genetics
genetics The branch of biology concerned with the study of heredity and variation.
Classical genetics is based on the work of Gregor Mendel (see
Mendelism). During the 20th century genetics has expanded to overlap with the fields of ecology and animal behaviour (see
behavioural genetics;
population genetics), and important advances in biochemistry and microbiology have led to clarification of the chemical nature of
genes and the ways in which they can replicate and be transmitted, creating the field of
molecular genetics.
GENETICS
1866 | Gregor Mendel publishes his findings on inheritance in peas and his observation that characters are determined by discrete ‘factors’. |
1875 | German cytologist Oskar Hertwig (1849–1922) describes the process of fertilization and formation of the zygote. |
1879–85 | German cytologist Walther Flemming (1843–1905) describes the behaviour of chromosomes during cell division, which he terms ‘mitosis’. |
1886 | German biologist August Weismann (1834–1914) publishes a theory of continuity of the germ plasm through successive generations. |
1887–92 | German cytologist Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), Hertwig, and others describe meiosis, confirming Weismann's prediction of a ‘reduction division’. |
1900 | Hugo de Vries, German botanist Karl Correns (1894–1933), and Austrian botanist Erich von Tschermak (1871–1962) independently rediscover Mendel's work. |
1903 | US cytologist Walter S. Sutton (1877–1916) describes how the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis explains Mendel's laws and suggests that genes are located on chromosomes. |
1909 | Dutch botanist Wilhelm Johannsen (1857–1927) coins the term ‘gene’. Frans-Alfons Janssens describes crossing over. |
1910 | Thomas Hunt Morgan discovers sex-linked traits in fruit flies. |
1913 | US geneticist Alfred Sturtevant (1891–1970) publishes the first genetic map – of fruit-fly genes. |
1916 | US geneticist Calvin Bridges (1889–1938) proves the chromosome theory of heredity. |
1927 | US geneticist Hermann Müller (1890–1967) demonstrates that X-rays can cause mutations. |
1930 | British statistician Ronald Fisher (1890–1962) publishes The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, a key work in neo-Darwinism. |
1941 | George Beadle and Edward Tatum begin work with nutritional mutants of bread mould, leading to their ‘one gene–one enzyme’ hypothesis. |
1944 | Oswald Avery and colleagues demonstrate that DNA is the genetic material. |
1947 | Erwin Chargaff establishes the one-to-one ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases in DNA. |
1953 | James Watson and Francis Crick propose a molecular structure for DNA. |
1960 | French biochemists Jacques Monod (1910–76) and François Jacob (1920– ) introduce the term ‘operon’ for a functionally integrated group of genes. |
1961–66 | The genetic code is deciphered by US biochemists Marshall Nirenberg (1927– ), Phillip Leder (1934– ), and others. |
1972 | Paul Berg (1926– ) creates the first recombinant DNA molecule, based on a lambda phage. |
1973 | First experimental genetic manipulation of a bacterium takes place. |
1977 | Techniques for sequencing DNA devised by US biochemist Walter Gilbert (1932– ), Frederick Sanger, and colleagues. |
1978 | Human insulin is produced by genetically engineered bacteria. |
1983 | US biochemist Kary Mullis (1944– ) devises the polymerase chain reaction for amplifying DNA. |
| First transgenic plant is created. |
1984 | British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys (1950– ) develops DNA (or genetic) fingerprinting. |
1988 | First patent is awarded for a genetically engineered animal – a cancerprone mouse |
| Field trials of genetically modified tomatoes take place in the USA The Human Genome Project begins. |
1993 | Transgenic sheep are used to produce human proteins in their milk. Genetically modified tomatoes go on sale in the USA. |
1997 | British geneticist lan Wilmut and colleagues announce the birth of a lamb (‘Dolly’) – the first mammal to be cloned from an adult body cell. |
1998 | The first complete sequence of a genome for a complex animal, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, is published. |
See also
genetic engineering.
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DIPLOMATIC SECURITY:GEORGE V. VOINOVICH
Transcript from: Congressional Testimony; 12/9/2009; 657 words
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USING TECHNOLOGY TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE:ANEESH CHOPRA
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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OVERSIGHT:A. SPRIGHTLEY RYAN
Transcript from: Congressional Testimony; 12/10/2009; 700+ words
; ...of our recommendationsin that area and, notably, the number of...toattain excellence in these areas, so there is little I can say...training andaccountability, areas that continue to be a challenge...especially true in high-risk areas such as the managementof capital...
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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION OVERSIGHT:MARK L. GOLDSTEIN
Transcript from: Congressional Testimony; 12/10/2009; 700+ words
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ADDRESSING NEEDS OF CHILDREN IN DISASTERS:NICOLE LURIE
Transcript from: Congressional Testimony; 12/10/2009; 700+ words
; ...determinehow they can be modified to meet the needs of children during responses.The Commission report also addresses the critical area of medical countermeasures.Our BioMedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) activelyconsiders the needs...
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Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of American Industries
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SIC 2047 Dog and Cat Food
Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of American Industries
...and gourmet pet food products. This paralleled a similar trend in the larger food industry. Established specialists in this area of the pet food market benefited greatly. By the end of the decade, grocery stores, which were losing sales to superstores...
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SIC 2091 Canned and Cured Fish and Seafoods
Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of American Industries
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SIC 2095 Roasted Coffee
Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of American Industries
...item for a number of environmental groups. Organization and Structure Due to a climate that cannot support coffee trees in areas other than Hawaii and Puerto Rico, U. S. production of coffee beans has been negligible. Instead the United States has become...
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SIC 2099 Food Preparations, Not Elsewhere Classified
Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of American Industries
...day. In the United States, the vinegar industry formed alongside the apple industry. As a result, it is concentrated in areas with large harvests of apples. Cider vinegar is made from apples or apple juice. As the U.S. vinegar industry developed...
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