Public Priesthoods

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Public Priesthoods

Religion as a Part of Government. Religion is communal, ceremonial, and conservative. In practical terms this means that a community will authorize certain individuals, priests, to maintain its religious customs. In some societies the priests form a special caste, dedicated exclusively to religious affairs. With a few notable exceptions, this structure was not the case at Rome, where religion was an integral part of government. Their priests were at the same time active in politics and military service. For the Romans, it was proof of their veneration for their gods that they had as priests persons who were competent in all areas of public life. This practice meant that known individuals were accountable for correctly tending the gods of the people and for conducting public business with divine favor. It was also a great honor to belong to a priesthood. Originally, new priests were selected only by the existing members of a priesthood, or collegium, “college.” The priesthoods were also the exclusive domain of the patrician class; plebeians were excluded. Over time this system became democratized. Beginning in the fourth century b.c.e. plebeians began to gain access to priesthoods, and after 104 b.c.e. priests of the more important colleges were elected by representatives of the people in a special voting assembly. Some priesthoods were held for life, others for a limited term.

Auspical vs. Sacral Priests. As Roman religion was divided into auspicia and sacra, Roman public priesthoods were similarly organized. One could hold priesthoods in both areas simultaneously, however. The priests of the auspical sphere were the augures. Sacral priests, generically called sacerdotes, literally “those who render something sacred,” formed a much more complex group.

Augures Publici. The term augur means “he who increases something, makes something successful with divine authority.” The augurs of the Roman people, also called Interpreters of Jupiter Best and Greatest, were really concerned with just two things: auspicia and inauguratio. Auspices were signs of approval (or disapproval) of a public action sent by Jupiter. Inauguration was the ritual use of auspices to confirm places or persons intended for permanent religious service, such as sacred areas for temples or shrines and priests. Auspices and the augurs should not be confused with extispicium (innards-examining) and the haruspices (Etruscan innards-consulters), though both kinds of priests are now generally referred to as “seers,” and both were concerned with the interpretation of lightning and thunder as signs.

What are Auspices?. Auspicium means literally “bird-watching.” In actual practice, auspices were the observation of the flight, singing, and eating habits of birds and of the location in the sky of lightning or thunder. Auspices were either impetrativa, requested signs, or oblativa, signs sent by Jupiter unasked. Auspices were not a command from Jupiter, however; they simply indicated that Jupiter did or did not permit a given action on a given day. Certainly the report of negative auspices could be used to obstruct an action by a political opponent, an important piece of legislation, say, or a meeting of the Senate. In time of war, a Roman general in the field or an admiral at sea would take a curious kind of auspices called auspicia ex tripudiis. Wherever he went he had several sacred chickens in portable

cages. When he had to take auspices he instructed the handlers to sprinkle feed on the ground and release the chickens. If the chickens ate greedily it was a sign of Jupiter’s approval; if not, that action was not to be undertaken on that day. In one famous incident in 249 b.c.e., the Roman admiral Appius Claudius was eager to meet the Carthaginian fleet in a naval battle. But the chickens would not eat, despite repeated attempts. In frustration and rage Claudius threw the chickens overboard saying,“If they won’t eat, let them drink!” His entire fleet was destroyed that day. Auspices were an integral part of the Republican constitution of Rome. After the reign of Augustus and the beginning of the Imperial period, when all power was in the hands of one man, and elections, legislation, and meetings of the Senate had less and less real importance, the auspices lost their significance.

What Did the Augurs Do?. Except for inaugurations, the augurs did not take auspices. That was done by elected public officials of the highest level, those with imperium, supreme civil and military authority. An augur might be on hand to advise about correct procedure, or the college of augurs might jointly advise the Senate in cases of incorrect auspices. For example, if the presiding magistrate at an election did not take the opening auspices in the right way, the augurs would give their opinion; if he had not, the election would be nullified and a new one held. The college of augurs was chiefly an expert advisory board. The history of their decision in such cases formed the augural discipline, which they were responsible for conserving.

The Pontifical College.. The sacral area of Roman religion, both public and private, was administered, or at least overseen, by the pontifical college. The term pontifex is much disputed. The prevailing theory is that it means “bridge- (or path-) maker”(Latin pons “bridge”), for example, one who guides the people across eerie supernatural boundaries. An older view has equal claim, however: the pont- element is an ancient form of the word “five” (cf. Greek pente “five”), thus a pontifex would originally have been “one of five men who sacrifice.” Properly speaking, the pontifical college included the King of Sacred Rites, the flamens, the pontifices, the Vestal Virgins, and the Feasters of Jupiter; the Leaping Priests of Mars seem also to have been closely attached. Except for the pontifices, all the sacral priests were concerned with the cult of one particular deity. The King of Sacred Rites was dedicated to the service of Janus; each of the flamens to Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus, and other gods; the Vestals to Vesta; and the Leaping Priests to Mars. But a pontifex could stand in for these priests (except of course for a Vestal), especially for a flamen, at any time.

What Did the Pontifices Do?. Religion belongs to the community. In Rome this meant that sacrifices made on behalf of the people to its gods must be made by someone elected, under auspices, by the people. The pontifices were chiefly advisers and supervisors. If a magistrate were to make a prayer of dedication, for example, a pontifex might read it first, letting the magistrate repeat after him. This scrupulousness was critical in Roman religion. If a prayer, a sacrifice, or public game was performed in any detail incorrectly, however slight the flaw might be, it would have to be repeated either wholly or in part. This was known as instauratio, restoration. To ensure that the deity was not offended by the mistake, additional expiatory sacrifices would have to be made. If a prodigious event occurred or was reported to the Senate, the pontifices would advise the Senate whether or not to accept responsibility for it. If so, they would recommend the proper expiatory measures and oversee their correct performance. In all of these and similar matters the pontifical college were the recognized experts.

The Pontifices and Private Religion.. This scrupulousness also applied in the area of private religion. For instance, if it was necessary for a family to move the buried remains of a kinsman, they had to obtain the pontifices’ permission first, as seen in this inscription:

The college of pontifices has decreed that, if the facts of the matter are as contained in the letter of application, it is permitted, in the case of the girl who is mentioned, to remove her from the tomb and to lay her down again as prescribed and to restore her epitaph to its original form, having first made an expiation of a black sheep for the work to be done.

The eldest male of a family, called the paterfamilias, was responsible for seeing that his family’s traditional religious duties were maintained. If there was no male descendent to assume these responsibilities, it was necessary to adopt one from another family. But the pontifices had to approve such an adoption, making sure that that family would not be left without a male head, thus jeopardizing its traditional sacra. If a family dies out, its sacra also die out; this affects the Roman people as a whole and must be prevented.