Panama

PANAMA

Republic of Panama

Major City:
Panama City

Other Cities:
Balboa, Chitré, Colón, Cristóbal, David, Portobelo, Santiago

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated August 1996. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

PANAMA , because of its strategic position on the isthmus connecting the North and South American continents, was a major center for exploration and expansion during the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1821, some years after the decline of Spanish colonial power in the Western Hemisphere, the territory became part of Greater Colombia.

The question of a waterway across the isthmus, linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and Colombia's refusal to ratify a treaty allowing construction, led to Panama's revolt and secession. The United States supported Panama with military forces, and recognized the new state on November 6, 1903. A treaty was signed, giving the U.S. perpetual control over what came to be known as the Canal Zone, a designation that no longer applies. The covenant was amended in 1977, and implemented in 1979, with provision for ending U.S. military presence in Panama on the last day of this century, and for turning over responsibility and operation of the canal to the Panamanians.

MAJOR CITY

Panama City

Panama City, the capital and principal city of the Republic of Panama, is situated on the Pacific side of the country. In 2000, it had an approximate population of 1,088,00. Often called the "Crossroads of the World," it offers a uniquely international ambience and an active life with modern shopping centers, art expositions and many excellent NSrestaurants.

Food

A wide variety of American and ethnic foods are available at modern supermarkets in Panama City. Seafood, meat, fruits, vegetables, and canned and packaged goods are readily available in Panamanian shops, although prepared foods which are imported from the U.S. or elsewhere can be expensive. Restaurants vary widely in both cost and cuisine. A full lunch can be had for seven dollars. There are also numerous top quality restaurants specializing in seafood, or any type of ethnic food, around the city. Pizza Hut, Dominos Pizza and other vendors offer home and office delivery.

Clothing

Summer clothes are worn year round in Panama. Cottons are the most comfortable, but cotton blends are satisfactory. Fabrics that are 100% synthetic neither absorb moisture nor "breathe" and are uncomfortable in Panama's humid climate. Many office buildings are overly air-conditioned so a light jacket or sweater can come in handy.

All types of clothing suitable for the Panamanian climate are available in retail shops in the Canal area, although selection may be limited at any given time. Prices in the local retail stores can be higher than U.S. prices, and size ranges are limited.

Men: Normal attire for male staff during working hours is a suit and tie. It is also preferred by many Panamanians. Some men use either the "guayabera" or a short-sleeved shirt. Casual sports attire is the rule outside the office. The guayabera, a long, untucked embroidered shirt, is frequently worn for daytime or evening social functions and can be purchased locally.

Women: Female officers and staff members are most comfortable in lightweight suits or tailored or otherwise professional-looking one or two-piece dresses. A blazer, whether in a traditional color or something more tropical, is a useful addition to a working wardrobe. Casual outfits should be brought for general use, and beachwear, shorts, and slacks for recreational purposes. Shorts are not generally worn on the streets, but pants are acceptable. Sun hats are useful when outdoors. In recent years, the trend in female formal wear in Panama has been towards street-length rather than long gowns.

Children: Department of Defense schools do not enforce a dress code. Girls wear mostly shirts or blouses with slacks, jeans or skirts. Boys wear long pants (mostly jeans) or shorts with T-shirts or sport shirts. Private schools require school uniforms, which vary from school to school.

Supplies and Services

American brands of toilet articles, cosmetics, home medicines, drugs, tobacco products, cleaning materials, and household and entertainment accessories are readily available in retail stores in Panama City, but at prices higher than in the United States. Local brands are available at retail stores for very reasonable prices.

Panama City has good facilities for shoe repair, laundry and dry-cleaning, and radio and automobile repair. Beauty and barbershops are also available. You can take advantage of competent tailoring and dressmaking services here.

Religious Activities

Although Panama is a predominately Catholic country (approximately 85%), places of worship of all denominations—with services in both English and Spanish—are located in Panama City and the Canal area. Sunday schools and church-related activities are numerous.

Education

Department of Defense Dependent Schools (DODDS) operates a school system in the canal area including grades K-l2, as well as a two-year college curriculum. The schools are modeled on the U.S. public school system and are accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Instruction is in English. The schools are modern and well-equipped. Special education is available for children ages three and older. DODDS also has a talented and gifted program. Bus transportation is available for students in grades Kindergarten through twelfth grade. The school year runs from late August until mid June.

La Escuela Internacional de Panama (the International School of Panama) is the alternative school most often attended by American students, and is increasingly used due to the gradual closure of the DODDS system in Panama. Classes presently include grades K-12. The school's academic program meets the requirements of the Panamanian Ministry of Education and it has been accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools of the United Schools. Instruction is in English except for a 40-minute class in Spanish each day.

Applications for admission to the International School are accepted at any time during the year. Classes are limited to a maximum of 24 students. All students are tested by the school counselor or other qualified staff member at the time of registration. If you would like to initiate the admission process before arriving in Panama, you may send your child's Iowa Test (ITBS) results or the equivalent. Following testing, the school's Admissions Committee will review the completed application to evaluate the student's potential and to determine whether acceptance will contribute to a balance of nationalities, transient vs. local population, language capability, personal interests, and personalities. The school year runs from early August to late June, with approximately seven weeks of vacation from just before Christmas until the end of January.

There are two other private schools: St. Mary's Parochial School and the Episcopal School of Panama both schools are well regarded in Panama. St. Mary's Parochial School, located in the canal area, offers classes for pre-school through the twelfth grade. Instruction is in English and Spanish. Registration is held one day during the first week of March. Preregistration is not possible.

The Episcopal School of Panama (Colegio Episcopal de Panama) is a small college preparatory school. Both English and Spanish are taught as first languages. This school has a waiting list. Both of these schools are in session from April through December.

There are several good nursery schools on the military bases, in the canal area, and in Panama City. Those located on the military bases conduct classes in English from September through June. All others, as a general rule, are bilingual with a preference toward Spanish, and are in session from April through December. It is best to postpone any decision until parents can visit the schools to determine which will best suit the needs and personality of their child.

For most schools you will need proof of age (for pre-kindergarten and kindergarten), a copy of the student's last report card, and an up-to-date immunization record. All schools that comply with the regulations set forth by the Panamanian Ministry of Education (all but DODDS) require that the birth certificate or a photocopy of the passport, and the previous year's school record be translated into Spanish and notarized.

Special Educational Opportunities

The Panama Canal College, part of the Department of Defense School system, offers a two-year college course with Associate degrees available in Business Administration, Accounting, Business Data Processing, and others, including Secretarial skills. Current full-time tuition is $716 per semester for sponsored dependents under the age of 21. Dependent spouses may attend on a part-time basis (up to eleven credits), at a charge of $65.00 per credit hour.

The Panama Canal branch of Florida State University is located at Albrook Air Force Base. The university offers Bachelor of Arts degrees in Interamerican Studies, International Affairs and Social Science. In addition, students may complete up to 90 semester credit hours towards the 120 required for a degree in Business Administration. The last thirty credit hours must be taken in Florida. Tuition at Florida State is $90.00 per semester credit hour.

Florida-based Nova University offers several degrees at the Panama Learning Center, which was founded in 1977. These include a Bachelor of Science degree in Professional Management, a Master of Arts degree in Applied Linguistics and Teaching English as a Second Language, and a Master's degree in Business Administration, and Computer Programs. The cost per credit hour ranges from $125.00 for undergraduates to $200.00 for graduate courses.

The University of Oklahoma has an extension campus at Albrook, offering a Master of Educational Psychology and a Master of Public Administration. Current tuition is $203.75 per credit hour.

The above institutions are fully accredited. For additional information, they may be contacted at the following addresses:

Panama Canal College
DODDS, Panama Area
Unit 0925
APO, AA 34002

Florida State University
Panama Canal Branch
Unit 0922
APO, AA 34002

The University of Oklahoma
Education Service Center
Unit 0924
APO, AA 34002

Nova University
Panama Center
Unit 0924
APO, AA 34002

The University of Panama is located in Panama City. In general, you must successfully complete a five-year course to obtain a degree. The University will accept certificates from recognized secondary schools. Many classes are held in the evening and all instruction is in Spanish. For further information contact the University of Panama at Urbanizacion El Cangrejo, Republic of Panama.

The YMCA in the Canal area holds classes in Spanish, cooking, art, oil painting, ceramics, design, jewelry making, bridge, swimming, scuba diving and a variety of other subjects.

Sports

Organized athletic programs for adults are limited, but you can participate on an individual basis in almost any warm-weather sport. A number of swimming pools, tennis courts, golf courses, and stables are found throughout the city and the canal area. You can purchase athletic equipment of all types locally or at the sport shops on the bases.

Several hotels offer memberships to use their pools and other recreational facilities. There are also several quality health clubs in the city, as well as the gymnasiums on the bases, that offer aerobics and weightlifting. A variety of private social athletic clubs in Panama include the Club de Golf de Panama, the Club de Montana Altos del Lago, the Club de Yates y Pesca, and the Club Union.

Canal area facilities for children (organized by the Youth Recreation Program) include swimming, bowling leagues, league baseball and softball (December through April), soccer (in the Spring), Little League football (August through October), and lessons in judo, scuba diving, karate, and gymnastics.

Deep-sea and fresh-water fishing in the waters in and around Panama are among the best in the world. You can use most types of freshwater and saltwater tackle. Fishing in Gatun Lake for Peacock Bass is a popular pastime. Private boat skiing, fishing, and cruising is facilitated by the availability of various water crafts from several different locations for modest fees.

For the hunter, a variety of wild fowl, small game animals, and some larger animals such as deer abound. Most hunters in Panama use a shotgun, but air rifles are also used occasionally. Panama has a trap-shoot club, as well as several rifle ranges in the canal area. Neither a hunting nor a fishing license is required in the Republic of Panama. The Panamanian Government does requires a gun permit. The canal area has some easily-met licensing requirements, although there are some restrictions.

Horse racing, boxing and baseball are the favorite spectator sports in Panama. A local track holds races each week.

Baseball, basketball, softball and soccer are played extensively on the amateur level, and facilities are available for squash, racquetball, volleyball, and weight training.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

One small zoo is located in the Canal area. The Panama Canal Experimental Gardens are a popular spot for visits or picnics. Barro Colorado Island is a biological research center and forest preserve that is located in Gatun Lake within the canal system; day trips are made to explore this site where the Smithsonian Institute researches local flora and fauna.

Museums include the Canal Area Museum, Museum of Contemporary Art, the National Museum of Panama, and the Museum of the Panamanian Man, with its interesting collection of pre-Columbian pottery and gold artifacts.

Another point of interest is the ruins of "Panama La Vieja," the first Panamanian city on the Pacific side of the isthmus, which was founded by the Spaniards in 1519. It was destroyed by the pirate Henry Morgan in 1671. The Church of San Jose, with its famous Golden Altar, is another well-known site located in the colonial sector of Panama City. According to legend, the altar was saved from the assaults of Morgan the Pirate in the year 1671 when it was painted with whitewash to look like wood.

You can find a moderate change of climate in El Valle (2,000 feet) in the Cordillera de Veraguas, 80 miles from Panama, where a fair hotel is available. Boquete and Volcan are 350 miles away. At elevations of 4,000 and 7,000 feet, they offer spectacular mountain scenery, a cool climate, and good hotels. Contadora Island in the Las Perlas Archipelago is seventeen minutes by air from Panama City. The resort-like island offers a hotel, private homes that may be rented, and beautiful beaches.

San Jose, Costa Rica, is accessible by air at a reasonable price. The Colombian island of San Andres, as well as Bogota, Medellin, Cali, Barranquilla, and Cartagena in Colombia are also within easy reach by air. Country clearance must be obtained from the U.S. Embassy in Bogota prior to any travel to Colombia. By car, San Jose, Costa Rica is about thirteen hours from Panama City.

Beaches are available on the Pacific side (Panama Bay) approximately 60-90 minutes from Panama City. Beaches on the Atlantic side (Carib-bean Sea) can be reached in a twoto three-hour drive. Both areas provide a number of good beaches and varied facilities.

Entertainment

Panama City has a number of fine indoor theaters, as well as those in the canal area, where first-run American films are shown. Those shown in the city are in English with Spanish subtitles. Video stores also abound. No professional theater exists, but a few small theater groups produce plays periodically in Spanish and English. The Ancon Theater Guild has an active production schedule and there has been high interest and involvement from the mission community. The Balboa High School drama department presents two productions per year.

Concerts are presented by visiting musical artists and dance groups, either under the sponsorship of the National Concert Association, The National Institute of Culture or various Embassies. The national symphony and the ballet company also perform periodically.

A few cocktail lounges feature small combos and the major hotels have Happy Hours with local variety artists.

During the dry season, folk dancing in native costumes can be seen at the picturesque ruins of Old Panama and in some interior towns. A number of small fairs and festivals are held in the provinces at various times during the year. The ATLAPA Convention Center attracts a few big name musical and dance groups; most of the productions charge big-city prices for tickets.

Social Activities

Ample opportunities exist for social contact with both Panamanians and American residents of Panama and the American civilian and military population in the canal area. Many resident Americans play important roles in business and professional circles.

There are a number of social, vocational and fraternal organizations in the canal area. The Panama Audubon Society offers unique bird and nature study opportunities, and a Junior Audubon Society was established in 1986 to sponsor monthly outings and activities for children ages nine and over. The "Who's New" is another active and well-organized club where Americans may meet and mix with people of other nationalities. This club offers a book study group, children's play groups, bridge, tennis and a variety of other activities in addition to monthly coffees.

Extracurricular activities for school age children include Boy and Girl Scouts and Little League sports as well as the activities organized by the Youth Recreation Centers on the military bases.

Apply the same techniques here to get to know people that you would to develop social contacts in any overseas community. While knowledge of Spanish helps considerably, many Panamanians speak English. Memberships in local international fraternal organizations such as the Lions Club and Rotary Club are available.

OTHER CITIES

BALBOA , at the Panama Canal's Pacific entrance, is the largest town in the area formerly designated as the Canal Zone. It has a population of only 3,000, but is the administrative headquarters of the new joint Panama Canal Commission, which replaced the U.S. governing body in October 1979. An American naval base remains here, with military forces of more than 10,000. Balboa is the port for Panama City.

Situated 90 miles southwest of Panama City, CHITRÉ is the capital of Herrara Province. The Río de la Villa flows by, nourishing locally grown livestock and agricultural products. Chitré is a marketing center that produces ice and beverages. Transportation facilities for this city of approximately 34,700 include a road link to the Pan-American Highway and an airfield.

COLÓN is the second largest city in Panama, with a population of 141,000 (2000 est.) Located at the Caribbean entrance to the Panama Canal, Colón is situated at the northern terminus of the trans-Panama railroad. The city was founded in 1850 by Americans constructing the railroad, and was originally named Aspinwall after William H. Aspinwall, one of the builders. The name was changed to Colón ("Columbus" in Spanish), in honor of Christopher Columbus, in 1890. An important port and commercial center, Colón was made a free trade zone in 1953.

CRISTÓBAL , a suburb of Colón, is also an important port in this area. It has a population of about 12,000. Rainbow City, formerly called Silver City, with a population of 3,000, adjoins Cristóbal.

DAVID , 200 miles west of Panama City, is the fourth largest city in the country and the capital of mountainous Chiriquí Province. It dates to 1738, when gold prospectors set up camp here. David, though modern, maintains old traditions. San José Church has two bell towers—one to call to worship, another to warn against Indian attack. This major commercial area's economy depends on industries such as meat-packing, food processing, and tanning. David may be best known for the saddles and harnesses made here. The city is located near Enrique Malek Airport and had a population of roughly 103,000 in 2000.

PORTOBELO (also called Porto Bello and Puerto Bello) is located on the Caribbean side of Panama, about 20 miles northeast of Colón. Founded in 1597 just west of Christopher Columbus' earlier colony of Nombre de Dios, Portobelo lies in a banana-growing region and has an excellent harbor. Once a thriving colonial city, Portobelo was linked to Panama City by a stone highway. As a port, it sent out and received the royal Spanish fleets and was a transshipment point for Spanish Pacific riches. Portobelo declined with the building of the trans-Panama railroad and the Panama Canal, and has a population of just under 3,000 (1992 est.) Sir Francis Drake died aboard ship near here in 1596, and was buried at sea.

SANTIAGO is one of Panama's oldest cities, situated about 110 miles southwest of Panama City. The capital of Veraguas Province, it thrived in colonial times, as many historic buildings indicate. Santiago is an agricultural marketing center with local gold deposits. The municipality has an airfield and is on the Pan-American Highway. Approximately 61,000 people live in Santiago.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Republic of Panama, occupying the isthmus connecting the North and South American continents, is situated between 77° and 83° west longitude and 7° and °30′ north latitude. Covering an area of some 29,208 square miles, the Republic of Panama is slightly smaller than South Carolina. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Colombia, and on the west by Costa Rica. Due to the configuration of the isthmus, in Panama City the sun rises over the Pacific.

The Panama Canal Commission, in conjunction with a binational board of directors, operates the 43-mile canal which passes through the isthmus between the Atlantic (Caribbean) and Pacific oceans. Under the Panama Canal Treaty of 1977, the Commission will remain a U.S. Government agency until December 31, 1999, at which time the canal comes under total Panamanian control.

Panama has two well-defined regions: the Atlantic Watershed, which is covered by tropical rain forest, and the Pacific Watershed, whose narrow valleys and coastal plains receive less rainfall. Mountain ranges form the backbone of the Isthmus. Although some peaks reach 11,000 feet, the "cordillera" descends in the canal area to a height of only 290 feet.

Panama has a year-round tropical climate. During the dry season, which runs from January through April, there is only sporadic rainfall. The rainy season extends from May through December, with heaviest precipitation between September and November. The average annual rainfall in Panama City, on the Pacific side, is 69 inches; in Colon, on the Atlantic side, 128 inches. Temperatures and humidity vary only slightly between the two seasons. During the rainy months, average relative humidity is 85%; in the dry season, only 55 to 75%. The average annual temperature in Panama City is 26°C (80°F), with an average maximum of 30°C (87°F) and an average minimum of 22°C 3°F). Colon's temperature and humidity are about the same. Nearly constant year-round breezes provide some relief from the heat, especially at night.

Population

In 2000 Panama's estimated population was 2,821,085. Nearly half of the country's population is located in the province of Panama, with the next largest concentrations located in the provinces of Chiriqui and Colon. Approximately two-thirds of the population is located in these three of the country's nine provinces.

Rodrigo de Bastidas, one of the captains accompanying Columbus on his second voyage to America, discovered the Isthmus of Panama in 1502. Columbus visited Portobelo, a small bay on the Atlantic, on his fourth voyage in 1502. Panama City was founded in 1519, about 5 miles east of its present site. Because of its strategic position, Panama City became the crossroads of Spanish exploration and expansion in America.

At the time of Columbus, more than sixty Indian tribes were living on the isthmus. Today, however, Indians comprise only 6% of the population. While the majority of these are Kuna and Guaymi, a small group of Chocoe Indians remain in the southeastern part of the Darien Province.

Direct descendants of the Spaniards who colonized the country remain influential, but no longer dominate Panama's social, economic, and political life. Mixed-blooded Panamanians share prominent political and professional status with the Spanish-descendant group, and participate fully in Panama's diverse and influential social circles. Much of Panama's population is a mix of Spanish-Indian and black Hispanic ancestry. Immigrants from China, India, Europe, the Middle East, and South and Central America can be found in the growing middle class. Blacks of West Indian descent, whose ancestors provided most of the labor in digging the canal, tend to be concentrated in the provinces of Panama and Colon. While North American influence on Panama's basically Hispanic culture is evident in Panama City and Colon, the history and heritage of these distinct ethnic groups have combined to form the modern Panamanian way of life.

In the interior provinces, the ethnic makeup is more homogenous. The Spanish-Indian mixture is preponderant, and North American influence on customs and mores is relatively minor.

Spanish is the official language of the country. Although many Panamanians speak English, a working knowledge of Spanish is useful for shopping, communicating with servants, taking taxis, speaking with neighbors, and, especially, traveling in the interior.

Public Institutions

On November 28, 1821, the country declared its secession from Spain and associated itself with Colombia. This alliance existed in one form or another until November 3, 1903, when Panama was established as an independent republic.

Panama's constitution, which was adopted in 1972, provides for a representative democracy with direct popular election of the president and legislators, an independent judiciary, and a broad range of individual and civil rights. The constitution delineates the respective powers of the three branches of government, and contains extensive sections establishing broad economic, social and cultural rights and objectives for all its citizens. There have been several notable amendments. The last two, passed in 1994, abolished the Panamanian military and created an agency of the Panamanian government to deal with the reverted areas of the Panama Canal zone.

Operation Just Cause, which began on December 19th, 1989, ended years of political instability in Panama with the reinstatement of President Guillermo Endara's administration and the removal of Manuel Noriega as national leader. 1994 saw a return to free, fair, and violence-free elections for Panama, in which Ernesto Perez Balladares won the Presidency as the head of a multi-party coalition. Balladares won with only 33% of the popular vote, but his party, the Revolutionary Democratic Party (PRD), regained a near-majority in the Legislature. One of the first moves of this administration was to amend the Constitution to abolish the military, breaking with the tainted past of the Noriega era.

Legislators are chosen in a complicated process. Certain seats are granted to the party winning the plurality of the popular vote in the electoral circuits, while others are awarded by proportional representation in the more populous areas, and still others are reserved for Indian minorities. Legislators are nominated by a party and are subject to its discipline.

The 1983 constitutional reforms significantly increased the powers of the Legislative Assembly relative to the other branches of government. In contrast to the situation that prevailed between 1968 and 1984, the legislature now has a significant hand in budget matters and in establishing public institutions. Legislators are able to interpellate and censor Ministers and to impeach and try Presidents and Supreme Court justices. They may override a presidential veto of approved legislation with a two-thirds majority vote. The Assembly also has the power to declare war and to grant amnesty for political crimes. In addition, it must approve the appointment of Supreme Court justices, the Attorney General, the Solicitor General or Prosecutor, and other high administrative officials.

The Executive Branch is comprised of the President of the Republic, two Vice-Presidents, and the Ministers of State, or Cabinet Secretaries. The President and Vice Presidents and other elected authorities serve five-year terms. Voting is by direct and secret ballot, and a plurality is needed for election.

The President is responsible for appointing the Cabinet, coordinating the government, and maintaining public order. Along with the Cabinet, the President approves and promulgates laws passed by the Legislature and ensures their enforcement; appoints police, provincial governors and heads of various public agencies; prepares the national budget for submission to the legislature and conducts the country's foreign affairs.

The President, Vice Presidents, and Ministers of State together form the Cabinet Council, which appoints the Magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice, the Attorney General, and the Solicitor General, or Prosecutor, subject to legislative approval.

The President and Vice Presidents may be removed from office for abusing their constitutional duties, for violent actions or coercion during an electoral process, or for preventing the meeting of the Legislative Assembly. The President and Vice Presidents need not belong to the same political party.

The Judicial Branch is comprised of the Supreme Court of Justice, the Electoral-and other Tribunals. The latter are created by the Legislature, while the first two are constitutionally decreed.

Under the 1983 constitutional amendments, Supreme Court Magistrates are appointed by the Cabinet Council and confirmed by the Legislature for staggered ten-year terms, with two magistrates appointed every other year, or as present magistrates resign or retire. The nine-member court is divided into three-judge panels for civil, criminal and administrative cases.

Its decisions are final and binding. The Judicial Branch is the ultimate interpreter of the Panamanian constitution and of the constitutionality of the laws and decrees of the Executive and Legislative Branches.

A separate three-judge Electoral Tribunal oversees elections, with one member chosen by the Supreme Court, the Legislature, and the Executive, respectively. Supreme Court justices choose the magistrates who sit on other tribunals, and the magistrates in turn choose the judges who sit on the lower courts. All sitting judges are prohibited from engaging in any other employment except as law professors, and from participating in political activities, except as voters. Although the Constitution provides for the right to trial by jury, the Legislative Assembly is empowered to determine whether this right will apply in cases against the President, Supreme Court Justices or members of the Legislative Assembly.

The Public Ministry, or Attorney General's office, is separate from the Ministry of Government and Justice and is constitutionally a part of the Judicial Branch. The Attorney General is appointed for a 10-year term. The Constitution mandates setting aside at least 2% of the annual government income for the Judicial Branch, thereby establishing its financial independence from the Legislature and the Executive. The Attorney General also oversees Panama's criminal police investigative agency, the Judicial Technical Police (PTJ).

Panama is a civil law country, with most law created by legislative codes rather than judicial decision. In 1983, the Legislature enacted new criminal and administrative codes. Implementation of some of these reforms has been delayed, however, for budgetary reasons.

Panamanian Public Forces. On December 20, 1989, the former Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF) were neutralized by U.S. armed forces during Operation Just Cause and, over the next several days, were diminished as an effective military force. As a result, the PDF was disbanded.

Panama no longer desires a military, and in 1994 the Constitution was amended, abolishing the standing army. The Panamanian Public Forces (PPF), a civilian law enforcement organization comprised of police, air, and sea services was created in the wake of Operation Just Cause. It drew heavily on the ranks of the former PDF because of the urgent requirement to reestablish law and order throughout Panama.

The PPF, the Panamanian civil police force, remains Panama's national security force. Challenged by rising international crime and narco-trafficking activity, the PPF continues to adapt to Panama's security concerns. Its efforts in this direction are aided by the U.S. Department of Justice, as well as other agencies. Resource limits are placing financial constraints on the PPF's ability to face up to dynamic crime challenges.

The Panamanian National Police (PNP) is charged with maintaining law and order nationwide. Directed by a civilian attorney, the PNP falls under the control of the Minister of Government and Justice. The police draw heavy criticism from opposition groups and the media for a variety of reasons related to its own transitional problems. The PNP still has no organic law upon which to establish itself firmly. In the meantime, and with U.S. assistance, it strives to build confidence, establish institutional roots, and—most importantly—serve the Panamanian public.

The Panama Canal Treaty. The Panama Canal Treaty was negotiated by four different U.S. Administrations over a period of thirteen years. This treaty, along with a separate treaty pertaining to the neutrality of the Canal, and a host of ancillary agreements, was signed on September 7, 1977. The U.S. Senate gave its consent to ratification of the Canal Treaty on April 18, 1978.

As a result of the treaties, control of the Canal is presently in the process of being turned over to the Government of Panama. On December 31, 1999 Panama assumed ownership of and full operational responsibility for the Canal. The Panama Canal Commission, which operates the Canal, is a U.S. Government agency; however, its administrator is Panamanian.

The Department of Defense, under the terms of the Carter-Torrijos Treaty of 1977, is in the process of withdrawing U.S. forces from Panama. This process is scheduled to be completed by the year 2000. The U.S. military drawdown will include the closure of U.S. Military PX and Commissary facilities, Gorgas Hospital, DODDS schools and other social facilities and services to which embassy personnel now have access.

In 1994 the newly elected government amended the Constitution to create the Interoceanic Regional Authority (ARI) to plan for and implement the reversion of all lands formerly belonging to the U.S.

The U.S. Embassy in Panama has the responsibility of ensuring that the treaties and their related agreements are carried out smoothly and effectively and to ensure that the rights of the U.S. Government and of American citizens in Panama are respected.

Arts, Science, and Education

Panama's intellectual and cultural life largely revolves around activities sponsored by the Instituto Nacional de Cultura (INAC), the National Concert Association, and, from time to time, the University of Panama. INAC sponsors the National Theater, School of Dance, School of Plastic Arts, Symphony Orchestra, and Ballet.

Architecture is rich and varied, ranging from colonial to modern in private homes, public buildings, commercial office buildings, and high rise condominiums.

A fairly active art colony is to be found here, and several Panamanian artists have achieved international recognition. Accomplishments in music, drama, dance, and literature have been less notable in the last few years.

In the Canal area, research projects conducted at Gorgas Hospital (renowned for its work in tropical medicine), by the Middle America Research Unit of the National Institutes of Health, the Smithsonian Institution's Tropical Research Institute on Barro Colorado Island, and the Gorgas Memorial Institute are of international import. And, of course, the Panama Canal represents one of the greatest engineering feats of modern times.

Panamanians have historically attached great importance to education. This is reflected in its literacy rate of 83%—one of the highest in Latin America. There are a number of very good private schools in the country. Many graduates of the Instituto Nacional, a public school known throughout the country, have subsequently entered Panamanian political life. The Ministry of Education is working hard to improve instructional facilities and teacher preparation throughout the country.

The University of Panama consists of a main campus in Panama City and branches in three provincial capitals. Total enrollment is approximately 45,000. The Technological University of Panama, also based in Panama City, has branches in seven provinces and an enrollment of 8,000. A private Catholic university, Santa Maria la Antigua, has an enrollment of 4,500. American officers receive a cordial welcome at these universities, and many opportunities exist for exchanges and cooperative programs. Instruction is in Spanish.

The Panama Canal College, a two-year institution linked to the U.S. Department of Defense, is open to all qualified individuals. Several other U.S. institutions, including Nova, Florida State and Oklahoma universities, also offer courses in Panama. Instruction in these universities and at the Panama Canal College is in English, and course credits can be transferred to institutions in the United States.

Commerce and Industry

Panama's economy is based primarily on a well-developed services sector that accounts for 76.5% of GDP. Services include the Panama Canal, banking, insurance, government, the Colon Free Zone, and the transisthmian oil pipeline. Manufacturing, mining, utilities, and construction together account for 16.5% of GDP. Manufacturing is principally geared to production of items such as processed foods, clothing, chemical products, and construction materials for the domestic market. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries account for the remaining 7% of GDP. Principal primary products include bananas, shrimp, sugar, coffee, meat, dairy products, tropical fruits, rice, corn, and beans. The sectors of the Panamanian economy with the greatest potential for substantial growth are mining, tourism, and maritime services.

From 1968 until 1989, Panama was governed by a military regime which implemented a statist plan of economic development. The government nationalized various private enterprises and instituted price controls on many goods, some of which still exist today. In 1990 the newly reinstated democratic government embarked on a reform program to liberalize trade and modernize government operations. These reforms were diluted, however, by entrenched special interest groups.

In 1994 a new government was elected and took office with an even more ambitious program of reforms, including GATT/WTO accession and labor code reforms. The Government of Panama has recently taken initial steps toward privatization of the state-owned telecommunications company and has revoked the government-owned electricity utility's monopoly on electricity generation. Reform of the national labor code, although one of this administration's top priorities, is being met with strong opposition by the various labor organizations.

The use of the U.S. dollar as Panama's currency means that fiscal policy is the government's principal macroeconomic policy instrument. Because Panama does not issue its own currency, government spending and investment are strictly bound by tax and non-tax revenues and the government's ability to borrow.

Panama Canal business rose in 1994 over the previous year. Ocean-going transits increased 2.6% to 12,671 or 34.7 vessels daily, and net tonnage, on which tolls are assessed, jumped 7.9%. Toll revenues rose 3.1% to US$425 million. The near-term outlook is for continued moderate to strong growth in both tonnage and toll revenue projected for 1995 and 1996. Work on expanding the canal's capacity by widening the Gaillard Cut through the continental divide continues and numerous other maintenance and upgrade projects are constantly in progress.

The development of areas reverting to Panama under the Panama Canal Treaties will present many opportunities for the Government of Panama, as well as investors. Projects in tourism, industry, and environmental areas will be possible. The exact nature of these projects will be determined by a development plan which is being prepared by Panama's Interoceanic Regional Authority (ARI).

The Colon Free Zone is the largest of its kind in Latin America and rivals Hong Kong in overall activity. Total imports to the Free Zone reached US$5.0 billion in 1994, an increase of 11.5% per 1993. Free Zone trade is expected to show solid growth during 1995 as it has already made many of the adjustments necessary to deal with market liberalization in Latin America. U.S. exports to the free zone totaled approximately US$370 million in 1994. The free zone's contribution to real GDP increased to 9.2% in 1994.

Transportation

Local

Taxi service is readily available and generally adequate. City buses are often very poorly maintained however, and riding them is not recommended for safety and security reasons.

Regional

Panama has two major highways. The Transisthmian Highway links Panama City to Colon. A Branch of the Inter-American Highway extends from the Costa Rican border to the town of Chepo, about 35 miles beyond Panama City. Both roads are two-lane and paved. There is also a recently finished road between Chepo and Colombia. Streets within Panama City and Colon are adequate. Many are subject to flooding during the rainy season.

American Airlines and Continental Airlines, COPA, and other major foreign carriers operate daily flights to the United States and other parts of the world from Panama's Tocumen International Airport. All flights to or from Panama enter and exit the U.S. from either Houston or Miami. AERO-PERLAS and ALAS-CHIRICANAS are local carriers that provide service to Panama's provinces, Contadora and the San Blas Islands. These flights operate from Paitilla Airport, a ten-minute drive from the city center.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Telephone service in Panama City is good, although in some sections of the city residents must wait long periods for initial installation of a telephone.

Long-distance service is available to all parts of the country. Facilities are excellent for overseas calls to the United States (with direct dialing from Panama City) and to other parts of the world via radio or satellite. Rates vary depending on country and time zone.

Telegram facilities are excellent and provide worldwide service.

Radio and TV

There are both English and Spanish-language AM and FM radio programs and commercial TV stations (including one educational channel), some of which broadcast sporting events and reruns of American feature programs and movies (all dubbed).

The Southern Command Network (SCN), an affiliate of the Armed Forces Radio and Television Service, broadcasts on AM and FM radio in English on a 24-hour basis. SCN-TV presents news programs, sports events, old movies, reruns of U.S. feature programs and Saturday-morning children's programs in English. SCN-TV broadcasts daily: the weekly schedule is published in the base newspaper, The Tropic Times. American variety and series programs are broadcast in English. Live TV coverage via satellite of some news programs or sporting and special events is also provided. The station broadcasts Monday through Sunday from 6:00 a.m. until midnight, plus additional late night movies on weekends.

Cable TV is available in Panama City and provides a variety of satellite programming, including the Disney Channel, HBO/Showtime, CNN, and ESPN. There is usually an installation fee; monthly fees are upwards of $40.

Local cinemas are comparable in quality to those in the U.S., yet prices are much lower. First run movies are shown in English with Spanish subtitles. Local video stores rent both VHS and Beta tapes at reasonable prices comparable to stateside, usually with Spanish subtitles.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

Six Spanish-language newspapers (including three tabloids) are published on a daily basis. The English-language international edition of The Miami Herald is published locally.

Airmail editions of USA Today are available on the bases. Copies of the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal are occasionally available at the major hotels. Along with the Washington Post, they are also available through subscription, but rates are higher than in the U.S. Home delivery of U.S. newspapers is available, but delivery is one day late.

The Latin American issues of Time and Newsweek are sold at most newsstands, drug stores, and in major hotels, usually within days of their domestic editions in the United States. Other U.S. magazines (on topics such as cars, sports, and outdoor hobbies) are available on the bases. Prices are comparable to those in the United States, although tax must be paid when purchased off the bases.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Health care services for U.S. citizens residing in Panama are generally excellent. Nearly all medical and surgical specialties are represented. Many of the local dentists and orthodontists are considered to be on a par with those in the United States, and prices are slightly lower than U.S. prices.

In conjunction with the U.S. military drawdown in Panama Gorgas Hospital is scheduled to close in 1998; however Paitilla Hospital is up to U.S. standards. Many Americans have been very pleased with the quality of care received there.

Many standard medications are available from Gorgas Hospital or from local pharmacies in Panama.

Community Health

For a tropical region, Panama's community health standards are good. With normal precautions one can avoid most health hazards. The cities of Panama and Colon have potable and fluoridated water supplies, although water should be boiled before drinking for 24 hours following water cutoffs. Travelers to more remote parts of the country should boil their water or use a water purifier. Milk is pasteurized and bottled under sanitary conditions, as are locally produced beers and other beverages. Domestically produced meats are packaged and sold under generally sanitary conditions in the larger grocery stores. Local fruits and vegetables should be thoroughly washed before eating. Fresh fish and seafood are plentiful and inexpensive. Between the local markets and bakeries there is little one cannot find in Panama.

Trash is collected daily in most areas of Panama City. Roaches, ants, and other insects as well as mice and rats are ever present in this tropical climate, but, with vigilance, they can be kept under control. Until recently, Panama City had an active mosquito control program.

Common medical complaints include colds and other upper respiratory infections. Sinus and asthmatic conditions may be aggravated by the humidity, molds, and pollens. Swimmer's ear is a common complaint among both children and adults.

More serious illnesses such as malaria and yellow fever are virtually nonexistent in Panama City, but persons travelling to the interior of the country may be at risk. Hepatitis is considered a significant health threat, and individuals are encouraged to keep their gamma globulin inoculations current. Tuberculosis is endemic and common among residents of the poorer areas. Dengue fever cases are on the increase.

Preventive Measures

Persons being assigned to Panama should ensure that their Yellow Fever, Typhoid, and Tetanus/Diphtheria immunizations, as well as a TB skin test are current. Hepatitis-A vaccine or gamma globulin is also recommended.

Immunization requirements for Panamanian schools vary. The Department of Defense schools require the following immunizations:

Oral Polio Vaccine —3 doses of Trivalent, at least one of which was administered after the fourth birthday.

Diphtheria/Tetanus/Pertussis^* —3 doses, given singly or in combination, at least one dose of which was administered after fourth birthday and the last dose was given within ten years.

Measles (Rubeola) Mumps Rubella —1 dose of live attenuated vaccine given singly or in combination on or after 15 months of age. Individuals immunized after one year of age but before 15 months need not be reimmunized.

^*Pertussis immunization is not required for individuals after their seventh birthday.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

U.S. citizens are encouraged to obtain a U.S. passport before traveling to Panama. Although entry into Panama is permitted with any proof of U.S. citizenship (such as a certified birth certificate or a Naturalization Certificate) and official photo identification (such as a driver's license), travelers may experience difficulties entering and/or exiting Panama when not in possession of a valid U.S. passport. Panamanian law requires that travelers must either purchase a tourist card from the airline serving Panama or obtain a visa from a Panamanian embassy or consulate before traveling to Panama. Further information may be obtained from the Embassy of Panama, 2862 McGill Terrace, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009, tel. (202) 483-1407, or the Panamanian consulates in Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia or Tampa.

U.S. citizens transiting the Panama Canal as passengers do not need to obtain visas, report to customs, or pay any fees. U.S. citizens piloting private craft through the canal should contact the U.S. Embassy in Panama City for details on required procedures.

Panamanian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Panama of items such as firearms and ammunition, cultural property, endangered wild-life species, narcotics, biological material, and food products. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Panama in Washington or one of Panama's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

U.S. citizens living in or visiting Panama are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Panama and obtain updated information on travel and security within Panama. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy is located on Panama Bay, Panama City, at Balboa Avenue and 39th Street. The international mailing address is Apartado 6959, Panama 5, Republic of Panama. The U.S. mailing address is U.S. Embassy Panama, Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20521-9100. The telephone number of the Consular Section is 011-507-207-7000/7030 (after hours, 011-507-207-7000); fax 011-507-207-7278; web site http://www.orbi.net/usispan/ and e-mail is usispan@pty.com.

Pets

Panama requires a veterinary certificate of health and certification of vaccination against rabies, distemper, hepatitis, leptospirosis, parvovirus (dogs) and feline panleucopenia (cats) for each arriving pet. Each certificate must be authenticated by a Panamanian consul to be acceptable. This can be done by sending your pet's health certification to the following address for a consular stamp. There is a fee for this service.

Consulate General of Panama
2862 McGill Terrace NW
Washington, D.C. 20008
202-483-8413/8416 (fax)

All incoming pets are placed in quarantine. If your pet arrives on a commercial flight to Tocumen Airport it must be examined by a Panamanian vet at the airport prior to being moved to quarantine. If your pet arrives on Friday it may not be examined and released until Monday. There is a transportation fee of $13.50, as well as admission and importation permit fees.

The following documents are required for your pet to enter Panama: a health certificate for the animal (good for only ten days), a rabies vaccination certificate, a stamp from a Panamanian Consulate as outlined above, and a copy of your travel orders. These documents are to be attached, in an envelope, to the outside of the animal's cage.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

The official currency of Panama is the Balboa (B/) which is on par value to the U.S. dollar. The Balboa exists only in coin form and, in Panama, is interchangeable with U.S. coins. The official paper currency of Panama are U.S. dollar bills.

Both the U.S. system of weights and measures and the metric system are used in Panama. Speed limits are posted in miles per hour in some places, kilometers per hour in other places, some signs give both miles and kilometers per hour, and in many areas the limits are not posted.

Complete banking facilities are available at many banks in Panama City, including branches of Chase Manhattan, Citibank, Bank of Boston and American Express. Many local retail outlets accept personal checks drawn on U.S, banks.

You can purchase or cash travelers checks locally without difficulty. To deposit or cash U.S. checks in Panamanian banks, a service charge is assessed. Major U.S. credit cards are widely accepted in shops, hotels and restaurants.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 … New Year's Day

Jan. 9 … Day of Mourning

Feb/Mar … Carnival^*

Mar/Apr. … Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr. … Easter^*

May 1 … Panama Labor Day

Nov. 3 … Independence Day from Colombia

Nov. 4 … Flag Day

Nov.10… Uprising of Los Santos

Nov. 28 … Independence Day from Spain

Dec. 8 … Mother's Day

Dec. 25 … Christmas Day

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.

Abbot, W. Panama and The Canal (1976) . Gordon Press Publications.

Anderson, Charles L.G. Old Panama and Castilla del Oro. Sudwarth: 1911 0. Narrative history of the discovery, conquest, and settlement by the Spaniards of Panama, Darien, Veraguas, and other parts of the New World.

Anguizola, Gustavo Phillipe Bueneau-Varilla: The Man Behind The Panama Canal (1980). 480p. Nelson-Hall, Inc.

Avery, R. America's Triumph at Panama (1976). Gordon Press Publications.

Bair, Frank E., ed. Countries of the World and Their Leaders Year-book 1993. Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1993.

Barry, Tom. Panama: A Country Guide. Albuquerque, NM: Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center, 1990.

Behar, D., and G. Harris. Invasion: The American Destruction of the Noriega Regime in Panama. Los Angeles, CA: Americas Group, 1990.

Bennett, Wendell C. Ancient Arts of the Andes (1954). Museum of Modern Art, New York. This book discusses the Indian art of Panama which is related to the pre-Columbian art of the Andes.

Biesanz, John and Mavis. The People of Panama (1955). Columbia University Press: New York. A readable introduction to the people and an analysis of the social conditions in Panama and the canal area.

Billard, Jules B. "Panama, Link Between Oceans and Continents." (March 1970) National Geographic Magazine. Vol. 137, pp. 402-440.

Chidsey, Donald Barr. The Panama Canal, an Informal History. (1970) Crowan: New York.

Cobb, Charles A. Jr. "Panama, Ever at the Crossroad." (April 1986). National Geographic Magazine.

Coniff, Michael L. Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama. 1904-1981.

——. Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1992.

Crane, Philip M. Surrender in Panama: the case against the treaty (1978). 180p. Green Hill Publications.

Dinges, John. Our Man in Panama: The Shrewd Rise & Brutal Fall of Manuel Noriega. New York: Random House, 1991.

Donnelly, Thomas, et al. Operation Just Cause: The Invasion of Panama. New York: Free Press, 1991.

Du Val, Miles P. And the Mountains Will Move. (1947) Stanford University Press: Stanford, California. Scholarly account of the digging of the Panama Canal from the start of the French effort through the successful American achievement.

Flanagan, Edward M., Jr. Battle for Panama: Inside Operation Just Cause. McLean, VA: Brasseys, 1993.

Gordon, Burton A Panama Forest and Shore (1983). Boxwood Press.

Hogan, J. Michael. The Panama Canal in Americas Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (1986). 304p. Southern Illinois University Press.

Howarth, David A. Panama: 400 Years of Dreams and Cruelty (Also called The Golden Isthmus.) McGraw: New York, 1966. Readable history of the isthmus from Balboa's exploration in 1513 to 1964.

Jorden, William J. Panama Odyssey

Keeler, Cylde E. Land of the Moon Children: The Primitive San Blas Culture in Flux (1956). University of Georgia: Athens, Georgia. An account of the findings of Dr. Keeler after four summers spent with the Cuna Indians in the San Blas Islands.

Keeler, Cylde E. Secrets of the Cuna Earth Mother: A Contemporary Study of Ancient Religions (1960). Exposition: New York. 1st ed. Notes on the religion and lives of the Cuna Indians and a comparison of the religion with some in the Far East.

Keller, Ulrich, ed. The Building of the Panama Canal in Historic Photography (1983). 176p. Dove Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.

Kempe, Frederick. Divorcing the Dictator: America's Bungled Affair with Noriega (1990). 352p. Putnam Publishing Group.

Koster, R.M., and Guillermo Sanchez. In the Time of the Tyrants: Panama: 1968-1990. New York: Norton, 1990.

LaFeber, Walter. The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Langstaff, Eleanor D. Panama (1982). 184p. ABC-Clio, Inc.

Liss, Sheldon B. The Canal: Aspects of The United States-Panamanian Relations (1967). University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, Indiana. A history of the relations of the two nations from 1903 to 1966, with emphasis on the post-World War II years.

Mack, Gerstle. The Land Divided (1944). Knopf: New York Documented history of the Panama Canal and other isthmian canal projects, embracing the entire concept of the interoceanic communication of Panama.

Marsh, Richard O. White Indians of Darien (1934). Putnam: New York. Account of an exploratory trip in the Darien.

McCullough, David. Path Between the Seas (1977). Simon & Schuster: New York,. Perhaps the best book written on the construction of the canal.

Melditz, Sandra W. and Dennis M. Hanratty, eds. Panama: A Country Study (1989). 4th ed. 1989. USGPO.

Mellander, Gustavo Adolfo. The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. The Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc.: Danville, Ill., 1971.

Minter, John E. The Chagres, River of Westward Passage (1948). Rinehart: New York. The Chagres River as it influenced the history of the Isthmus of Panama.

Moore, Evelyn. Sancocho (1947).Star & Herald Co.: Panama, 2d ed. Stories and sketches of Panama. Drawings by Jan Koerber.

Navarrete Talavera, Ela. Panama: Invasion o Revolucion (1990) 356p. Group Editorial Planeta.

Nyrop, Richard F., ed. Panama: a Country Study (1990). 3rd. ed. 300p. USGPO.

Oliver, Carl R. Panama's Canal. New York: Franklin Watts, 1990.

Panama Canal Company. The Panama Canal Fiftieth Anniversary (1964). Panama Canal Information Office: La Boca, Canal Zone. The story of a great conquest. This book celebrates the 50th anniversary of the operation of the Panama Canal.

Pirer, Rene. The Fifteen Wonders of the World (1961). Random: New York. A history of the Panama Canal. Translated by Margaret Crossland.

Priesley, George. Military Government and Popular Participation in Panama (1985). 200p. West-View Publishing Co.

Ropp, Steve C. Panamanian Politics: From guarded nation to National Guard (1982). 174p. Greenwood Press Inc.

St. George, Judith. The Panama Canal: Gateway to the World. New York: Putnam Publishing Group, 1989.

Sanchez Borbon, Guillermo and Richard Kosyer. In the Time of the Tyrants (1990). Norton.

Scranton, Margaret E. The Noriega Years: U.S.-Panamanian Relations, 1981-1990. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991.

Simon, Maron. The Panama Affair (1971). Scribner: New York An account of the French Isthmian Canal venture.

Summ, G. Harvey and Tom Kelly, eds. The Good Neighbors: America, Panama, and 1977 Canal Treaties (1988). 135p. Ohio University Press.

The Americas Group Invasion: The American Destruction of the Noriega Regime in Panama (1990). The Americas Group.

The South American Handbook. Rand McNally, Chicago, Illinois. Issued annually, this handbook provides detailed current information on central and South American and Caribbean countries.

Vazquez, Ana M. Panama. Chicago, IL: Childrens Press, 1991.

Wali, Alaka. Kilowats and Crisis: A Study of Development and Social Change in Panama (1988). 250p. West View Publishing Co.

Weeks, John. Panama: Made in the U.S.A. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990.

World Bank. Panama: Structural Change and Growth Prospects (1985). 384p. World Bank.

Zimbalist, Andrew, and John Weeks. Panama at the Crossroads: Economic Development & Political Change in the Twentieth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991.