Canadian Encyclopedia (4 vol., 1988).

Canada

Families in Canada—more so than in Britain, France, or even the Americas—are characterized by enormous diversity, especially regional and ethnic diversity. Canada has historically been a society of immigrants and of regions. First, the Aboriginal, or native people, arrived from Asia about ten thousand years ago. They organized into complex national groups with their own distinct cultures, economic bases, and languages. Norsemen explored but did not settle Canada in the years before 1500. French explorers and colonists arrived in the early seventeenth century and continued to settle throughout the first half of the next. The British began arriving in the early eighteenth century. After skirmishes and a decisive battle between the French and British armies in 1763, the British came to dominate the part of North America that is today Canada. In 1867 Confederation—Canada's founding event—set the groundwork for provincial differentiation (Quebec versus the rest), two official languages (French and English), two privileged religions (Protestantism and Catholicism), and what became known in the late twentieth century as "multiculturalism."

Varied timetables of immigration, economic opportunities, and demographic mixes caused Canada's regions to develop differently from one another. Their lack of similarity was largely due to Canada's enormous size, disparate economic development, and the distances between communities. Unequal educational opportunities and social mobility maintained the ethnic and class distinctions that made Canada what the sociologist John Porter came to call a "vertical mosaic."

Today, with more postsecondary education, travel, and mass communication, these ethnic and regional variations have begun to shrink. In this entry we will emphasize similarities and general tendencies. The theme of diversity remains important, though, as it is essential to understanding Canadian family life.

Defining Families

Canadians generally derive a great deal of pleasure from their families. In a 1994 Angus Reid opinion poll, two-thirds of Canadians strongly agreed with the statement that their families are "the greatest joy in their lives." Yet the meaning of family varies from one person to the next. Statistics Canada, the branch of the Canadian government responsible for collecting and analyzing national data, defines the family as

a now-married couple (with or without never-married sons and/or daughters of either or both spouses), a couple living common-law (with or without never-married sons and/or daughters of either or both partners), or a lone parent of any marital status, with at least one never-married son or daughter living in the same dwelling. (Statistics Canada, 1999, p. 119)

They call this family form the census family and it is the basic unit upon which the agency collects its family data. Unless otherwise noted, the statistics discussed throughout this article will refer to this family arrangement.

Although a majority of Canadians live in census families—83 percent in 1996—a significant proportion do not (Gee 2000). In 1996 just under a quarter (24.1%) of households were made up of a single person, and 4 percent consisted of people who were either unrelated, or related but did not meet the census definition of a family. The agency also overlooks relations of affection and support that occur outside the immediate household (e.g. relations between absent parents and their children, and between elderly parents living independently from their adult children). Thus, the fairly narrow definition held by Statistics Canada fails to portray accurately the variety of Canadian family and household forms.

Trends in Marriage

More than one hundred years ago, settlers from northern and western Europe brought norms that dictated that young people establish independent homes upon marriage (Gee 1982). As a result, many people did not marry, or they married late in life because they did not have the financial resources to support a household. In 1921 the average age of marriage for men was twenty-eight years and for women it was just under twenty-five. In some ethnic groups—for example, those descended from Highland Scots—the average age of marriage was even higher.

Historically, marriage rates in Canada have fluctuated with the state of the country's economy. In the 1930s, while Canada experienced the Great Depression, many couples refrained from marrying due to economic uncertainty and high unemployment. Marriage rates decreased from 7.5 marriages per 1,000 people in 1928 to 5.9 in 1932 (Milan 2000). It was not until World War II that Canadians began to marry again in large numbers. New employment opportunities stimulated the increased rate of matrimony, as did the possibility of conscription. Single men were being called to wartime service, and many couples tried to prevent this through marriage. As a result, in 1942 there were almost eleven marriages per 1,000 people—nearly twice the marriage rate of a decade earlier. The rate declined while the men were at war, but it returned to its 1942 level when couples were reunited in 1946.

By the late 1940s marriage rates began to drop again and continued to decline until the 1970s, when children of the postwar marriages, called the baby boom generation, were themselves ready to marry. However, in the 1980s marriage rates returned to a downward trend, and in 1998 they reached an unprecedented low of five marriages per 1,000 people. Fewer Canadians were choosing to marry than ever before, although the economy was not a major influence in this decline.

Typically, nations with low marriage rates are late marrying populations, so along with the fluctuations in the incidence of marriage rates came a variation in the average age of first marriage. During the early twentieth century, couples married late in life. This changed in the years following World War II, as marriage rates increased and the average age at first marriage declined steadily. By 1962 the average age had dropped to 25.2 years for men and 22.5 for women. The increased affluence following World War II contributed to lowering the age at first marriage because couples could then afford to marry earlier.

Since the late 1960s, the age at first marriage has risen again. In 1997, for example, first-time brides were, on average, 27.4 years old and grooms were 29.5 year old (The Vanier Institute 2000). This increase has been associated with, among other factors, greater acceptance of cohabitation without marriage, as well as more education and economic independence for women. So paradoxically, though current figures are similar to those earlier in the century, the reasons behind them are quite different.

Cohabitation versus Marriage

Most Canadian families, 74 percent, were based in married couple unions in 1996. However, membership in this group had declined since 1986, when 80 percent of all couples were legally married. The decreased rate of marriage has been associated with a corresponding increase in common-law unions. Statistics Canada defines a common-law couple as "two persons of opposite sex who are not legally married to each other, but live together as husband and wife in the same dwelling." Although historically Canadians frowned on couples who lived together before marriage, more recently the stigma against nonmarital cohabitation has diminished, if not disappeared. By the end of the millennium, the common-law union was the fastest-growing family category. In 1996 one in seven couples in Canada was living common law, compared with one in nine in 1991. Nonmarital cohabitation was most prevalent in the province of Quebec, where one in four couples live common-law and 43 percent of all such relationships in Canada occurred (Bélanger et al. 2001).

For some Canadians, nonmarital cohabitation is a temporary state that precedes a legal marriage, but for others it is a permanent substitute for marriage. There are important differences between legal marriage and cohabitation, despite their perceived interchangeability in some quarters (Baker 2001). Canadian society provides less protection for the property rights of partners in common-law relationships than those of legally married partners. Common-law relationships are typically shorter, produce fewer children, and have a greater tendency towards spousal abuse. They are also particularly vulnerable to changes in economic circumstances (Wu and Pollard 2000). Finally, cohabiting relationships and post-cohabiting marriages are at greater risk of dissolution than are marriages not preceded by cohabitation. The last factor is likely due to what researchers call adverse selectivity. That is, these relationships attract people who are more willing to dissolve unsatisfactory relationships, rather than remain in them unhappily.

However, marriage is not necessarily better than cohabitation. Once other factors (including adverse selectivity) are controlled, physical and mental health differences between cohabiters and the currently married disappear, and both categories are better off than the divorced, separated, and single/never married.

Divorce

At the beginning of the twentieth century, divorce was rare in Canada. In 1900 a mere eleven divorces were registered. People widely disapproved of divorce, and the law restricted it. Until 1968, adultery was the only grounds for divorce. Families did dissolve during this period: Some spouses canceled their spousal and parental responsibilities by simply abandoning their families. However, they remained married under law, and this prevented remarriage and the legal establishment of a new family.

The introduction of the Divorce Act in 1968 led to a massive change in family behaviors. This law allowed judges to grant divorces on the grounds of "marriage-breakdown," after a couple had been separated for at least three years. Between 1968 and 1970, the number of divorces nearly doubled. A subsequent amendment to the Divorce Act in 1986 reduced the minimum period of separation to one year. Again, this modification resulted in a huge increase in divorce, with the number peaking at 90,900 divorces in 1987 (Oderkirk 1994).

Between 1965 and 1988, Canada's divorce rate went from being one of the lowest among industrialized nations to being one of the highest, surpassing even the divorce rates in progressive countries such as France and Sweden. In 1991, once divorce rates had leveled off, there were still 2.8 divorces per 1,000 people in Canada, compared with 1.9 in France and 2.5 in Sweden (in 1992). However, the American divorce rate surpassed that of Canada. In 1992 there were 4.8 divorces per 1,000 people in the United States—nearly twice the Canadian rate (Dumas 1994).

Variations on the Dominant Pattern

Immigrant families. In the years following Confederation, wave upon wave of immigrants arrived in Canada, often "imported" into particular regions to carry out specific economic tasks: from China to construct the railroad, from Eastern Europe to settle the prairie wheatlands, from Southern Europe to build the central cities. Yet government legislation at the time effectively prevented the development of certain ethnic communities, especially among Asian and black immigrants (Das Gupta 2000). For instance, in the early twentieth century, Chinese immigrants had to pay a "head tax" to gain entrance to Canada. Since most men could not afford to bring their wife and children into the country, this law systematically prevented the creation of Chinese Canadian families.

Before the mid-twentieth century, Canadian immigration policy favored European settlement in hopes of maintaining a predominantly Anglo-Saxon society (Richard 1991). Immigration from non-European countries was severely restricted. This changed as popular opinion in the early 1960s turned against restrictions on nonwhite immigration. In 1968 a new immigration policy was set up that based admission eligibility not on ethnicity or race, but on broader criteria such as education and training, skills, personal attributes (such as adaptability, motivation, and initiative), demand for the applicant's occupation in Canada, arranged employment, and knowledge of English or French. In the decades that followed, the numbers of British and American immigrants to Canada decreased, and immigration from Asian countries increased substantially.

Many immigrants came from cultures in which men subordinate women, and their elders subordinate young people. Migration creates profound changes in the relationship between men and women, as well as between generations; it disrupts traditional expectations and supports the possibility of individuation (Shahidian 1999).

Women's experience of cultural displacement through immigration may be more positive than that of men because women may be less inclined to resist the women-friendlier dominant culture. For example, more Iranian men retained the socially conservative nature of their patriarchal home culture after immigration than did Iranian women, and they also experienced more problems in adjusting to Western social and economic trends, and to changes in gender roles that augment women's notions of self and female sexuality (Moghissi and Goodman 1999). On the other hand, institutional racism may counterbalance women's positive experiences (Moghissi 1999).

Migration can lead to generational conflict as young people attempt to embrace North American society (Tirone and Pedlar 2000). Young immigrants, or the children of immigrants, may have problems adjusting to school life, have strained family relationships, and experience issues of ethnic identity and minority status. Often community organizations help young people—especially women—develop an awareness of their condition, a new identity, and a measure of control over their lives (Ralston 1998).

In the new cultural environment, families become more nuclear, with the result that extended families loosen their grip, and a cultural distance builds up between members of the diaspora and members of the homeland (Chan and Dorais 1998). Some communities, such as the Asian Indians in Toronto, modify traditional patterns of arranged marriage to give the young more freedom while at the same time enforcing traditional group expectations.

The post-1960s amendments to the Immigration Act have led to greater ethnic diversity in Canada, especially among nonwhite groups. While one might expect this to have increased inmarriage (or endogamy) among newly enlarged minority groups, paradoxically, the opposite has occurred. The postwar "merit-point system" created a stream of affluent and highly educated new entrants. People with higher levels of education are more exogamous: that is, they show a greater tendency to marry outside their group (Richard 1991). It is therefore not surprising that ethnic exogamy has been increasing.

However, Canadians have always practiced ethnic intermarriage, and this trend has been on the rise since the time of Confederation. In 1991 Canada-born husbands and wives were more exogamous than their foreign-born counterparts, and higher proportions of males married out of their ethnic group than females. Groups who have had high rates of immigration—such as Asian Indians and Chinese—showed the lowest rates of exogamy. Canadians of French and English descent also have low levels of ethnic out-marriage, probably because their large numbers in the Canadian population make it easier to find a spouse of the same ethnic group. Overall, members of the British and French "charter groups" are a popular choice of mate. Both men and women tend to marry members of these groups, if they do not marry people of their own ethnic background (Kalbach 2000).

Same-sex unions. Although fewer social barriers prevent marriage between people of different ethnic groups, the same is not true for same-sex partners. Although Canadians are more liberal in their views on homosexuality than Americans or Mexicans (Tepperman and Curtis 2002)—religious ideas continue to fuel discrimination against homosexuals and their right to form families. In Canada, as in most nations, gays and lesbians are unable to legally marry because marriage continues to be defined as a union between a man and a woman. Gays and lesbians are often portrayed as being outside of and excluded from family social relations. In reality, many are deeply embedded in familial structures as partners, parents, children, siblings, aunts, uncles, and grandchildren.

At the start of the twenty-first century, same-sex couples had gained some of the recognition and benefits automatically granted to heterosexual couples. In February 1998 the province of British Columbia became the first jurisdiction in North America to redefine the term "spouse" in its Family Relations Act to include same-sex couples. The amendment gave gay and lesbian partners the same privileges and obligations held by those in heterosexual unions, including: custody of children, access, and child support (O'Brian and Goldberg 2000). In 1999 and 2000 Quebec, Ontario, and the federal government adopted omnibus bills granting same-sex common-law spouses almost all the same rights as heterosexual couples under the tax system, social security programs, and family law (Rose 2000). Additionally, in 2001 Statistics Canada included questions about same-sex unions for the first time in the national census.

These changes showed the growing acceptance of gay and lesbian couples in Canadian society. Public opinion polls confirmed that Canadians are becoming more accepting of same-sex unions. In a 2001 Leger Marketing poll, 65.4 percent of those surveyed agreed that Canada should grant same-sex couples the right to legally marry and 75.7 percent felt that Canada should give homosexuals the same rights as heterosexuals.

However, these tolerant attitudes do not extend to the issue of childcare. For example, only 53.1 percent of those surveyed agreed that Canada should permit homosexuals to adopt children. This disapproval of adoption by gays and lesbians likely reflects the belief that homosexual parenting will have a harmful influence on the child's sexual development. By contrast, research on the topic shows that children raised by gays and lesbians exhibit neither a greater tendency toward homosexuality nor significant differences in gender identity or gender behaviors than children raised by heterosexual parents (O'Brien and Goldberg 2000).

Families with Children

The addition of a child has an enormous impact on any family. Family dynamics and relations are often altered to accommodate the new member. Typically, a woman's dependence on her partner's earnings, and thereby her vulnerability within the family, increases with the presence of young children and relative to the number of children. This pattern is similar—indeed, deeply entrenched— across Western industrial countries, and continues even in the face of active social policies to minimize their effects (Bianchi, Casper, and Peltola 1999). From this standpoint, fertility and fertility decline play important roles in changing gender relations and family life, in Canada and elsewhere.

Fertility Decline

The average size of the Canadian family has dropped since the 1970s. In 1971 families had an average of 3.7 persons; since 1986, the average has remained constant at 3.1 persons. Contemporary Canadian families are similar in size to those in the United States, where an average of 3.2 persons made up the American family in 2000 (Fields and Casper 2000). These small family sizes are mainly a result of lower fertility and reduced childbearing, as showed by lower birth rates.

In fact, birth rates have been dropping in most industrialized countries since the latter part of the nineteenth century. These rates have fluctuated slightly over that period. For instance, after World War II (roughly 1946–1966), both Canada and the United States experienced high birth rates in what people refer to as the postwar baby boom. During this boom, the total fertility rate (TFR)—the average number of children a woman is likely to bear in her lifetime—peaked at 3.94 children in 1959, and actual birth rates peaked in 1957 (Péron et al. 1999).

The Canadian TFR dropped dramatically from its height in the 1960s, and fertility remained fairly stable through the mid-1970s to the end of the millennium. After 1976, the rate fluctuated between 1.8 and 1.6, although 1998 saw a slight drop in TFR to 1.55 births (Bélanger et al. 2001). These rates have varied across the country, illustrating Canada's regional and ethnic diversity. In 1998 Newfoundland had the lowest fertility rate in Canada, at 1.2 births per woman. In the same year Nunavut, a region with a high proportion of Aboriginal peoples, had a fertility rate of three births per woman.

Canadian women give birth to more children than do women in many European countries. This is largely because of high rates of immigration from high-fertility countries. Still, the Canadian fertility rate is below that of the United States, where in 1997 American women were estimated to bear
2.06 children in their lifetimes (Bélanger 1999).

Not only are Canadian couples having fewer children than in the past; they are also having children later in life. Many Canadian women now wait until they are in their late twenties or early thirties before having their first child. The mother's age at childbirth, which varies by region and ethnicity, also varies according to social and economic status. Women who have children early typically have less education and fewer job skills (therefore, lower job possibilities and less income potential). Young mothers are also more likely to be unmarried, so many must deal with the economic difficulties associated with single parenthood.

Single-Parent Families

Among those Canadian marriages that dissolved in 1995, child custody was a concern in approximately 70 percent of these cases. In more than two-thirds of these divorces, the courts granted mothers sole custody of their offspring. Thus, many women in Canada who experienced divorce also became single parents.

Of the 1.1 million single parents enumerated in 1996, 58 percent were separated or divorced, 22 percent were single or never married, and 20 percent were widows. The vast majority, 83 percent, were women (The Vanier Institute 2000). This gender difference is significant because female-headed single-parent families are more likely to suffer from lower incomes—indeed, poverty—than male-headed single-parent families. In 1998 single-parent families headed by women made up the largest fraction of all low-income families. Women-headed families were more than twice as likely as male-headed families to be living in poverty (42% versus 17.5%).

The number of Canadian single-parent families increased dramatically since the 1970s: almost 250 percent between 1971 and 1996, compared with an overall increase of only 55 percent in the total number of Canadian families. These rates mark a return to proportions seen in the early decades of the twentieth century. In 1931, for example, 13.6 percent of Canadian families were headed by one parent; this is compared to 15 percent in 1996. However, the reasons for single parenthood have changed during this century. Whereas in the first half of the twentieth century, most single-parent households were a result of the death of a spouse, in the second half of the century they were mainly the result of separation, divorce, or nonmarriage (Oderkirk and Lochhead 1992).

Families over the Life Course

Canada's population is aging. This results from a combination of lowered fertility and general increases in life expectancy among both men and women. In 1999 12.4 percent of the Canadian population was sixty-five years of age or older (Bélanger et al. 2001). By the year 2001, it was projected that this portion will have risen to 14 percent, and with continued declines in fertility, this fraction will continue rising. These are trends common to other Western societies, especially those throughout Europe.

With the graying of the population, concerns about the costs of treating an aging population have increased. Recently, there has been a trend to move elder care outside institutional settings, and it has increasingly become the responsibility of informal caregivers, most frequently female family members. Health care services that were previously offered in institutional settings are now being performed in community health centers, day clinics, and people's own homes. This has created a difficult situation for elderly people, especially in rural Canada. Alongside limited formal health care supports in these areas, depopulation, aging communities, smaller family sizes, limited community resources, and volunteer burnout have resulted in fewer informal community supports (Blakley 1999).

This, in turn, led to widespread unease that the middle-aged children of elderly parents will be squeezed or sandwiched by the multiple roles and obligations associated with dependent children, elderly parents, and work obligations (McDaniel 2001). Elder care involvement can significantly reduce the amount of time available for other family relationships, as well as for work and leisure; yet research has shown that, so far, this has not occurred among the vast majority of middle-aged Canadians. Few Canadians provide frequent help to their elderly parents (Rosenthal et al. 1996). In fact, until parents reach the age of seventy-five, the flow of support favors the children: they receive more help from parents than they give to them.

The majority of Canadian seniors continue to live on their own well into advanced age, and most of the care they receive comes not from their children, but from other members of the same generation, usually a spouse. Friends and neighbors may, however, provide essential help when seniors live alone (Martel and Legare 2000).

Ethnicity influences the amount of assistance provided to older relatives. Asians, East Indians, and southern Europeans provide higher levels of help than British respondents; for example Oya koh koh (filial obligation in Japanese) has a significant effect on nisei (second generation) and sansei (third generation) children's provision of emotional support to older parents in British Columbia (Kobayashi 2000). However, structural factors (like living arrangement and age) rather than cultural factors (like filial obligation) are stronger predictors of assistance and involvement (Keefe, Rosenthal, and Beland 2000). Even among nisei and sansei children, financial and service support are more affected by such material conditions as socioeconomic status, child's availability, and parent's health (Kobayashi 2000.)

Conclusion

This chapter has provided an illustration of the diversity of Canadian families over time and space. We have seen that government policies sometimes shape Canadian families, and sometimes people form their families despite such policies. Families grow out of past traditions and new perspectives. Relations within and between families will often differ, depending on gender, race, ethnicity, economic situation, and sexual orientation.

Changes in Canadian families since the mid-1970s include fewer children, more working mothers, more divorces, and more people cohabitating. Exogamy has increased even among traditional endogamous people such as Jewish Canadians. In many respects, Canadian families are similar to families in other Western societies, such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. Households have shrunk throughout the West. Marriages are expressive and companionate, and though they may have an instrumental component, they are not formed for instrumental reasons alone. Women will often leave marriages that do not provide what they require. Family members, generally, are mobile and often distant. Overall, people's lives are more individualized: more fluid, varied, and idiosyncratic (see Jones, Marsden, and Tepperman 1992).

Enormous diversity has always characterized families in Canada, although the nature of this diversity has changed over the years. Canada has historically been a society of immigrants and a society of regions. The new immigration policy has increased the ethnic mélange of the Canadian population and in so doing dramatically shifted the variety of Canadian families. It also increased exogamy and mixing, leading to the creation of new, blended cultures, in an already multicultural population.

See also:Canada First Nations Families; French Canadian Families; United States

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tracy matsuo lorne tepperman

CANADA

As in all immigrant societies, the spread of formal education in Canada followed a predictable pattern as religious orders and missions attempted to "civilize" both the aboriginal and the settler communities. All levels of formal education from the seventeenth century onward had their roots in Catholicism, Anglicanism, and after 1763, when the British assumed control, a whole range of protestant denominations. Dramatic change occurred in 1867 with the enactment of the Constitution Act (formerly the British North American Act) when the principle of secular and separate systems of education funded by the state was accepted throughout Canada with a few significant exceptions. Section 98 of the act allocated exclusive jurisdiction for education to the provinces. This division of constitutional powers has remained in place and has been the basis for a degree of tension between the federal government and the ten provincial governments. The federal government is responsible for education in the three northern territories. With regard to public education, Canadians subscribe to three common social and educational values: equality of access, equality of opportunity, and cultural pluralism.

Influences On The Educational Systems

According to Rodney Clifton, Canada is the "only country without a national office of education: all other nations, including all other federated nations, have national offices of education that coordinate and/or administer various aspects of their educational system" (p. 7). While there are many similarities among Canada's systems of education, they have each developed in unique ways. These systems are profoundly influenced by the distribution of the population of 31 million across the vast country, which covers four and one-half time zones. More than 80 percent of Canadians live in urban centers within 100 miles of the border with the United States.

Canadian society has developed as a mosaic of peoples, beginning with aboriginal populations and then followed by French, British, and other European settlement. Canada has two official languages: English is the mother tongue of 61 percent of the population, and French is the mother tongue of 26 percent. Most French speakers live in Quebec, where they make up 82 percent of the population, but there are also many French speakers in New Brunswick, Ontario, and Manitoba. Education is available in both official languages, but to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the region. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, immigrants from all parts of the world were attracted to Canada, with the largest proportion coming from Asia.

The patterns of immigration have had an enormous impact on the structure and organization of educational systems. Although the systems of the western provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia followed the patterns laid down in Ontario, more emphasis was placed on meeting the needs of all people, not just Anglicans and Catholics. While "separate" (Catholic) publicly funded schools were resisted in Manitoba, by World War II only British Columbia, out of the ten provinces, maintained a secular system of education. This stance was modified in 1977, when the province began providing subsidy to private and independent schools. In 1998 Newfoundland abandoned denominational education and became the only province with a secular system.

The French tradition and language have dominated educational systems in Quebec and parts of New Brunswick and Manitoba. Since the "Quiet Revolution" in Quebec in the 1960s and the adoption of a bilingual and multicultural policy at the federal level in the 1970s, French culture has become part of all Canadian educational systems. The challenge has been to privilege the "founding" cultures while at the same time recognizing aboriginal peoples and the vast range of other cultures that form Canadian society. The complexities that come with geography, immigration, and settlement gave rise to socialization processes that placed great emphasis on the role of education in molding Canadian citizens.

Twentieth-Century Developments

The "Great Transformation" in Canadian society, as it was dubbed by Karl Polanyi in 1944, is very much a twentieth-century phenomena. Mass public education that was free and compulsory through high school had become the norm by the 1950s. Public education is provided free to all Canadian citizens and permanent residents until the end of secondary school, normally at eighteen. The ages for compulsory schooling vary from one jurisdiction to another, but generally it is required from age six or seven to age sixteen. As the federal government assumed more responsibility for funding university education from the mid-1950s and recognized the importance of human capital, so the systems of higher education expanded. Expansion of the university system and the development of parallel college systems changed the nature of higher education in Canada. By 1976 every province was operating a binary system of universities and colleges, and furthermore the number of universities offering graduate programs had risen to forty-seven from the 1960 level of twenty-eight.

As in other countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the baby boom generation flooded into the higher education system in the 1960s and the early 1970s. Enrollment continued to expand into the 1990s, but over the next decade it reached a plateau and then began to decline. Between 1991–1992 and 1999–2000, university full-time enrollment decreased from approximately 580,000 to 540,000, while part-time enrollment fell from 280,000 to 240,000. Between 1992–1993 and 1999–2000, full-time community college enrollment increased from approximately 360,000 to 400,000. Part-time community college enrollment declined from approximately 180,000 to 90,000. Furthermore, the gender balance has been reversed so that women are in the majority at the undergraduate level in both community colleges and universities and at parity with men at the graduate level.

The federal government had, through the incremental development of a science and technology policy, created an elaborate structure for funding and supporting research. In addition to the three national funding councils, which were established in the late 1970s and cover all the disciplines and fields represented in the academy, the government created other programs, such as the Networks of Centres of Excellence, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and the Canada Research Chairs.

Education in Canada has traditionally been a public enterprise. Private or independent schools educate approximately 5 percent of the school-age population. Although these schools do generally follow the curriculum and diploma requirements of their jurisdiction, they function independently of the public system and charge fees. Five provinces–Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Quebec, and Saskatchewan–provide some form of financial assistance to these schools. Prior to the 1990s, higher education was almost totally a public enterprise. During that decade the number of private institutions offering vocational and degree programs increased dramatically. Four provinces–Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, and New Brunswick–have passed legislation to allow for the establishment of private universities.

The Place Of Education In The Society

As an institutional form, education occupies a unique place in Canadian society. By the late 1960s, education had become a central legitimating institution in the modern Canadian state. Between 1960 and 1995–1996, the cost of public education increased from $1.7 billion to almost $60 billion. One in fourteen employed Canadians work in education, and 25 percent of the total population is involved with education. Public education is a major industry involving approximately 16,000 elementary and secondary schools, 200 postsecondary colleges, 75 universities and university colleges, 300,000 teachers, and 60,000 instructors and professors.

Relative to other developed countries, Canada invests a substantial amount on education. At all levels of education, Canadian expenditure per student is second highest (after the United States) among the G-7 countries (the other G-7 members being France, Italy, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom) and is substantially above the OECD average. Canada's educational expenditure of 7 percent of gross domestic product is the highest level among the G-7 countries and is one of the highest in the OECD. Eighty percent of Canada's adult population has completed upper-secondary (referred to as high school in North America) or postsecondary education. This is much higher than the OECD average of 64 percent. Fifty-two percent of the adult population has completed postsecondary education. This rate is the highest in the OECD and double the OECD average. Yet it should be noted that this ranking is due to the very high proportion of the population that is enrolled in nonuniversity postsecondary education.

By the mid-1990s, Canadian governments had created a mass postsecondary system. With a participation rate of more than 40 percent for eighteen-to twenty-one-year-olds, Canada ranked first among OECD nations. The system can be characterized as soft federalism. While the federal government has since the 1950s shouldered a significant portion of the bill for universities, constitutionally the responsibility has remained with the provinces. The level of institutional autonomy enjoyed by universities is probably more pronounced in Canada than in any other OECD country. The public monopoly over the binary structure (colleges and universities) accounts for the limited competition and the perceived equivalence among credentials across the country. This state public system is relatively homogeneous and, as a vestige of its roots in the United Kingdom and France, is still committed to the ethos of liberal education rather than vocationalism.

Issues And Problems

The key issues and problems facing the Canadian education systems are as follows: deprofessionalization; the dominance of a political-economic imperative in the formulation of state educational policy (accountability, privatization, market, choice, and decentralization); multiculturalism and diversity; restructuring and retrenchment; and the demographic changes facing all industrialized nations.

As governments have limited the size of the "public space" in Canadian society, so necessarily the ideals of professionalism have come under attack. On the one hand, the creation of professional "colleges of teachers" in British Columbia (in 1986) and in Ontario (in 1996), as well as the current attempts for such undertakings in Quebec, are indicators of the professionalizing trend. Other such initiatives, also present in other provinces (namely, Alberta, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia), aim at raising the standards in teacher training and at better controlling its quality through the definition of standards for training and practice. Yet the discourse of professionalism has in some respects been co-opted by the state and transformed into government by norms. The substitution of credentials for professional practice, while intended to support professionalization, serves instead to undermine it. Credentialism becomes the overriding trend and the substitute for the promotion of professionalism.

In the 1990s, accountability replaced autonomy in discussions of roles within the state. Accountability has also come to mean recognition of the dominance of market ideology. Governments press educational institutions and systems to be more responsive to the economy and to create alliances with the private sector. The accountability models are embedded within the broader, ideological mechanisms–variously characterized as public-sector reform, new public management, and the "evaluative state"–that have accompanied the political-economic transition from welfare state to the global economy.

The severe limitations on public expenditures are linked to the general suspicion of public institutions and a belief in the greater efficiency of free-market forces. The key policy terms that are the symbols of both market and accountability are "choice" and "privatization." The battle against federal and provincial deficits and the adoption of neoliberal assumptions concerning the role of the state has led governments to inflict considerable budget cuts on educational systems while looking to maximize their services. Yet while the position of the provinces got worse, by 2000 the federal government had moved into surplus. Efforts to decentralize responsibility and increase the autonomy of school boards and school staffs has translated into a more significant role for parents, the development of an "in-service training" culture, and the elaboration of school programs that promote the acquisition of competencies required in the new knowledge society. A parent council structure was created in British Columbia in 2002 and was already in place in six other provinces, including Ontario and Quebec.

For a majority of teachers in urban settings, the combination of immigration policy, the longstanding commitment to diversity and multiculturalism and the new emphasis on "inclusion" has created schools very different from the ones that existed in the 1980s. Schools can contain students who speak as many as eighty different languages, a high proportion of ESL (English as a second language) students, and many students with special needs. The increasing cultural and linguistic diversity has become most evident in the three major urban centers, Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver. On the other hand, diversity and equality have been safeguarded and extended through the teaching of heritage languages, curriculum design, and the development of programs to combat racism. The development of French-language school boards across the country is a good indicator of this trend.

A major retrenchment and restructuring has occurred throughout Canada as provincial ministries have drastically reduced the number of school boards through amalgamation. These changes have been accompanied by a tightening of control over expenditures at the local level.

Skills and knowledge have become central elements in economic policy as human resource policy has become the modern equivalent of human capital theory in the 1960s. In postsecondary education there has been a growing emphasis on technical and professional programs. Universities are developing closer links with business and industry. Since the late 1980s, the shift has been toward more private and less public expenditure on postsecondary education. Part of this shift is related to the increase in tuition fees, which have more than doubled, but this trend also includes the rise in nongovernmental sources of funding for research.

The most pressing need in Canadian education systems and the society at large is the expected shortfall in the supply of professional personnel. By 2010, Canada will need to replace 50 percent of its teachers, instructors, and professors.

See also: Immigrant Education; International Education; Language and Culture; Multicultural Education.

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Axelrod, Paul. 2002. Values in Conflict: The University, the Marketplace, and the Trials of Liberal Education. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

Canadian Association of University Teachers. 2002. Almanac of Post-Secondary Education in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Association of University Teachers.

Clifton, Rodney. 2000. "Post-Secondary Education in Canada, 1960–2000: The Best Years We Have Ever Had." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education, Sherbrooke, Quebec, May 26.

Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. 1996. The Development of Education: Report of Canada. Toronto: Council of Ministers of Education, Canada.

Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, and Statistics Canada. 2000. Education Indicators in Canada: Report of the Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program, 1999. Toronto: Council of Ministers of Education, Canada; Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada.

Dunning, Paula. 1997. Education in Canada: An Overview. Toronto: Canadian Education Association.

Fisher, Donald. 1991. The Social Sciences in Canada: Fifty Years of National Activity by the Social Science Federation of Canada. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.

Fisher, Donald; Atkinson-Grosjean, Janet; and House, Dawn. 2001. "Changes in Academy/Industry/State Relations in Canada: The Creation and Development of the Networks of Centres of Excellence." Minerva 39:54–73.

Fisher, Donald, and Edwards, Gail. 1999. "The Legitimation of Education in Canadian Universities: A Social History of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education/Société Canadienne pour l'étude de l'éducation." In A Challenge Met: The Definition and Recognition of the Field of Education, ed. Michel Allard, James Covert, Collette Dufresne-Tassé, Angela Hildyard, and Michael Jackson. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Society for the Study of Education and University of Toronto Press.

Fleming, Thomas. 1993. Review and Commentary on Schooling in Canada, 1993. A Report to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization International Seminar on Curriculum and Decentralization, Santiago, Chile, November 3–5.

Ghosh, Ratna, and Ray, Douglas, eds. 1995. Social Change and Education in Canada, 3rd edition. Toronto: Harcourt Brace.

Harris, Robin S. 1960. A History of Higher Education in Canada, 1663 to 1960. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Healy, Dennis. 1978. Report of the Commission on Graduate Studies in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Ottawa, Ontario: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Human Resources Development Canada. 1996. Federal and Provincial Support to Post-Secondary Education in Canada: A Report to Parliament, 1994–1995. Hull, Quebec: Human Resources Development Canada.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 1996. Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2001. Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Pagliarello, Claudio. 1994. "Private Elementary and Secondary Schools." Elementary Quarterly Review 1 (1):42–50.

Polanyi, Karl. 1944. The Great Transformation. New York and Toronto: Farrar and Rinehart.

Scott, Peter. 1995. The Meanings of Mass Higher Education. Buckingham, Eng.: Society for Research into Higher Education; Bristol, PA: Open University Press.

Sears, Alan, and Hughes, Andrew S. 1996. "Citizenship Education and Current Educational Reform." Canadian Journal of Education 21:123–142.

Statistics Canada. 1997. Education in Canada, 1996. Ottawa, Ontario: Statistics Canada.

Wotherspoon, Terry. 1998. The Sociology of Education in Canada. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

internet resource

Centre of Education Research Information System. 2001. "Theme: Parents." <www.schoolnet.ca/ceris/e/Parents1.html>

Donald Fisher

CANADA

The 2001 census found that Canada has a population of 31 million people who are heavily concentrated in communities located within 100 miles of the Canada–United States border. There is further concentration of the population in cities and towns, as over 60 percent of all Canadians live in the twenty-five metropolitan areas that have populations of over 100,000, and 80 percent live in urban areas. Despite their vast landmass, the three northern territories (Yukon, Northwest Territory, and Nunavut) contain only about three-tenths of one percent of the total population. Like all other industrialized countries, Canada experienced significant aging of its population over the twentieth century. In 2001, 12.6 percent of the population was over age sixty-five (very similar to the United States, where 12.4 percent was over the age of sixty-five). As the size of the older population has increased, interest in aging and the place of older people in Canadian society has grown.

History of population aging

Data on the aging of Canada's population over the twentieth century are shown in Table 1. Although the population over age sixty-five increased 2.5 times between 1901 and 2001 (from 5.0 percent to 12.6 percent), the rate of change was not uniform over the century. During the first half of the century population aging progressed at a gradual pace, so that by midcentury 7.8 percent of all Canadians over sixty-five. This aging occurred primarily because of declining fertility, and would have been greater if there had not been large-scale immigration during the first several decades. Because immigrants were concentrated in the young adult ages, their large flow temporarily reduced the proportion of the population that was old. Then, in response to the baby boom and revival of immigration after World War II, the proportion of elderly in the population actually declined slightly between 1951 and 1961 (from 7.8 percent to 7.6 percent). During the last third of the century, Canada experienced very low fertility and rapid population aging occurred. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, the proportion of the population over age sixty-five reached an all time high of 12.6 percent.

Data in Table 1 also show that the proportion in the oldest-old category (over eighty-five) more than tripled between 1951 and 2001. That population is of special interest because people at this stage of life are the heaviest users of health care services. Despite the rapid increase in the oldestold category, it still constitutes less than 2 percent of the total population. An even more extreme age category is centenarians. The 1921 census found only 183 persons over age one hundred, but the number in this category grew to over three thousand by 2001 (a sixteen-fold increase).

Statistics Canada makes projections of the population by age and sex, and their projected age distributions for the years 2011 and 2026 are shown in Table 1. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, population aging is expected to continue at about the same pace it followed at the end of the previous century. But then starting in 2011, an unprecedented increase in the older population is anticipated. In just fifteen years, the percent of elderly will jump from 14.5 percent to 21.4 percent. The explanation for this dramatic development is, of course, the baby boom (1945 to 1963), and the subsequent baby bust. The first wave of the baby boom will reach age sixty-five around 2010, and then for nearly two decades successive cohorts of baby boomers will be crossing the threshold of old age. Canada, like other industrialized countries, will face a challenge of how to maintain its pension and health care benefits for older people in an era when the ratio of retired persons to workers is so much greater than it has ever been before.

Distribution of older people

Variations in the proportion of those over sixty-five across Canada are explained by differences in fertility and by past migration patterns. The territories in the north are characterized by very high fertility, and they have relatively few older people. Among the provinces, the oldest populations in 2001 were in Saskatchewan (14.6 percent over age sixty-five) and Manitoba (13.6 percent over age sixty-five). These prairie provinces have experienced slow growth for several decades, as many youth have moved out, leaving a disproportionate number of older people. In contrast, areas with significant growth due to inmigration tend to have younger populations. For example, Alberta and Ontario have both grown rapidly and have relatively fewer older people (9.9 percent and 12.4 percent over age sixty-five, respectively). The exception to this pattern is British Columbia, which was the fastest growing province in the 1990s, but does not have an especially young population (12.7 percent over age sixty-five). Indeed, Victoria, British Columbia, has the unofficial title "Canada's Senior Capital" because 18.2 percent of its population is over age sixty-five. (Statistics Canada, 1999).

In 1996, most (78 percent) older Canadians lived in urban areas, and one-third resided in the four metropolitan areas with populations exceeding one million (Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, and Ottawa). However, about one-fifth of Canada's older population lives in rural areas. Given the vast landmass of Canada, many of these areas have exceedingly low population density, making the delivery of services to seniors particularly difficult. Many rural communities are trying to develop economic opportunities to retain their younger populations and thereby be able to provide more services for seniors. The success of these endeavours has varied within and across provinces, but is the basis of important policy and planning concerns in all provinces.

Characteristics of the older population

Sex ratio. In Canada, as elsewhere, almost 3 percent more males than females are born each year. This surplus of males continues up to about age forty-five, after which females become an increasingly large majority. By the time one gets to old age, the number of females significantly exceeds the number of males. In 2001, women constituted 57 percent of all older Canadians, and 70 percent of those past age eighty-five. These ratios are expected to remain about the same until 2026 (Statistics Canada, 1999). The reason for the changing sex ratio with age is that females experience lower death rates than males at every age. By looking at sex differences in life expectancy at birth, one can see how much advantage females have over males in longevity. Life expectancy is the average number of years that one would live under age-specific death rates existing at a particular time. Death rates around 1920 resulted in women's life expectancy exceeding men's by two years (61 versus 59). By 1970 the gender gap in life expectancy had grown to seven years (76 versus 69). In recent decades the gender gap has declined a little, and in 1996 was below six (81.4 versus 75.7) (Statistics Canada, 1999). The imbalanced sex ratio in later life caused by differential mortality has implications for gender differences in aging.

Marital status. The excess number of older women compared to men means that chances of being married in old age differ by sex. While almost 75 percent of older men are married, only 41 percent of older women are married. Correspondingly, almost half of older women are widowed as compared to 13 percent of older men. This difference is even more dramatic among those age eighty-five and over, where just over half of men, but less than 10 percent of women, are married, and twice as many women as men are widowed (80 percent versus 39 percent). Given the sex differences in marital status, it is not surprising that more older women than men live alone (38 percent versus 16 percent). Among those aged eighty-five plus, the gap between women and men living alone is even greater (58 percent versus 29 percent) (Statistics Canada, 1999).

Living arrangements. Most older Canadians (93 percent) live in private households, but as cohorts age, an increasing proportion is cared for in institutions. The proportion living in institutions in 1996 increased from only 3 percent for those aged sixty-five to seventy-four to 34 percent of the population over age eighty-five. Within the oldest-old population, women, who are more likely to be widowed and have more functional limitations than men, are more likely than men to be institutionalized (38 percent versus 24 percent) (Statistics Canada, 1999). The disproportionate number of women among the older population and their greater likelihood of being institutionalized result in 70 percent of all long-term care residents being women.

Immigrant status. As a country that is largely the result of immigration, the ethnic and linguistic diversity in Canada is substantial. The original settlers were predominantly from England, Scotland, France, Ireland, and Wales, but were joined by immigrant families from Germany, Ukraine, Poland, Russia, and China in the nineteenth century. The heaviest immigration to Canada, relative to the nonimmigrant population, occurred between 1906 and 1915, and immigrants in this period tended to be young adult males. This pattern of immigration had important implications for the age and sex structure of the aging population during the latter part of the twentieth century. Even as recently as 1996, a remarkable 27 percent of all Canadians past age sixty-five were foreign born. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the largest number of immigrants came from Asia and Latin America (more than half of the immigrants since 1980 have come from Asia) (Statistics Canada, 1999). This new immigration pattern suggests that in the future there will be even greater ethnic variation in the older population than there is today. One result of the immigration history is that it creates an important difference between the languages and cultures of many seniors and those of the persons who are delivering services to seniors.

Labor force participation. Over the twentieth century the labor force participation rate declined continuously as retirement became institutionalized. This pattern continued in the late twentieth century as the proportion of those over age sixty-five still in the labor force declined from 11 percent in 1981 to 6 percent in 1998. Not surprisingly, a higher proportion of older men than women was in the labor force in 1998 (10 percent versus 3 percent). The distribution of employed older persons across occupational categories was fairly uniform: 21 percent employed in farming, 17 percent in professions, 15 percent in sales, 12 percent in both services and managerial occupations, and the remaining in clerical, manufacturing, construction, and transportation. Of course participation in the labor force is not the only way for older people to make productive contributions to Canadian society. About 23 percent of seniors participate in formal volunteer roles, and a majority (58 percent) report that they provide informal assistance to others outside their own homes. Slightly more women than men contribute in this way. As retirement has become nearly universal among people over age sixty-five, the most notable change in the labor force age structure since the mid-1970s has been the marked decrease in participation by those age fifty-five to sixty-four. Among men in what was once considered a preretirement age category, labor force participation declined from 74 percent in 1976 to 56 percent in 1998. Over this same time period, women ages fifty-five to sixty-four slightly increased their level of involvement in the labor force (from 30 percent to 36 percent). It is noteworthy that 22 percent of women, but only 2 percent of men, over age sixty-five never participated in the paid labor force (Statistics Canada, 1999).

Poverty and economic status. The proportion of older people in Canada with incomes below what Statistics Canada labels the "low income" cutoff declined from 34 percent in 1980 to 20 percent in 1998. This is the same as the percent of children with low incomes, and slightly higher than the percent of nonold adults. Within the older population, women are twice as likely as men to have low incomes (27 percent v 13 percent), and more than half (53 percent) of unattached older women have low incomes. Provincial variations in average income are substantial, with territories and provinces in the Atlantic region having lowest average incomes, and seniors living in Ontario, Alberta, and British Columbia having average incomes about $5,000 above the Canadian average. The primary source of income for seniors is Old Age Security, which provides 29 percent of all income received by people over age sixty-five. Other sources are employment-based pensions (21 percent), Canada and Quebec Pension Plan benefits (21 percent), investments (17 percent), and employment (8 percent). There is a variety of programs in most provinces that supplement the incomes of seniors in need. Another indicator of economic well-being is home ownership. A majority of senior families (84 percent), and almost half of unattached seniors, own their own homes (Statistics Canada, 1999). Some provinces contribute to the rent of low-income seniors through a variety of programs, and some provide support services to enable older people to remain in their own homes after developing functional limitations.

Health status. Less than one-fourth of older Canadians report their general health is only "fair" or "poor", and 40 percent report that it is "excellent" or "very good." The remainder (38 percent) report good health. Nevertheless, 82 percent of those aged sixty-five and over reported having at least one long-term chronic condition. Regarding more serious conditions, 28 percent report being limited in at least some activities because of a chronic health conditions. Among seniors between ages sixty-five and seventy-four, slightly more men than women report some limitation (23 percent versus 21 percent), but past age eighty-five women are more likely than men to report limitations (54 percent versus 42 percent). By far the most commonly reported chronic condition among both men and women is arthritis, which increases with advancing age; 53 percent of those aged eighty-five and over have this problem. Heart disease also increases throughout the later years of life to a peak of 22 percent at age eighty-five, but high blood pressure peaks between ages seventy-five and eighty-four at 35 percent. Another significant chronic disease, diabetes, remains almost constant at about 11 percent through later life (Statistics Canada, 1999).

Health care. The public health care insurance system in Canada contributes to the sense of well-being and financial security of all Canadians, especially of older Canadians. The national system includes all medically necessary treatment as legislated by the Canada Health Act. However, the degree to which long-term care (home care and facility care) is provided or covered varies substantially from province to province. While most provinces cover prescription drugs and vision care for seniors, the existence and amount of copayment vary across the provinces. All provinces have policies and service delivery programs to meet long-term care needs. The most comprehensive programs with lowest copayment requirements are in Manitoba and Quebec, and the least comprehensive and most costly to the consumer are in Alberta, Ontario, and Nova Scotia.

Summary

Canada is a large, diverse, and aging country. Some population projections indicate that one-fourth of the population may be over age sixty-five by 2041. The population is aging in a manner much like that of the United States, but the challenge of a low population density is not experienced to the same degree in the United States. The low population density in rural areas presents Canadians with the challenge of how to deliver health, social, and commercial services to older people throughout the country. Provinces are responding to this challenge in varying ways, consistent with their history, political, and philosophical orientations. The general, social, and health conditions are also similar in Canada and the United States, but the differences in health care delivery and insurance and in pensions contributes to a greater sense of well-being and security among Canadians, particularly among senior Canadians.

Betty Havens

See also Canada, Health Care Coverage for Older People; Canda, Income Protection for Retirees; Population Aging.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, G. F. and Hussey, P. S. "Population Aging: A Comparison among Industrialized Countries." Health Affairs 19 (2000):191–203.

Basavarajappa, K. G. and Ram, B. Historical Statistics of Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Catalogue Number 11-516-XIE, 2001.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Labour Force Statistics, 1979–1999. Paris: OECD, 2000.

Statistics Canada. Census of Canada, 1981, Volume 1. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Catalogue Number 82-901, 1982.

Statistics Canada. "Population Projections for 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2021 and 2026, July 1." in CANSIM Matrix 6900. Ottawa: Statistics Canada website, www.statcan.ca

Statistics Canada. A Portrait of Seniors in Canada, Third Edition. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Catalogue Number 89-519-XPE, 1999.

Statistics Canada. "Preliminary Population Estimate." The Daily. (November 20, 2001): 1.

Statistics Canada. Statistics Canada's Low Income Cut-offs, 1992 Base. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Catalogue Number 13-207-XPB, 1998.

Canada

Recipes

1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT

Canada is the world's second-largest country (after Russia), and is the largest country in North America. The eastern provinces, known as the Maritimes, are separated from the rest of the country by low mountain ranges. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island are island provinces in the Atlantic Ocean.

Along the border with the United States in the center of Canada is a fertile plain bounded by the Saint Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson Bay. Also along the U.S. border further to the west are farms and ranches. Extending through western Alberta to the Pacific Ocean is the northern portion of the Rocky Mountain range. Mount Logan, at 19,524 feet (5,915 meters) the highest peak in Canada, is near the Alaska border. The climate varies across the vast Canadian territory. The west coast gets about 60–120 inches (150–300 centimeters) of rain each year; the center part of the country gets less that 20 inches (50 centimeters), and the Maritime provinces 45–60 inches (115–150 centimeters). In British Columbia, there are 252 rainy days each year, but in the center of the country, there are just 100.

2 HISTORY AND FOOD

France and England battled over who would colonize the territory of Canada in the late 1400s. The English explorer John Cabot arrived in Newfoundland in 1497. About 40 years later in 1534, Jacques Cartier began his exploration of Canada on behalf of France. By the early 1600s, there were permanent French colonies, and in 1663, New France was established as a territory of France. French fur traders competed with the traders of the Hudson's Bay Company, run by British merchants. Wars in North America, known as the French and Indian wars, were waged in the 1700s. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended the armed fighting and established British rule over all of the territory formerly called New France.

In 1846 conflict over the western portion of the United States–Canada border was resolved, and the border was set at 49°north latitude. This border has been undisputed every since.

Food and other customs in Canada still carry hints of the colonial influences of England and France. Canadians speak English except in Quebec, where the language is French, reflecting the influence of French settlers. But there are other regional differences in food and customs, too.

Food in the provinces of Eastern Canada shows signs of English heritage, except in Quebec where the influence is French. In the provinces of Western Canada, the cuisine reflects the explorers and settlers, who, like their southern neighbors in the United States, made simple, hearty meals from available ingredients. In northern Canada—Northwest, Yukon, and Nunavut territories—the diet is limited by the short growing season, dominated by preserved food ingredients, and influenced by the native Inuit diet. And along the west coast in British Columbia, immigrants from Asian nations influence food and cultural practices. In Vancouver in the west and Toronto in the east (and in many places elsewhere in Canada), Lunar New Year celebrations were inspired by the citizens of Asian heritage living there, but are enjoyed by many other Canadians as well.

3 FOODS OF THE CANADIANS

The favorite foods of Canadians vary slightly from region to region, and are strongly influenced by their family heritage, especially in relation to holiday celebrations. Along the Atlantic coast, seafood and dishes derived from English traditions (except in Quebec) are common. In Quebec, favorite foods come from the area's French heritage. Throughout Canada, maple syrup and maple products are popular, reflecting the significance of the maple tree, whose leaf adorns the flag of Canada. Many families enjoy a visit in early spring to a maple sugar "shack," the special rustic building where sap from maple trees is boiled in a large open pan to make maple syrup.

Later in the spring, many people in Eastern Canada visit a wooded area to harvest fiddleheads. Fiddleheads, named because they look like the coiled end of a violin ("fiddle"), are the tasty new sprouts of woodland ferns, picked before they develop into large lacy fronds. They are a fragile spring specialty, usually available for just a few weeks in the spring. Grocery stores in Canada may stock frozen fiddleheads alongside other frozen vegetables.

Sauteed Fiddleheads

Ingredients

• 1 bunch fiddleheads
• 1 Tablespoon butter
• 1 Tablespoon olive oil

Procedure

1. Trim the fiddleheads so that the stem end is about 2 inches long. Rub the dry brown flakes off the fiddleheads, and rinse well.
2. Fill a saucepan with cool water and plunge the fiddleheads into the water to rinse off any grit.
3. Remove the fiddleheads from the pan, change the water, and repeat the soaking. Rinse the fiddleheads under running water to remove any remaining grit.
4. Rinse and dry the saucepan. Measure oil and butter into it and heat until the butter is melted.
5. Add the fiddleheads and sauté, stirring with a wooden spoon, for about 5 minutes. Fiddleheads will be bright green and crispy.

Serves 8 to 10.

Canadian Bacon with Maple Glaze

Ingredients

• ½ cup cider vinegar
• ¾ cups maple syrup
• 1 Tablespoon brown sugar
• 1 pound (approximately) Canadian bacon

Procedure

1. Preheat oven to 300°F (150°C).
2. Combine vinegar, maple syrup, and brown sugar in a bowl. Set aside.
3. Slice Canadian bacon about ½-inch thick. Arrange the slices in a casserole or baking dish, and spoon the syrup mixture over the slices.
4. Bake for 30 minutes. Serve hot or at room temperature. (To serve as a snack, cut slices into bite-sized pieces and serve with toothpicks.)

Serves 6 for lunch or dinner, or 15 to 20 as a snack.

Western Canadians enjoy the products of the large ranches and farms in that part of the country. Barbecued food, beef, and corn dishes, such as Sweet Corn Pancakes, are popular. Berries such as blueberries and saskatoon berries, are popular accompaniments to pancakes, waffles, and are often made into syrups, jams and preserves.

Sweet Corn Pancakes

Ingredients

• 6 eggs, separated (Note: to separate eggs, crack the egg and allow just the white to fall into a bowl, holding the yolk in one of the shell halves. Transfer the yolk back and forth between the two shell halves, being careful not to break it, until all the white has dripped into the bowl. Put the yolk into a separate bowl.)
• ¼ cup half-and-half
• 1 Tablespoon sour cream
• ⅓ cup flour
• 1 teaspoon baking soda
• 1 teaspoon baking powder
• ½ cup corn (may be fresh or frozen corn kernels)
• Vegetable oil to oil the pan

Procedure

1. Beat the egg whites until they hold soft peaks when the beaters are lifted up.
2. In another bowl, combine the egg yolks, half-and-half, and sour cream.
3. Gradually add the dry ingredients to the egg yolk mixture. Add the beaten egg whites, using a gentle stirring motion to combine them with the yolk mixture.
4. Add the corn, and stir gently. Pour a small amount of oil into a non-stick pan and heat it over medium heat. Drop batter, about 1 Tablespoonsful at a time, into the pan for each pancake and cook until golden brown on each side.

Serves 4 to 6.

While Canada is known to some for its beers (such as Molson and Labatts), nonalcoholic beverages that are favorites in Canada are spruce beer (made from spruce trees, a specialty of eastern Canada), and apple and cherry ciders.

4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS

Canadian Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday in October. A typical menu for Thanksgiving is similar to that served in the country's neighbor to the south, the United States.

Thanksgiving

Beet Soup

Roast Turkey with Corn Bread Stuffing

Cranapple Relish

Brussels Sprouts

Mashed Potatoes

Burnished Squash Wedges

Pumpkin Pie

Burns Day is celebrated January 25 to commemorate the birthday of poet Robert Burns (1759–96). It is especially significant for people of Scottish descent worldwide, and Scots Canadians are no exception. On Burns Day, the menu includes such Scottish favorites as haggis, cockaleekie soup (chicken-based leek soup), and Dundee cake (a rich fruitcake).

Canada Day Cake

Ingredients

• 1 white or yellow cake mix
• 1 container white frosting
• 1 quart strawberries
• Picture of flag of Canada

Procedure

1. Prepare cake according to package directions. Bake in a 9-inch by 13-inch cake pan. Allow cake to cool.
2. Frost cake with white frosting. Using a knife or spatula, make surface of frosting as smooth as possible. (It may help to dip the knife or spatula into a glass of water.
3. Slice the strawberries, and arrange in rows at the left and right edges of the cake to represent the stripes at the edges of Canada's Maple Leaf Flag.
4. Referring to the picture of the flag, arrange the slices strawberries in the center of the cake to represent the Maple Leaf.

Serves 24.

On Canada Day (July 1), Canadians celebrate with picnics and fireworks (similar to the Fourth of July in the United States). Dishes served are typical casual dining fare, such as hamburgers, hot dogs, and table settings feature the patriotic color scheme of Canada's red and white maple leaf flag.

A common treat served across Canada is the nanaimo bar. It is believed that nanaimo bars, a sweet bar cookie made in layers, originated in the 1950s in the Vancouver area, when a recipe was published in the Vancouver Sun newspaper. Since then, many variations on the original recipe have been developed. The recipe appears more complicated than it is because of the three separate layers.

Nanaimo Bars

Nanaimo Bars have three layers.

Ingredients for bottom layer

• ½ cup butter
• ¼ cup sugar
• ⅓ cup unsweetened cocoa
• 1 egg
• 1 teaspoon vanilla
• 2 cups crushed graham crackers (packaged graham cracker crumbs may be used)
• 1 cup shredded coconut
• ½ cup chopped walnuts

Ingredients for middle layer

• ¼ cup butter
• 2 cups confectioners' sugar
• 2 Tablespoons vanilla custard powder (available in Canada, but not in the United States; instant vanilla pudding powder may be substituted)
• 3 Tablespoons milk

Ingredients for top layer

• 4 ounces semi-sweet chocolate
• 1 Tablespoon butter

Procedure

1. Make bottom layer: Grease a 9-inch square cake pan.
2. Combine ½ cup butter, sugar, cocoa, egg, and vanilla in a heavy sauce pan. Heat over low heat, stirring constantly, until mixture thickens.
3. Add graham crackers crumbs, coconut, and chopped walnuts, stirring to combine. Press the mixture in the greased pan.
4. Make middle layer: Beat together ¼ cup butter, confectioners' sugar, vanilla custard or pudding powder, and milk, until the mixture is creamy.
5. Spread over graham cracker base in cake pan. Refrigerate bars until firm, at least 1 hour.
6. Make topping: Melt semi-sweet chocolate and 1 Tablespoon butter. Drizzle over chilled bars. Return to refrigerator to chill until firm (at least 1 hour).
7. Cut into squares and serve.

Serves 16.

5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS

Most Canadians eat three meals each day, with breakfast featuring cold cereal, pastries, fruit juices, and hot beverages such as coffee, tea, or hot chocolate. At around noon, Canadians may enjoy a sandwich or soup; students may carry a ham and cheese sandwich, chips or pretzels, and fruit to eat a noon during the school lunch break.

For dinner, depending on where they live, Canadians may have seafood (west coast or Maritime east coast provinces), beef (western Canada, especially Alberta), or chicken or pork. Many Canadians enjoy gravy, serving it frequently with potatoes prepared in many different ways. A traditional Newfoundland dish, Fish and Brewis, features ingredients that may be stored through the long winter months. Desserts featuring maple syrup, such as Maple Syrup Upside-Down Cake or a simple Maple Sundae, are popular treats.

Maple Sundae

Ingredients

• 3 Tablespoons pure maple syrup
• Vanilla ice cream
• Chopped nuts (optional)
• Whipped topping (optional)

Procedure

1. Spoon vanilla ice cream into bowls.
2. Drizzle about 3 Tablespoons of maple syrup over the ice cream.
3. Top with chopped nuts and whipped topping (if desired), and serve immediately.

Serves 1.

Fish and Brewis

• 2 pounds salt cod
• 6 loaves Hard Bread (not readily available in the United States; see Source of Special Ingredients)
• 1 cup salt pork

Procedure

1. Place salt cod in a saucepan, cover with water, and allow to soak overnight. Place Hard Bread in another saucepan, cover with water, and allow this to soak overnight also.
2. Make fish: Drain salt cod and return to saucepan. Refill saucepan with fresh water, heat to simmering, and cook, covered, for 20 minutes. Drain, flake the fish into serving-sized pieces, and arrange with Hard Bread (called brewis ) on a serving platter.
3. Make brewis (Hard Bread): Do not drain Hard Bread. Heat over medium-low heat until water simmers. Simmer, covered, for about 15 minutes. Drain and place cooked Hard Bread, known as brewis, on a serving platter with fish. Place the platter, loosely covered, in the oven on the lowest setting to keep warm.
4. Make scrunchions: Dice the salt pork into small cubes and sauté them in a skillet until golden brown.
5. Serve the fish and brewis, topped with scrunchions.

Serves 6 to 8.

Maple Syrup Upside-Down Cake

Ingredients

• 1 cup maple syrup
• 1 Tablespoon butter, softened
• 3 Tablespoons sugar
• 1 egg
• 1 cup flour
• 2 teaspoons baking powder
• Pinch of salt
• ¼ teaspoon cinnamon or nutmeg
• ½ cup milk
• ¼ cup chopped walnuts (optional)
• Vanilla ice cream or whipped topping as accompaniment (optional)

Procedure

1. Preheat oven to 350°F (175°C)
2. Measure butter, sugar, and egg into a bowl, and beat with a wooden spoon or electric mixer until creamy.
3. Mix flour, baking powder, salt, and cinnamon (or nutmeg) together. Add the dry ingredients and the milk, a little at a time and alternating between the two, to the creamed butter mixture. Stir until well blended.
4. Measure syrup into a small saucepan. Heat the syrup until it boils, and pour into a generously buttered 8-inch square baking pan. If using chopped walnuts, add them to the hot syrup.
5. Scoop up the dough in four large balls and drop them into the hot maple syrup. Using two forks, stretch dough the edges of the balls until the dough forms one large mass. Bake at 350°F (175°C) for 30 minutes.
6. Serve warm, with ice cream or whipping cream (if desired).

Serves 16.

6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION

Only about 5 percent of Canada's land is considered arable (able to grow crops), and agriculture contributes about 2 percent to the country's gross domestic product. The trend is toward larger farms. Canadian farms produce grains such as wheat, barley, corn, and oats. Canada ranks third in the world in grain exports. Canadian farmers and ranchers also raise livestock for export, especially in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.

7 FURTHER STUDY

Books

Barbolet, Herb. Farm Folk, City Folk: Stories, Tips, and Recipes Celebrating Local Food for Food Lovers of All Stripes. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1998.

Barer-Stein, Thelma. You Eat What You Are: People, Culture, and Food Traditions. 2nd ed. Toronto, Ont.: Firefly Books, 1999.

Chavich, Cinda. The Wild West Cookbook. Don Mills, Ont.: R. Rose, 1998.

Claman, Marcy. Rise & Dine Canada: Savory Secrets from Canada's Bed & Breakfast Inns. 2nd ed. Montreal, Quebec: Callawind Publications, 1999.

London, Jonathan. The Sugaring-Off Party. New York: Dutton, 1994. [Picture-book account of maple sugaring in Canada.]

Stewart, Anita. Great Canadian Cuisine: The Contemporary Flavours of Canadian Pacific Hotels. Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre, 1999.

Web Sites

Canada Day Cake Recipe. [Online] Available http://www.mochasofa.com/apps/recipes/RecipeDetail.asp?RecipeId=975 (accessed June 1, 2001).

Liboiron, Henri and Bob St-Cyr. "Making Pemmican." [Online] Available http://collections.ic.gc.ca/notukeu/pemmican_e.htm (accessed April 17, 2001).

Root, Lorna. "Food and More: Canadian Cuisine." [Online] Available http://www.geocities.com/lorna_lynne/recipes/recipe1.html (accessed April 17, 2001).

Source for Special Ingredients

Always Canadian. [Online] Available http://www.alwayscanadian.com (accessed August 17, 2001).

Canada

Canada occupies the northern half of the continent of North America. The forty-ninth degree of latitude between the Pacific Ocean and Lake of the Woods forms its southern boundary with the United States. This border follows a series of lakes and rivers through the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence River. The eastern portion follows an irregular path across the state of Maine to the Bay of Fundy. On the coast of the Pacific Northwest, the state of Alaska separates the northern portion of its most western province, British Columbia, from the Pacific Ocean. In terms of area, Canada is the second-largest country in the world. In terms of population, however, it ranks only thirty-third. The vast majority of Canadians live along the southern edge of the country, in the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence region where Toronto and Montreal, the two largest cities, are located.

The French first colonized Canada, a name derived from the Huron-Iroquois kanata, meaning a village or settlement, in the early seventeenth century. Known as New France, it occupied a small territory around the Gulf of St. Lawrence. From the founding of the city of Quebec in 1608 until the ceding of Canada to Britain in 1763, France placed its stamp upon the history of the continent. Canada came into its own in 1791 when the Constitutional Act (or Canada Act) divided Quebec, then considerably enlarged, into the provinces of Upper Canada and Lower Canada. In 1841 they were joined to form the province of Canada and in 1867 the British North America Act united the province of Canada (divided into Ontario and Quebec) with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to form "one Dominion under the name of Canada." The remaining provinces and territories followed suit between 1870 and 1999.

The history of Canada's children follows the varied paths of the country itself. Although we do not have any physical evidence, the first child born in what would become Canada was likely a son or daughter of Canada's first inhabitants, who are believed to have come from Asia some 18,000 years ago over a temporary land bridge that joined Siberia and Alaska. The children of the First Nations peoples, the eventual successors of these anonymous early settlers, had to learn the ways of complex societies. The nature of childhood, like adulthood, varied greatly among aboriginal peoples, depending on their location and means of survival. The rhythm of life for fishing people like the Kwakiutl on the western coast, hunters like the Blackfoot on the prairies, or farmers like the Huron in central Ontario differed from each other and, in turn, shaped the unique nature of childhood among First Nations peoples.

First Nations: Kwakiutl and Huron

On the central West Coast, for example, Kwakiutl lived in numaym, extended households of up to one hundred people. Midwives assisted at births. Four days after birth the infant was given its first name, and it spent its first year in a cradle carried by its mother. At about a year the child acquired a new name, and boys had their hair singed and holes pierced in their ears and nose. High-status children were later given other names owned by the family. Families marked each new name with a potlatch, or gift-giving ceremony.

Each numaym in Kwakiutl society moved several times a year to one of the five to seven resource sites owned by the chief. In a society highly conscious of property rights, children learned the precise locations of fishing and food-gathering sites and winter village locations. By observation and practice, children gradually mastered some of the skills employed at each site: making wood, stone, bone, and metal tools; constructing longhouses, canoes, and watertight wooden boxes; preserving and storing food; carving poles and masks; and weaving aprons, capes and blankets.

By contrast, the Huron in southern Ontario lived in long-houses consisting of an average of six nuclear families. Families had on average three children. Since the Huron were a matrilineal society, girls were particularly prized. Newborn children usually had their ears pierced, and later, beads and other trinkets were hung about the child's neck. The Huron had a large supply of names available to give their children. It is possible that particular names were the property of different clans.

The training of Huron children followed a gendered script. Boys were encouraged to refuse domestic chores and instead were trained to use the bow and spend much of their time outside shooting arrows, hunting and trapping small game, and playing ball games. Girls received a much different training that focused almost exclusively on domestic tasks, such as pounding corn.

As the process of colonization took increasing hold, First Nations families would struggle to adapt to, and often resist, the encroachments of settler society. After an initial period of cooperation with Europeans, First Nations peoples found their way of life increasingly questioned and threatened by notions of European Christianity and racial superiority. This long period of contact and conflict forever altered the ways in which aboriginal peoples raised children and their expectations for the future.

The Colonial Period: New France

When Samuel de Champlain founded a tiny trading post at Quebec in 1608, the colony of New France began to take shape. In New France, sage femme (midwives) assisted women in childbirth. During the first few months of life, babies were bound tightly in swaddling clothes believed to help straighten their legs and backs. In the absence of either mother's milk or a wet nurse, some infants were given raw cow's milk diluted with river or well water.

As Jacques Henripin's studies show, as many as one in four children in New France died before they celebrated their first birthday. This high rate of infant mortality was countered somewhat by an equally astounding birth rate. Peter Moogk has demonstrated that after the birth of her first child and until the age of about thirty-five, a married Canadienne bore one child every two years. Families in the colony averaged six children. As infants, children slept in wooden cradles and were often given rattles. At night, a mother would tie a rope to the cradle so she could rock her baby from the warmth of her bed. By around the age of seven, children entered the period known as tendre jeunesse, a time in which they were believed to begin to reason for themselves. Along with tendre jeunesse came added responsibilities, such as helping with family chores.

The inhabitants of New France, including its children, were constantly ravaged by epidemics of smallpox, by war, and by infections brought ashore from visiting ships. Nearly half of the adolescents in the colony lost a parent. Illegitimate children were seen as a particular problem in New France, reflecting, in the watchful eyes of church officials, the breakdown of communal social restraints. Between 1701 and 1760, some 1,112 illegitimate children were baptized in what would become the province of Quebec. Guardianship and foster parentage were often the only recourse for single mothers who could not bear the burden of looking after many fatherless children. Often, children as young as five or six were indentured as domestic servants to merchants or to wealthier families. The colonial administration, far from regretting such private arrangements, enforced children's indentures.

In general, few children in the colony were strangers to work. Well before adolescence, children were expected to engage in productive labor. The youngest children helped their mothers amuse infants or took younger siblings for walks. Older children could be expected to help plant crops, cut firewood, or rake hay. In village settings, stables had to be cleaned, chamber pots emptied, firewood gathered and piled, dirty boots scraped, and water fetched. Children generally reached a certain level of competency in their domestic skills, reflected in the fact that, theoretically, those who reached puberty were eligible for marriage (legally twelve for girls and fourteen for boys). Few, however, actually entered into marriage at such a young age.

Childhood among the English-speaking settlers in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was similar to that described for New France. In particular, children were highly valued for the work they performed in settler families. European commentators remarked on the independent and self-reliant character of North American settler children– characteristics more highly developed, they argued, than in children back home.

The Importance of Schooling in the Nineteenth Century

By the nineteenth century, schooling began to slowly over-shadow work as the dominant experience in the lives of many children. Most children attended publicly supported schools for a certain number of years, and by around 1900 many children between the ages of five and sixteen years attended consistently. The increasing importance of schooling in the lives of children reflected shifting attitudes emerging in Western Europe and North America regarding childhood as a separate and special stage of life. Children were increasingly seen as needing protection, special attention, and training. This attitude was reflected also in the care of dependent children, for this was the period in which Canadians began to build special institutions to care for orphans and for children whose parents could not, or would not, care for them. Other economic and demographic changes, such as increasing urban populations, improved roads, and innovations in standardized and mechanized work, also had a considerable impact on the changing character of Canadian children's lives.

By the 1920s, professional interest in the quality of child care and child rearing brought these private concerns more firmly into the public domain. In anglophone Canada (and somewhat later in francophone Canada), social workers, social activists, public health reformers, and education reformers, predominately white and middle class, worked to shape the nature of childhood. Sometimes for better, but occasionally for worse, they intervened in the home and nursery in order to advocate for more hygienic feeding methods, better public health, safer milk supplies, better outdoor play space, and a more inclusive school curriculum. More often than fathers, mothers were the target of this advice and admonishment.

In order to promote ideal middle-class families, social reform advocates in the early years of the twentieth century outlawed child labor, made school attendance compulsory, and worked for the appointment of truancy officers. They tried to provide support for families that had suffered the loss or incapacitation of a male breadwinner by agitating for workers' compensation and mothers' pensions. The work of mothers in factories or sweatshops was more closely monitored, and hot lunch programs at schools were set up. In the larger cities, such as Toronto, "fresh air" funds were initiated to provide poorer children with a chance to escape the city environment during summer vacations.

The turn of the twentieth century also saw a significant change in the way reformers viewed the efficacy of institutional care–a feature of the nineteenth century–for dependent or troubled children. In an effort to ameliorate the worst evils of the baby farming system, they began adoption services to place illegitimate children into family homes rather than in foundling institutions and to legitimize children whose parents subsequently married. The Federal Juvenile Delinquents Act set up a system of juvenile courts, detention homes, and probation officers to focus detection and treatment efforts on the needs of troubled children.

Despite these successes, many other children continued to live under institutional care well into the 1940s and 1950s. Across the country, First Nations children in state-cosponsored residential schools, so-called delinquent children, and children with disabilities often languished in poorly run and supported institutions. As historians continue to discover, many of these children, whether due to racism, powerlessness, official incompetence, or a combination of these and other factors, suffered horrible abuses.

The hardships endured by many children, particularly those outside the dominant white middle class, temper the notion that the history of childhood in Canada has represented an uncomplicated march toward success and improvement. Clearly, however, over the course of the nineteenth century, Canadians by and large strove to improve the lives of the children in their midst.

See also: Australia; Native American Children; New Zealand; Placing Out .

bibliography

Henripin, Jacques. 1954. La population canadienne au début du XVIIIe siècle: nuptialité, fécondité, mortalité infantile. Paris: Presses universitaires de France.

Moogk, Peter C. 1982. "Les Petits Sauvages : The Children of Eighteenth-Century New France." In Childhood and Family in Canadian History, ed. Joy Parr. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.

Sutherland, Neil. 1976. Children in English-Canadian Society: Framing the Twentieth-Century Consensus. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Sutherland, Neil. 1997. Growing Up–Childhood in English Canada from the Great War to the Age of Television. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Trigger, Bruce G. 1969. The Huron–Farmers of the North. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Mona Gleason

Canada

Country statistics

Climate

Canada has a cold climate, with winter temperatures below freezing throughout most of the country. In the n, along the Arctic Circle, temperatures are below freezing for seven months every year. But Vancouver on the w coast has a mild climate, and average temperatures remain above freezing in winter.

Western Canada has plenty of rainfall but the prairies are dry with 250–500mm (10–20in) of rain annually. South-east Canada has a moist climate and Montréal has an annual average of c.1040mm (41in) of rain.

Vegetation

Forests of cedar and hemlock grow on the western mountains, with firs and spruces higher up. The interior plains were once grassy prairies, but today they are used mainly for farming and ranching. The far n is tundra. The se lowlands contain forests of deciduous trees, such as beech, oak and walnut. The Appalachians include beautiful mixed coniferous and deciduous forests.

History

Canada's first people, ancestors of present-day Native Americans, arrived from Asia c.40,000 years ago. Later arrivals were the Inuit, also from Asia. John Cabot was the first European to reach the Canadian coast in 1497. A race began between France and Britain for the riches in this new land. France gained an initial advantage when Jacques Cartier discovered the St Lawrence River in 1534 and claimed Canada for France.

The French established the first European settlement in 1605 and founded Québec in 1608. The empire was extended by explorers such as La Salle. French settlement in the w was generally much slower than English development on the Atlantic coast. The French and Indian Wars (1689–1763) were a protracted battle for colonial domination of Canada. In 1713, the province of Nova Scotia was ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht. In 1759, Québec was captured by Britain, and France surrendered all of its Canadian lands in the Treaty of Paris (1763). In 1774 the French-Canadian population of Québec gained territory to the Ohio River, the Continental Congress responded by invading Canada. During the American Revolution, Canada remained loyal to the English crown, and American attempts to capture it failed. In 1784, the province of New Brunswick was created out of Nova Scotia. The Constitutional Act (1791) divided Canada along linguistic and religious lines: Upper Canada (now Ontario) was English and Protestant; Lower Canada (now Québec) was French and Catholic.

Explorers such as Alexander Mackenzie, James Cook and George Vancouver enabled Britain to form the crown colony of British Columbia in 1858. Border disputes with the USA (see Aroostook War, War of 1812) continued into the 19th century.

Large-scale immigration from Ireland and Scotland increased tension and conflict between the English-speaking majority and the French-speaking minority. In an attempt to reduce conflict, the British passed the British North America Act (1867). This constitutional act established the federation or Dominion of Canada, consisting of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In 1869 it acquired the lands of the Hudson's Bay Company and other provinces were added: Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871), Prince Edward Island (1873), Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905) and Newfoundland (1949). The Dominion's first prime minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, established the Canadian Pacific Railway, which proved disastrous to his career but provided the means for 3 million Europeans to emigrate to Canada between 1894 and 1914. Canadians fought as part of Allied forces in both World Wars, and in 1949 Canada was a founding member of NATO. Under the leadership of W. L. Mackenzie King, national unity was strengthened and industry developed. In 1963, Lester Pearson became prime minister and, as a sign of Canada's growing national confidence, adopted a new national flag. In 1967, Montréal hosted the influential Expo' 67. Pierre Trudeau's first administration (1968–79) faced violent separatist demands for Québec's independence, and martial law was imposed in 1970. In 1976, Montréal hosted the summer Olympic Games. In Trudeau's second administration (1980–84), Québec voted to remain part of the federation (1980). The Canada Act (1981) amended the constitution, and Canada became a fully sovereign state with a Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It was approved by all the provinces, except Québec which claimed power of constitutional veto. In 1985 Brian Mulroney and provincial leaders signed the Meech Lake Accord, which provided for Québec to be brought into the constitutional settlement as a “distinct society”. Manitoba and Newfoundland failed to endorse the Accord, and Canada was plunged into constitutional crisis.

Politics

Jean Chrétien became prime minister in 1993, and was re-elected in 1997 and 2000. A 1995 referendum on sovereignty for Québec was narrowly defeated by 50.6% to 49.4%. Regional differences exist, and experts argue that the reconciliation of the divisions between the e (Montréal-Toronto) axis and the w (Vancouver-Winnipeg) axis is vital for Canada's future prosperity. In 2003, Paul Martin became prime minister.

Canada's new constitution enabled Native Americans to press for land claims. In 1999 part of the Northwest Territories became the Inuit territory of Nunavut.

Economy

Canada is a highly developed and prosperous nation (2000 GDP per capita, US$24,800). Although farmland covers only 8% of the land, farms are highly mechanized and productive. Canada is the world's leading producer of linseed and the second largest producer of oats and rapeseed. Canada's vast conifer forests and the availability of cheap hydroelectric power has encouraged the development of huge wood pulp and paper industries. Fishing is important in both Atlantic and Pacific waters.

Canada is rich in mineral resources and is the world's leading producer of uranium, potash, and zinc ore. Other major resources include nickel, aluminium, cobalt ore and natural gas. Lesser resources include copper, gold, molybdenum and salt. Canada is also a major producer of petroleum. Manufacturing is highly developed, especially in the cities where 77% of the population live. Canada is a major manufacturer of commercial vehicles. Other products include chemicals, electronic goods, machinery and telecommunications equipment.

Canada has long been influenced, both culturally and economically, by the USA, and the two countries have the largest bilateral trade flow in the world. Since January 1, 1994, Canada, Mexico and the USA have been linked through the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the world's largest trading area, with the aim to eliminate cross-border tariffs within 20 years.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://gc.ca; http://www.travelcanada.ca

Canada The world's second largest country by area, it emerged from the British colonies of British North America as a self-governing Dominion through the British North America Act of 1 July 1867, consisting of a confederation of the mostly French-speaking province of Quebec, and the predominantly English-speaking provinces of Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The growth of British colonists outside Quebec, who now formed a majority in the Canadian population, ensured that government would be dominated by English-speakers. Meanwhile, given that it was too weak economically to be independent, Quebec maintained control over its own cultural and educational affairs, while gaining some protection against US cultural and economic domination. At the same time, throughout its history Canada's existence has been fundamentally shaped by its southern neighbour, the USA, which became the world's wealthiest and most powerful nation during the twentieth century. After the decline of British influence from World War I, two factors became the fundamental determinants of Canada's twentieth-century history: the internal threat of tensions between its English- and French-speaking populations, and the constant need to preserve cultural, economic, and national identity against the United States.

To make Canada viable as an independent state, in the early twentieth century Laurier and Sifton encouraged westward expansion and European settlement there, to the detriment of the native peoples, whose rights were largely ignored. Laurier authorized a second transcontinental railway line to link Manitoba with the Pacific in 1903. Finally, in 1905, the provinces of Manitoba and British Columbia were linked by the creation of the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta. Canadian ambiguities towards the US surfaced in 1911, when Laurier's plans to liberalize trade between the two countries gave rise to fear of US goods flooding the Canadian economy, and brought down his government. He was succeeded by the Conservative Borden, who steered the country through World War I, in which it participated automatically through the British declaration of war on behalf of the British Empire. This involvement was relatively uncontroversial as long as it concerned the recruitment of volunteers. However, as in Australia and Ireland, social discord erupted on the issue of compulsory military service overseas. This was fundamentally opposed by the French-speaking Canadians, who felt no principled loyalty towards the British Empire. The 1917 Military Service Act, therefore, deeply divided Canadian society as well as the political parties, and it required a unionist government including some Liberal defectors to enact conscription.

The Liberal Party recovered under the effective leadership of Mackenzie King, who became Canada's longest-serving Prime Minister in the twentieth century (1921–48), discounting brief interludes by the Conservative leaders Meighen (1926) and Bennett (1930–5). Participation in World War I heightened Canada's self-confidence as a nation, taking part in the Paris Peace Conference and the League of Nations not represented by Britain, but in its own right. Canada's international autonomy was formally recognized by the Statute of Westminster (1931), when it gained control over all its affairs, including foreign and defence policy. Its economic dependence on the USA was exposed, however, by the Great Depression, which hit it almost immediately, and with at least the same force as in the USA. In contrast, Canada's leaders were unable or unwilling to pass effective measures to combat the economic slump, so that recovery depended greatly on the success of Roosevelt's New Deal.

Owing to pressure from Woodsworth and the growth of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, Mackenzie King overcame his relative legislative passivity to inaugurate the beginnings of a welfare state before and during World War II, in which conscription once again became the most contentious issue. However, the welfare state was mainly legislated by Mackenzie King's successors, the Liberals St Laurent and Pearson, and the Progressive Conservative Diefenbaker. After World War II, the existence of a welfare state helped set Canadian society apart from the economic and social liberalism of the USA. A further distinctively Canadian feature was its active support of, and identification with, the UN, and particularly its peacekeeping operations.

After a decade of prosperity, the Liberal Party of Quebec launched the Quiet Revolution in 1960, which became the catalyst for renewed and increasingly popular demands for the sovereignty of Quebec, as underlined by the growth of the separatist Parti Québecois. Since the 1970s, Canadian domestic politics have been dominated by the debate about the role of Quebec within the Canadian confederation. In a 1980 referendum, 60 per cent of Quebeckers rejected sovereignty, partly because of the assurances of Chrétien and Trudeau that a new, comprehensive, and lasting constitutional settlement would be worked out which would take into account the French-speaking population's concerns. However, Quebec's aspirations were insufficiently recognized in the 1982 settlement of the Canadian Constitution, while other provinces refused to grant Quebec the special status accorded to it in the Meech Lake Accord of 1987, worked out by Mulroney.

Demands for the sovereignty of Quebec were further complicated by the acceptance in principle of the land claims of the Canadian Indian peoples, the Inuit and the Métis. This was particularly problematic for those increasingly self-governing native peoples who lived in Quebec and who expressed a desire to remain within the Canadian Federation, even if the majority of French-speakers in Quebec were to vote for independence. In 1995, a referendum in Quebec for independence failed by a margin of 1 per cent. Thereafter, the separatist tide turned. In the 1998 provincial elections, the federalist Liberal Party gained a majority of the popular vote. In that year also, the Supreme Court ruled that the province did not have the right to declare independence unilaterally, and that such a decision would have to respect the concerns of Canada's other provinces, as well as the First Nation minorities inside Québec. While Québec separatism receded into the political background, the Western provinces became more assertive. This was encouraged by NAFTA, which allowed the provinces direct access to the US market. The politics of the western provinces were expressed in the distinctive strength of the right-wing Reform Party, which in 1997 became the country's principal opposition party. However, the party failed to progress beyond its regional strongholds even after it had reshaped itself into the Canadian Alliance. Canada's political, cultural, and economic fragmentation provided the foundation of Liberal Party's dominance, which as the only nationwide party obtained an absolute parliamentary majority in three general elections between 1993 and 2000.

Table 2. Canadian Prime Ministers, 1896–2002

Canada. A self-governing dominion since 1867, much of Canada was earlier colonized by the British and the French. British interest in the area initially focused not on the land but on the sea. Ships leaving the west country probably located the Grand Banks fisheries even before John Cabot's explorations of 1497. Despite official discouragement of settlement, Newfoundland became de facto the first overseas British colony, a status it relinquished later than other parts of what would become Canada.

In 17th- and 18th-cent. usage, the name Canada referred primarily to the St Lawrence lowlands. Here the British involvement is usually dated from Wolfe's victory on the Plains of Abraham (1759), but this was not the first British attempt to capture the French colony. In 1629 the Kirke brothers seized the small fort at Quebec. The colony was returned to the French three years later. Subsequent large-scale but unsuccessful attacks took place in 1690 and 1711.

From 1670, through the royally chartered Hudson's Bay Company, England claimed sovereignty over Rupert's Land, an area including much of the central plains and northern Canada. The control the Hudson's Bay Company exercised was largely at the sufferance of the native peoples of the area, but the expanding fur trade eventually led the company to set up posts in the far north and on the west coast, establishing British claims to this contested region.

In the long-running 18th-cent. conflict with France, the British definitively acquired Acadia, renamed Nova Scotia, in 1713. For some forty years, the British laid few claims to the area. Unable to secure a pledge of allegiance from the Acadian population, British authorities dispossessed and deported them. Nova Scotia was then available for Anglo-American settlement.

With the fall of Quebec in 1759, and the 1763 treaty of Paris, British control over the northern half of North America was unrivalled. The attempt to integrate the French, catholic population of the St Lawrence valley into the British empire formed a large part of the political agenda for the next century. A series of constitutions was enacted to address the evolving relationship. The Quebec Act (1774) guaranteed religious freedoms and legal customs, providing greater privileges to the Canadians than catholics enjoyed in Britain. In doing so, it heightened tensions between Britain and its colonies to the south.

When conflict between Britain and its other North American colonies broke out, Nova Scotia, though populated in large part by recent arrivals from Massachusetts, obeyed the military garrison at Halifax. Quebec maintained its allegiance, not necessarily out of love for the British rulers, but for fear of the more radical protestants of the rebel colonies. In the aftermath of the American Revolution, loyalist refugees streamed north to the colonies that had refused to join the rebels.

The arrival of the Anglo-American refugees created new exigencies. Nova Scotia was divided into two colonies, New Brunswick and peninsular Nova Scotia. Prince Edward Island had already acquired a separate administration from Nova Scotia in 1769, and Cape Breton Island enjoyed a separate status as a refuge for loyalists for 40 years. In 1791, Quebec was divided essentially along the Ottawa river to create Upper and Lower Canada. Henceforth, Upper Canada contained primarily an English-speaking population.

The North American colonies were often more of strategic than economic importance to the British. With the fisheries secured, the colonies served two other main purposes. They provided other primary resources, such as wheat, timber, and minerals. Also, they offered a place for British emigrants. Until the 1810s, relatively few made the rough transatlantic voyage to settle in the British North American colonies. But after 1815, Highland Scots and northern Irish flocked to Canada. These huge influxes of population exacerbated tensions between colonial politicians and the mother country and were important factors in the rebellions of 1837–8 in Lower Canada. In turn, these rebellions suggested to the British government that the attempt to integrate the French-Canadian population into the empire had not been successful.

A third constitution, the Union Act, tried to address the problems, uniting the two Canadas, in the hope of swamping the French-speaking population. However, brilliant French-Canadian politicians made alliances with reformist English-speaking colleagues to defeat the attempts. The fourth constitution, the British North America Act of 1867, essentially rejected the assimilationist policy, by separating again Upper and Lower Canada, and joining them with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, much to the dismay of many people in the latter two colonies. The four provinces received important degrees of autonomy, within a federal system. This constitution, the longest lasting of all the attempts, has proved the most malleable, and despite increasing tensions since the 1960s, the most successful. But Quebec separatism, as demonstrated by the referendum of 1995, remains strong.

With the BNA Act, the name Canada extended to take in the provinces involved. Other provinces and territories were either annexed or joined the federation subsequently: the Northwest Territories through purchase from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870; Manitoba (1870); British Columbia (1871); Prince Edward Island (1873); the Arctic Islands (1880), Yukon (1898); Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905); Newfoundland (1949). Canada was a self-governing dominion, the ‘eldest daughter’ of the empire. Constitutionally equal in status to Britain according to the statute of Westminster (1931), until 1949 the final court of appeal remained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, and until 1982 any amendments to the constitution had to be requested of the Westminster Parliament.

Due to further waves of migration, Canada retained and extended its British character. Between 1902 and 1912 alone, over 1.5 million British emigrants left for Canada. A similarly large proportion of immigrants arrived following the Second World War. In part because of these continuing migrations, cultural and emotional links to Britain in English-speaking Canada remained strong until relatively recently and Canada contributed greatly to the allied war effort in both world wars. However, following the Second World War, Canadian politicians and diplomats have attempted to carve out a separate space in world affairs. For instance, Lester B. Pearson won the Nobel peace prize for negotiating an end to the Suez crisis in 1956 despite British consternation at Canada's role in the matter.

By 1994 Canada's population was nearing 30 million. Economically, Canada has at times relied heavily on British markets and investment. Though in slow decline for a long period, since the Second World War trade between Canada and Britain has levelled out at a lower, but not inconsequential, level. As the economic clout of the USA expanded in the 20th cent., so did its influence over Canada. The passage of the Free Trade Agreement in 1989 (and later the North American Free Trade Agreement) recognized and indeed enhanced Canada's continental orientation.

Colin M. Coates

Bibliography

Conrad, M., et al. , History of the Canadian Peoples (2 vols., Toronto, 1993);
Francis, R. D., et al. , Origins: Canadian History to Confederation (Toronto, 1992);
—— et al., Destinies: Canadian History since Confederation (Toronto, 1992).

Canada The second largest country of the world, occupying the whole of the northern part of North America except for Alaska and bounded by three oceans: the Pacific on the west, the Arctic on the north, and the Atlantic on the east. Canada is a federation of ten North American provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan), the Yukon Territory, the North-west Territories, and the semiautonomous region of Nunavut.

Physical

Canada's southern boundary crosses the Rocky Mountains and continues eastward on latitude 49° N. to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence, and then crosses the northern Appalachian Mountains to join the sea along the Saint Croix River. While the Saint Lawrence is Canada's most important river, the Mackenzie in the north-west is the longest. Northern Canada is a land of lakes, wide and winding rivers, low tundra vegetation, and dark coniferous forests. The heart of the country is a vast grain-growing region, despite a harsh climate of very cold winters and very warm but short summers. The land becomes more hilly in Quebec and the easternmost maritime provinces, and farmers concentrate on orchard crops. Canada has huge deposits of iron ore, zinc, nickel, uranium, and other minerals.

Economy

A leading industrial nation, Canada depends on the neighbouring USA, with whom it signed a free-trade agreement in 1989, for about 75% of its trade. Major exports include motor vehicles (assembled from imported components), machinery, crude oil, timber, natural gas, non-ferrous metals, chemicals, and newsprint. Canadian agriculture is diverse, with extensive grain, dairy, and fruit-farming as well as ranching and fur-farming.

History

Originally inhabited by NATIVE AMERICANS and by Inuit in the far north, in the 10th century VIKINGS established a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows. John CABOT landed in Labrador, Newfoundland, or Cape Breton Island, in 1497 and in 1534 Jacques CARTIER claimed the land for France. The first French settlement was begun by fur traders in Acadia in 1604. In 1608 Samuel de CHAMPLAIN founded Quebec on the St Lawrence River. Governor Frontenac defended Quebec against Sir William Phips (1691) and led a successful campaign against the hostile IROQUOIS (1696). Explorers followed the routes of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley – LA SALLE reached the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682 – and the name Canada came to be used interchangeably with that of NEW FRANCE, which referred to all French possessions in North America. Conflict between Britain and France was mirrored in Canada in the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS. By the Peace of UTRECHT (1713) France gave up most of Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay. The remainder of New France was conquered by Britain and ceded in 1763. During or immediately after the American War of INDEPENDENCE some 40,000 United Empire Loyalists arrived in Nova Scotia (formerly Acadia) and present-day Ontario. St John's Island was renamed Prince Edward Island in 1799 and Cape Breton Island was joined to Nova Scotia in 1820. In 1791 Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada, but following the Act of Union of 1840 the two were reunited to form the Province of Canada. Two frontier agreements were made with the USA: the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842) and a treaty ending the Oregon Boundary dispute (1846). Fears of US expansion led to the British North America Act (1867), creating the Dominion of Canada. The new dominion acquired full responsibility for home affairs. In 1870 the Hudson's Bay Company's lands around the Red River were formed into the Province of Manitoba, while the North-west Territories passed from control of the Company to the federal government. In 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation, British Columbia, including Vancouver Island, having done so in 1871. This had been on the promise of a Canadian Pacific Railway, which was completed in 1885, enabling prairie wheat to flow east for export. Britain gave Canada title to the arctic islands in 1880. In 1896 the Yukon boomed briefly with the Klondike GOLD RUSH. In 1905 Alberta and Saskatchewan became federated provinces. Newfoundland joined the dominion in 1949. The Hudson's Bay Company gradually ceded all the lands for which it was responsible, but as a corporation it has retained a significant place in the Canadian economy. As the provinces developed, so did their strength vis-à-vis the central federal government, a strongly centralized political system being resisted. In 1982 the British Parliament accepted the ‘patriation’ of the British North America Act to Canada, establishing the complete national sovereignty of Canada, although it retained allegiance to the British crown as well as membership of the COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. Constitutional disputes continued through the 1980s and 1990s, with Newfoundland, Manitoba, and Quebec all rejecting proposed solutions, the latter insisting on ‘distinct society’ status, but rejecting independence in provincial referendums in 1980 and 1995. In 1992 Canada signed the NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT. The semiautonomous region of Nunavut was created in 1999 as a territory for the Inuit people.

Canada A self‐governing dominion since 1867, much of Canada was colonized by the British and the French. Ships from the west country probably located the Grand Banks fisheries even before John Cabot's explorations of 1497. Despite official discouragement, Newfoundland became the first overseas British colony.

In 17th‐ and 18th‐cent. usage, the name Canada referred primarily to the St Lawrence lowlands. Here the British involvement is usually dated from Wolfe's victory on the Plains of Abraham (1759), but this was not the first British attempt to capture the colony. In 1629 the Kirke brothers seized the fort at Quebec. It was returned to the French three years later. More unsuccessful attacks took place in 1690 and 1711.

From 1670, through the Hudson's Bay Company, England claimed sovereignty over Rupert's Land. The expanding fur trade led the company to set up posts in the far north and on the west coast, establishing British claims to this region. In the long‐running 18th‐cent. conflict with France, the British acquired Acadia, renamed Nova Scotia, in 1713. Unable to secure allegiance from the Acadian population, British authorities deported them.

With the 1763 treaty of Paris, British control over North America was unrivalled. The attempt to integrate the French catholic population formed a major objective during the next century. The Quebec Act (1774) guaranteed religious freedoms and legal customs, but in doing so, it heightened tensions between Britain and its colonies to the south.

When conflict between Britain and its other North American colonies broke out, Nova Scotia obeyed the military garrison at Halifax. Quebec maintained its allegiance for fear of the more radical protestants of the rebel colonies. In the aftermath of the American Revolution, loyalist refugees streamed north. The arrival of the Anglo‐American refugees created new exigencies. Nova Scotia was divided into two colonies, New Brunswick and peninsular Nova Scotia. Prince Edward Island had already acquired a separate administration in 1769, and Cape Breton Island enjoyed a separate status as a refuge for loyalists for 40 years. In 1791, Quebec was divided along the Ottawa river to create Upper and Lower Canada. Henceforth, Upper Canada contained primarily an English‐speaking population.

The North American colonies were more of strategic than economic importance to the British. With the fisheries secured, the colonies served two other purposes. They provided primary resources, such as wheat, timber, and minerals: they also offered a place for British emigrants. After 1815, Highland Scots and northern Irish flocked to Canada. These huge influxes exacerbated tensions between colonial politicians and the mother country and were important factors in the rebellions of 1837–8 in Lower Canada. A third constitution, the Union Act, tried to address the problem, uniting the two Canadas, in the hope of swamping the French‐speaking population. However, French‐Canadian politicians made alliances with reformist English‐speaking colleagues to defeat the attempts. The fourth constitution, the British North America Act of 1867, rejected the assimilationist policy, by separating again Upper and Lower Canada, and joining them with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The four provinces received important degrees of autonomy, within a federal system. This constitution has proved the most successful. But Quebec separatism, as demonstrated by the referendum of 1995, remains strong.

With the BNA Act, the name Canada extended to take in the provinces involved. Other territories were either annexed or joined the federation subsequently: the Northwest Territories through purchase from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870; Manitoba (1870); British Columbia (1871); Prince Edward Island (1873); the Arctic Islands (1880), Yukon (1898); Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905); Newfoundland (1949). Constitutionally equal in status to Britain according to the statute of Westminster (1931), until 1949 the final court of appeal for Canada remained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London.

Between 1902 and 1912 alone, over 1.5 million British emigrants left for Canada. More immigrants arrived following the Second World War. Cultural and emotional links to Britain in English‐speaking Canada remained strong and Canada contributed greatly to the allied war effort in both world wars. However, following the Second World War, Canadian politicians and diplomats have attempted to carve out a separate space in world affairs.

By 1994 the population had reached nearly 30 million. Since the Second World War trade between Canada and Britain has levelled out at a lower, but not inconsequential, level. As the economic clout of the USA has expanded, so has its influence over Canada. The passage of the Free Trade Agreement in 1989 (and later the North American Free Trade Agreement) recognized and indeed enhanced Canada's continental orientation.

Canada. Although Canada came into being officially only in 1867 (comprising at that time the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia), ‘Canada’ in general usage refers to all of what was once British North America and New France, and which today spans the North American continent from Newfoundland to British Columbia. Although the Irish in Canada (both immigrants and later generations) have never acted with the strident ethnic assertiveness characteristic of the Irish in the urban United States, they have had a much greater impact upon the national and provincial polities than have the American Irish upon their respective jurisdiction. This is because the Irish in Canada were a ‘charter group’, one of the bands of earliest settlers, and thence operated from a position, not of disadvantage, but of relative privilege. Equally important, they were numerically consequential. In 1867, for example, the Irish were the largest ethnic group in the anglophone population, making up 40.1 per cent of persons of British Isles origin in the new Canadian confederation.

The Irish in Canada (meaning the multi‐generational ethnic group) were roughly two‐thirds Protestant in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The most obvious Irish impacts upon the Canadian polity were threefold. First, the Protestant Irish strongly enforced the loyalist tradition on which English‐speaking Canada was founded. (‘Loyalist’, in Canadian usage, refers to those people who left the thirteen colonies at the time of the American Revolution and, being loyal to the crown, moved northward to British North America.) Second, in the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, the Orange Order was the largest voluntary organization in Canada. It was tightly tied to the provincial and national Tory parties, but was also influential among the Liberals outside the province of Quebec. Third, in Ontario, the Catholics of Irish extraction spearheaded a campaign to turn the non‐denominational school system, created in 1846 and modelled on the Irish national schools, into one wherein Catholic ‘separate schools’ received governmental funding.

In matters of residence, occupation, and social mobility, Irish persons in Canada, whether Protestant or Catholic, have not been ghettoized or heavily discriminated against. From the 1850s onward (when reliable data first become available), their socio‐economic profiles have equalled, or exceeded, the national norms.

Bibliography

Akenson, D. H. , The Irish in Ontario: A Study in Rural History (1984)
Being Had: Historians, Evidence and the Irish in North America (1985)
Houston, C. J., and and Smyth, W. J. , Irish Emigration and Canadian Settlement: Partners, Links and Letters (1990).

D. H. Akenson

Canada New France, Quebec, British North America Eastern Canada (along the St Lawrence River and around the Great Lakes) was colonized by the French as New France largely during the 17th century. In 1763 the region was ceded to Great Britain at the Treaty of Paris. The British used Quebec to describe Canada for a period after their acquisition of the country and later British North America. The original name Canada was restored in 1791 when it was split into Upper and Lower Canada. In 1841 Upper Canada (renamed Canada West) and Lower Canada (renamed Canada East) merged to form the United Province of Canada. In 1867 the Dominion of Canada, a confederation, was established to include Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario (formerly Canada West) and Quebec (formerly Canada East). From 1947 the title ‘Dominion’ was not used. In 1982 complete national sovereignty was achieved. The name is probably derived from the Huron‐Iroquois word kanata ‘village’ or ‘settlement’. This was mistaken by a French expedition exploring the Gulf of St Lawrence in 1534 to be the name of the country. An alternative, and less likely, explanation is that the name comes from the Portuguese who sailed up the St Lawrence in the hope of reaching the Indian sea; on realizing their mistake they entered acá nada ‘here nothing’ in their log. The natives remembered this word and told later explorers who took the word to be the name of the country. It has given its name to a type of goose.

Canada

Culture Name

Canadian

Orientation

Identification. The name Canada is derived from the Iroquoian word kanata, which means village.

Location and Geography. Canada is located in the northern portion of the continent of North America, extending, in general, from the 49th parallel northward to the islands of the Arctic Ocean. Its eastern and western boundaries are the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans respectively. Its land area totals 3,851,809 square miles (9,976,185 square kilometers). The easternmost portion of the country is a riverine and maritime environment, consisting of the provinces of Newfoundland, Labrador, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick. The central portion of the country, in its southern areas, is primarily boreal forest (the provinces of Ontario and Quebec). This forest region extends across the entire country from the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through to the Atlantic coast, and is dominated by coniferous trees. A section of the country westward from the Great Lakes basin along the southern extent of this forest region is a prairie made up mostly of flat grasslands (in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta). The westernmost portion of the country is dominated by the Rocky Mountains, with a narrow riverine environment, made up of northern rain forests, west of the mountains (in the province of British Columbia). Between the southern Carolinian forest of the central regions of the country lies a region in Ontario and Quebec characterized by numerous lakes and expanses of exposed rock known as the Canadian Shield, an area left exposed after the most recent glacial retreat. Across the northernmost portion of the country from east to west lies a region dominated by tundra and finally at its most northern reach, an arctic eco-zone (in northern Ontario and Quebec and in the territories of Nunavut, Northwest Territories, and the Yukon).

These variations have had important social and cultural effects. The largest segment of the population resides in the central Carolinian region, which has the richest and most varied agricultural land and, because the Great Lakes waterway system dominates the central portion of the country, is also where most of the major manufacturing is located. The savanna or prairie region is more sparsely populated, with several large urban centers in a network across the region, which is dominated by grain farming, cattle and other livestock production, and more recently, oil and natural gas extraction. The two coastal regions, which have some agricultural production, are best characterized by the dominance of port cities through which import and export goods move. In the northern section of the center of the country, also sparsely populated, resource extraction of minerals and lumber, has predominated. The effect of this concentration of the population, employment, and productive power in the central region of the country has been the concentration of political power in this region, as well as the development over time of intense regional rivalries and disparities in quality of life. Equally important, as employment in the center came to dominate gross national production, immigration has tended to flow into the center. This has created a diverse cultural mix in the central region of the country, while the prairie and the eastern maritime region have stabilized ethnically and culturally. The consequence of these diverse geographies has been the development of a rhetoric of regional cultures: Prairie, Maritime, Central, and because of its special isolation, West Coast.

A final differentiation is between urban and rural. Local cultural identity is often marked by expressions of contrasting values in which rural residents characterize themselves as harder working, more honest, and more deeply committed to community cooperation, in contrast to urban dwellers who are characterized by rural residents as greedy, dishonest, arrogant, and self-interested. Urban dwellers express their own identities as more modern and forward looking, more sophisticated, and more liberal in their overall social values, and perceive rural residents as conservative, overdependent on outmoded traditions, unsophisticated, and simple minded. This distinction is most explicit in Quebec, but also plays a key role in political, social, and cultural contentions in Ontario.

Demography. The official population at the last census calculation, in 1996, was 29,672,000, an increase over the previous census in 1991 of about 6 percent in five years. The previous five-year increase was almost 7 percent. There has been a slowing population increase in Canada over the last several decades, fueled in part by a decline in the crude birthrate. This slowing of growth has been offset somewhat by an increase in immigration over the last two decades of the twentieth century, coupled with a slowing of emigration. Statistics Canada, the government Census management organization, is projecting a population increase of as much as 8 percent between 2001 and 2005, mostly through increased immigration.

Linguistic Affiliation. Canada is bilingual, with English and French as the official languages. English takes precedence in statutory proceedings outside of Quebec, with English versions of all statutes serving as the final arbiter in disputes over interpretation. As of 1996, the proportion of Canadians reporting English as their mother tongue was just under 60 percent while those reporting French as their mother tongue was slightly less than 24 percent. The percentage of native English speakers had risen over the previous decade, while that of French speakers had declined. At the same time, about 17 percent of all Canadians could speak both official languages, though this is a regionalized phenomenon. In those provinces with the largest number of native French speakers (Quebec and New Brunswick), 38 percent and 33 percent respectively were bilingual, numbers that had been increasing steadily over the previous twenty years. In contrast, Ontario, which accounts for more than 30 percent of the total population of Canada, had an English-French bilingualism rate of about 12 percent. This is in part a result of the immigration patterns over time, which sees the majority of all immigrants gravitating to Ontario, and in part because all official and commercial services in Ontario are conducted in English, even though French is available by law, if not by practice. English-French bilingualism is less important in the everyday lives of those living outside of Quebec and New Brunswick.

First Nations language groups make up a significant, if small, portion of the nonofficial bilingual speakers in Canada, a fact with political and cultural importance as First Nations groups assert greater and more compelling claims on political and cultural sovereignty. The three largest First Nations languages in 1996 were Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibway, though incomplete census data on First Nations peoples continues to plague assessments of the extent and importance of these mother tongues.

Changing immigration patterns following World War II affected linguistic affiliation. In the period, from 1961 to 1970, for example, only 54 percent of immigrants had a nonofficial language as mother tongue, with more than two-thirds of this group born in Europe. Almost a quarter of them reported Italian, German, or Greek as mother tongue. In contrast, 80 percent of the 1,039,000 immigrants who came to Canada between 1991 and 1996 reported a nonofficial language as mother tongue, with over half from Asia and the Middle East. Chinese was the mother tongue of just under 25 percent, while Arabic, Punjabi, Tagalog, Tamil, and Persian together accounted for about 20 percent. In 1971, the three largest nonofficial mother tongue groups were German, Italian, and Ukrainian, reflecting patterns of non-English and non-French immigration that have remained relatively constant through most of the twentieth century. In the period ending in 1996, this had changed, with the rank order shifting to Chinese, Italian, and German. This is reflected in regional concentrations, with Italians concentrated heavily in Ontario, Germans in both Ontario and the Prairie regions, and Chinese and other Asians most heavily represented in southern Ontario and in British Columbia. A gradual decline in out-migration from Europe, coupled with political changes in China and throughout Asia, leading to increased out-migration from these areas, is changing the ethnic and linguistic makeup of Canada. It should be stressed, however, that these changes are concentrated in two or three key urban centers, while linguistic affiliation elsewhere in the country remains stable. This is likely to change in the early twenty-first century as an aging cohort of European immigrants declines and out-migration from Europe continues to decrease. These shifts will come to have increasingly important cultural effects as immigrants from Asia and, most recently, from certain areas throughout the continent of Africa, come to influence the political and social life of the core urban centers in which they settle.