Guyana

GUYANA

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENVIRONMENT
POPULATION
MIGRATION
ETHNIC GROUPS
LANGUAGES
RELIGIONS
TRANSPORTATION
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL PARTIES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
ARMED FORCES
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ECONOMY
INCOME
LABOR
AGRICULTURE
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
FISHING
FORESTRY
MINING
ENERGY AND POWER
INDUSTRY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DOMESTIC TRADE
FOREIGN TRADE
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
INSURANCE
PUBLIC FINANCE
TAXATION
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH
HOUSING
EDUCATION
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
MEDIA
ORGANIZATIONS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FAMOUS GUYANESE
DEPENDENCIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cooperative Republic of Guyana

CAPITAL: Georgetown

FLAG: A red triangle at the hoist extending to the flag's midpoint is bordered on two sides by a narrow black stripe; extending from this is a golden arrowhead pointing toward the fly and bordered on two sides by a narrow white stripe. Two green triangles make up the rest of the flag.

ANTHEM: Begins "Dear land of Guyana, of rivers and plains."

MONETARY UNIT: The Guyanese dollar (g$) of 100 cents is a paper currency tied to the US dollar. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 cents, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 100 Guyanese dollars. g$1 = us$0.00498 (or us$1 = g$200.79) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Guyana officially converted to the metric system in 1982, but imperial weights and measures are still in general use.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Republic Day, 23 February; Labor Day, 1 May; Caribbean Day, 26 June; Freedom Day, 7 August; Christmas, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday, Easter Monday, Phagwah, 'Id al-'Adha, Yaou-Mun-Nabi, and Dewali.

TIME: 9 am = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the northeast coast of South America, Guyana is the third-smallest country on the continent, with an area of 214,970 sq km (83,000 sq mi), extending 807 km (501 mi) n–s and 436 km (271 mi) e–w, including disputed areas. Comparatively, the area occupied by Guyana is slightly smaller than the state of Idaho. Bounded on the n by the Atlantic Ocean, on the e by Suriname, on the s and sw by Brazil, and on the nw by Venezuela, Guyana has a total boundary length of 2,921 km (1,815 mi) of which 459 km (285 mi) is coastline.

Neither Guyana's western border with Venezuela nor its eastern border with Suriname has been resolved. Venezuela claims all territory west of the Essequibo River, an area of more than 130,000 sq km (50,000 sq mi), or over three-fifths of Guyana. Suriname claims a largely uninhabited area of 15,000 sq km (5,800 sq mi) in the southeast, between two tributaries of the Corentyne River.

Guyana's capital city, Georgetown, is located on the country's Atlantic coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

Guyana has three main natural regions: a low-lying coastal plain, extending for about 435 km (270 mi) and ranging from 16 to 64 km (10–40 mi) in width, much of which is below high-tide level and must be protected by sea walls and drainage canals; a region of heavily forested, rolling, hilly land, about 160 km (100 mi) in width, which contains most of the mineral wealth and comprises almost five-sixths of Guyana's land area; and in the south and west, a region of mountains and savannas. There are several large rivers, including the Essequibo (the longest at 966 km/600 mi), Demerara, and Berbice, but few are navigable for any distance above the plains because of rapids and falls.

CLIMATE

The climate is subtropical and rainy. The average temperature at Georgetown is 27°c (81°f); there is little seasonal variation in temperature or in humidity, which averages 80–85%. Rainfall averages 229 cm (90 in) a year along the coast, falling in two wet sea-sons—May to July and November to January—and 165 cm (65 in) in the southwest, where there is a single wet season, extending from April through August.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The flora varies with the rainfall and soil composition. The coastal area, originally swamp and marsh with mangrove and associated vegetation, has long been cleared for farming. In inland areas of heavy rainfall there are extensive equatorial forests, with green-heart a major species; varieties of trees may number as many as 1,000. Local fauna includes locusts, moth borers, acoushi ants, bats, and other small mammals. There may be more than 675 species of birds. Northwestern coastal beaches are an important breeding ground for sea turtles.

ENVIRONMENT

Because over 80% of Guyana is still wilderness, the country has so far sustained little serious environmental damage. The air is clean, but water supplies are threatened by sewage and by agricultural and industrial chemicals. One potential problem for the nation's water supply is the pollution of its wells by salt water from the ocean. Guyana has 241 cu km of renewable water resources with 98% used for farming purposes. About 98% of the nation's city dwellers and 91% of people living in the rural areas have access to safe drinking water. Since 1985, the nation has experienced an increase in diseases related to water and food consumption.

Kaieteur National Park is the only specifically designated conservation area. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 13 types of mammals, 3 species of birds, 6 types of reptiles, 6 species of amphibians, 13 species of fish, 1 species of invertebrate, and 23 species of plants. Endangered species in Guyana included the tundra peregrine falcon, the black caiman, and four species of turtle (green sea, hawksbill, olive ridley, and leatherback).

POPULATION

The population of Guyana in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 751,000, which placed it at number 157 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 28% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 94 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.3%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. Since 1995, the Guyana Responsible Parenthood Association has promoted programs in schools to educate adolescents about reproduction in an attempt to address the high fertility rates. The projected population for the year 2025 was 703,000. The population density was 3 per sq km (9 per sq mi), but density varies dramatically. More than 90% of the people live on 5% of the land along the Atlantic coast; the interior of the country is practically uninhabited.

The UN estimated that 36% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.35%. The capital city, Georgetown, had a population of 231,000 in that year. Linden had an estimated 60,000 inhabitants, and New Amsterdam had about 33,000.

MIGRATION

Although specific figures were not available, there was significant outward migration in the 1980s, creating shortages of skilled workers and managers. Unofficial estimates put the number at 10,000 to 30,000 a year in the late 1980s, chiefly persons of Asian Indian extraction. Their destinations were chiefly the United States and Canada. The migration rate of tertiary educated individuals in 1990 was 77.3%. According to 1999 estimates, about 50,000 Guyanese citizens live in the Venezuelan territory that borders Guyana and are fully integrated into the local population. Remittances in 2002 were $100 million, 14.3% of GDP. In 2003, the Guyana government threatened to deport 80% of the 2,000 Brazilians in the mining industry as illegal workers. However, Guyana allows cultural workers, such as musicians, to come and go.

Guyana has traditionally had only a very small number of asylum seekers, mainly from Cuba and Angola. In 2005 the net migration rate was estimated as -7.51 migrants per 1,000 population, compared to -13.6 per 1,000 in 1990. The total number of migrants in Guyana in 2000 was 2,000. The government views the emigration level as too high.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Guyana's population is made up of five main ethnic groups: East Indians, Africans, Amerindians, Chinese, and Portuguese. An estimated 50% of the population is of East Indian descent and 36% of African descent. Those of Amerindian ancestry constitute 7%; all others account for an additional 7% of the population.

LANGUAGES

English is the official language and is used in government, the schools, the press, and commerce. Also spoken are Chinese, Portuguese, Amerindian languages, Creole, Hindi, Urdu, and a patois used mainly by those of African descent.

RELIGIONS

Christians make up approximately 50% of the total population, of whom about 30% are Anglicans, 25% are Roman Catholics, 25% are Pentecostals and Baptists, and 20% are Seventh-Day Adventists. There are smaller groups of Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Mormons, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Hindus make up some 35% of the population, and Muslims (Sunni and Shia) about 10%. There are small communities of Baha'is and Jews. It is believed that many people practice Rastafarianism and the traditional Caribbean religion known as Obeah, either exclusively or in conjunction with the practice of other faiths.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. All religious groups must register with the government in order to be formally recognized, but there is no other official monitoring of religious groups. Certain Christian, Muslim, and Hindu holidays are celebrated as public holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2001, Guyana had an estimated 187 km (116 mi) of standard and narrow gauge railroad track in service. The standard gauge line is 139 km (86 mi) in length, while the narrow gauge line is 48 km (30 mi) in length. Both lines are dedicated to the transport of ore and were originally built for the government-owned mining companies. The two government-owned passenger railway systems, however, have been scrapped: the Georgetown to New Amsterdam line in 1972, and the Georgetown to Parika line in 1974. Waterborne passenger and cargo service between these cities is carried out by a government-owned transport service via the Essequibo and Berbice rivers. Georgetown is the main port, while New Amsterdam accommodates coastal and small oceangoing vessels. Springlands, on the Corentyne River, is the main port for service with Suriname. In 2005, the merchant fleet had six ships of 1,000 GRT or more for a total of 7,475 GRT. As of 2004, Guyana had 1,077 km (670 mi) of navigable inter-waterways. Three rivers, the Berbice, Demerara, and the Essequibo are navigable by ocean-going vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km, respectively.

Roadways measured an estimated 7,970 km (4,953 mi) in 2002, of which only 590 km (367 mi) were paved. As of 2003, Guyana had about 28,000 passenger cars, and 13,000 commercial taxis, trucks, and buses. There were an estimated 49 airports in 2004, only 8 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Georgetown's Timehri International Airport is served by several international carriers. Guyana Airways Corp., a government company, operates domestic and international air service. In 2001 (the latest year for which data was available), 47,800 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

The coastline was first charted by Spanish sailors in 1499, at which time the area was inhabited by Amerindians of the Arawak, Carib, and Warrau language groups. By 1746, the Dutch had established settlements on the Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice rivers, and had withstood French and English attempts to capture and hold the area. The English occupied the settlements in 1796 and again in 1803, and gained formal possession at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The three main settlements were united into the Colony of British Guiana in 1831. Slavery was abolished in 1834, and many blacks settled in cooperative villages or moved into the towns. Under pressure from planters, indentured servants were brought in from India to work on the sugar plantations. As a result, most of the sugar workers still are of Asian Indian origin, while the urban population is predominantly black. This division into ethnocultural groupings later became an important factor in Guyana's politics.

The change in British imperial policy after World War II was reflected in a new constitution introduced in 1953, providing for a bicameral legislature and universal adult suffrage. Elections were held in the same year. However, the British balked after the People's Progressive Party (PPP) captured 18 of the 24 elected seats. Six months after the elections, the United Kingdom suspended the constitution, charging Communist subversion of the British Guiana government. The colony was governed on an interim basis until 1957, when general elections again were held. Again, the PPP won, with 47.9% of the votes, and Cheddi Jagan, leader of the PPP, was named chief minister.

The colony was granted full internal self-government in 1961, following four years of continued economic and social progress. In elections held under a new constitution introduced that year, the PPP won 20 of the 35 seats in the newly established Legislative Assembly. In October 1961, Jagan, who had been named prime minister, went to Washington, DC, to ask US president John F. Kennedy for US aid. Classified documents released in the mid1990s revealed that, following Jagan's visit, Kennedy gave the CIA orders to destabilize Jagan's government. Kennedy also urged Britain to withhold full independence from Guyana until Jagan was removed from power. Through covert operations, the CIA incited a general labor strike and racial violence between Jagan's Asian Indian followers and his opponents, mainly of African descent. British troops were called upon to restore order, but the situation did not calm until July.

In the elections of December 1964, the PPP again emerged as the strongest party, but due to US efforts to undermine its power, it was unable to form a government alone. As a result, the British governor called upon the leader of the People's National Congress (PNC), Forbes Burnham, to establish a government.

The following November, an independence conference held in London approved the present constitution, and on 26 May 1966, Guyana became a sovereign and independent nation. Guyana was proclaimed a cooperative republic on 23 February 1970, the 207th anniversary of a Guyanese slave revolt led by Cuffy, still a national hero. The PNC ruled as majority party between 1968 and 1992, although not without controversy.

Guyana became known to the US public in 1978 in the wake of the Jonestown massacre. The government of Guyana, in an attempt to colonize the nation's wilderness regions, had in 1977 allowed an American, James Warren "Jim" Jones, to establish the People's Temple commune at what became known as Jonestown, in the northwest. Many in the United States had become concerned with developments in the commune, and US representative Leo J. Ryan had gone to Jonestown to investigate. He and four other US citizens were murdered at a nearby airstrip by Jones's followers. Then, on 18 November 1978, Jones and more than 900 of his followers committed suicide by drinking poisoned punch.

Between 1980 and 1985, relations between the PNC and opposition parties deteriorated sharply, as opposition parties charged harassment and fraud. The assassination in 1980 of Dr. Walter Rodney, a leading opposition figure, escalated the conflict. Under the administration of Forbes Burnham (1980–1985), human rights declined steadily. Burnham died in 1985 and was succeeded by first vice president and prime minister, Desmond Hoyte. The new president sought to improve Guyana's relations with non-Socialist nations, particularly the United States, and attempted the liberalization of the Guyanan economy.

However, by 1992 the country had grown tired of the PNC, and elected Cheddi Jagan of the PPP to the presidency in what was considered to be the first free and fair election since 1965. Jagan, who had been minority leader for years, received an impressive mandate with 53.4% of the vote, to 42.3% for the PNC. This translated to a solid 36 PPP seats in the National Assembly. Jagan had mellowed in the three decades since his ouster by the CIA, and in an ironic twist of history he was elected this time with the full support of the United States. Jagan served effectively as president until his death in March 1997 at age 78.

Under Jagan's administration, Guyana was able to consolidate its massive foreign debts and began to enjoy sustained economic growth. Jagan's widow, Janet Jagan, was elected to succeed him in general elections held on 15 December 1997, but the opposition PNC challenged the legitimacy of the election. In spite of a CARICOM audit that deemed the election fair, the opposition PNC, led by former prime minister, Hoyte, continued to protest the presidency of Jagan throughout the early months of 1998, and there were demonstrations and other forms of civil unrest, as well as a 55-day strike by civil servants. On 14 August, the 78-year-old, US-born Jagan, suffering from a heart condition, stepped down, naming as her successor finance minister Bharrat Jagdeo, who, at age 35, became one of the world's youngest heads of state. Jagdeo went on to lead the PPP into a new electoral victory in 1999 elections, with 53.1 % of the vote. Jagdeo was reelected as prime minister and his party commanded the support of 34 of the 65 elected members of the legislature.

Legislative elections were held in March 2001, and Jagdeo's PPP/C (People's Progressive Party/Civic) took 34 seats to the PNC's 27 (the remaining seats were won by smaller parties). Jagdeo was reelected prime minister.

In 2000, Suriname gunboats evicted an oil exploration rig from the area; Guyana had approved the exploration in the oil-rich disputed region. In June 2004, the UN set up a tribunal to try to resolve the long-standing maritime border dispute between Guyana and Suriname.

In January 2005, the government declared the capital of George-town to be a disaster zone, as severe flooding followed days of continuous rain. More than 30 people were killed, and the UN estimated the loss to the economy to be approximately $500 million.

GOVERNMENT

As of 23 February 1970, Guyana became a cooperative republic. Guyana's first president was elected by the National Assembly on 17 March 1970, and the post of governor-general was abolished. Proclamation of the cooperative republic also entailed the provision of mechanisms for the takeover of foreign enterprises. Guyana's basic parliamentary structure dates from the constitution negotiated prior to independence in 1966. Under a new constitution approved in 1980, the unicameral National Assembly consisted of 53 members elected by secret ballot under a system of proportional representation for a five-year term, plus 10 members elected by 10 regional councils, and 2 members elected by the National Congress of Democratic Organs. The latter, which was composed of deputies from local councils, together with the National Assembly, constituted the Supreme Congress of the People of Guyana, which could be summoned or dissolved by the executive president. This office, created by the 1980 constitution, was filled by the leader of the majority party as both chief of state and head of government.

Constitutional reform was undertaken after the 2001 elections. The National Congress of Democratic Organs was abolished. There are 65 elected members of parliament, 1 elected Speaker of the National Assembly, and 2 nonvoting members appointed by the president. Members serve five-year terms. The president appoints a cabinet including a prime minister.

The voting age and age of majority are 18 years, and suffrage is universal. However, electoral irregularity is the rule, rather than the exception. A British-led team of observers pronounced the 1980 vote "fraudulent in every respect." The 1992 election was considered by most observers to be the first fair poll since 1965. Boycotts both before and after elections have been frequent as a result of fraud charges, but the net effect of these boycotts has been to enhance the power of the majority party.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Guyana's political parties are generally committed to socialism or some variant of it, but differ in the groups they represent and especially the ethnic groups that support them. A schism between the black and Asian Indian communities defines the major political division in the country.

In 1950, Cheddi Jagan and his wife organized the People's Progressive Party (PPP), which was anticolonial in nature, claimed to speak for the lower social classes, and cut across racial lines. Early in 1955, Forbes Burnham, who had been minister of education in Jagan's government, led a dissident PPP wing in the formation of the People's National Congress (PNC), which became the predominant political vehicle of Guyanese blacks, with Asian Indians remaining in the PPP. Until 1992, the PNC had dominated Guyana's politics since independence. It drew its members primarily from urban blacks, and was in the majority from its first government, formed after the 1964 elections, until 1992 when the PPP returned to power. The PNC ideologically defines itself as socialist, but stresses the importance of a mixed economy in which the private sector is encouraged.

The PPP had been the opposition party since the 1960s, after dominating Guyanan politics in the 1950s. Appealing to Asian Indian rice farmers and sugar workers, the PPP nevertheless claims to be primarily an ideological party. Over the years, the PPP has taken an orthodox socialist position along the lines of international Communism. However, Jagan at times called for increased foreign investment, and introduced conservative economic measures during his tenure as premier in the early 1960s. PPP opposition has been both loyal and otherwise. After the 1973 elections, the PPP boycotted the National Assembly, charging electoral fraud. In 1976 the representatives took their seats. In the 1980s the party appeared to be waning, but the 1992 elections gave a boost to this long-standing party.

Because Guyana uses a proportional representation system, small parties are accommodated within the system. In preparation for the 1992 elections, Guyanan citizens formed nearly 20 new parties. One such group is the Working People's Alliance (WPA), a multi-ethnic independent party professing its own brand of Marxism. The WPA, founded in 1979, boycotted the 1980 elections on the grounds that they were bound to be rigged. In June 1980, its leader, Walter Rodney, was killed in a bomb blast. The party took one seat in the 1985 elections, and 2 seats in the 1992 elections. The United Force (TUF) was organized by Peter D'Aguilar, a wealthy brewer of Portuguese extraction, in the early 1960s. Its program, called economic dynamism, was based principally on close ties with the West, encouragement of foreign enterprise, and the acquisition of foreign loans. It helped the PNC form the first non-PPP government in Guyana in 1964, but in 1968 the PNC formed a government by itself. In 1973, TUF lost the four seats it had won in 1968. In 1980, TUF won two seats, which it held until 1992, when it lost one of the two.

The 1992 elections brought the PPP and Cheddi Jagan back to power. Jagan served as president until his death in March 1997. In the general elections of December 1997, his widow, Janet Jagan, was elected to succeed him, and the PPP remained in power with 36 seats, while the PNC held 26; the Alliance for Guyana, 1; the TUF, 1; and the Guyana Democratic Party, 1. However, following extended challenges by the PNC over the validity of the election, Jagan resigned the following August, naming finance minister Bharrat Jagdeo to succeed her. Jagdeo has remained as PPP leader and prime minister since then.

In the March 2001 elections, the PPP/C won 34 seats to the PNC's 27. Smaller parties took the remaining seats.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Guyana's system of local government was restructured after independence. Guyana is divided into 10 regions, each of which is administered by a chairman and council. City and village councils administer the local communities.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The Supreme Court of Judicature has two divisions: the High Court, which consists of the chief justice of the Supreme Court and any number of puisne justices and has both original and appellate jurisdiction; and the Court of Appeal (established 30 July 1966), which consists of a chancellor, the chief justice of the Supreme Court, and as many justices as the National Assembly may prescribe. The chancellor of the Court of Appeal is the country's chief judicial officer. Magistrates' courts exercise summary jurisdiction in lesser civil and criminal matters. The constitution of 1980 provides for an ombudsman to investigate governmental wrongdoing. English common law is followed. Although there is an ombudsman, he lacks the authority to investigate allegations of police misconduct. There is no independent body charged with responsibility for pursuing complaints of police brutality or abuse.

In 2003, Caribbean leaders met in Kingston, Jamaica, to ratify a treaty to establish the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ). Eight nations—Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago—officially approved the CCJ, although a total of 14 nations were planning to use the court for appeals. Haiti had agreed to use the CCJ for resolution of trade disputes. The court was officially inaugurated in April 2005, in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. As of 2005, however, the court's jurisdiction was limited to the CARICOM states of Barbados and Guyana. The CCJ heard its first case in August 2005.

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. Delays in judicial proceedings are caused by shortages of trained personnel and inadequate resources.

ARMED FORCES

The Combined Guyana Defense Force numbered 1,100 fulltime officers and troops in 2005. Reserves consisted of 670 reservists and a paramilitary force, the Guyana Peoples Militia, which numbered 1,500. Army personnel numbered 900. Equipment included 9 reconnaissance vehicles and 54 artillery pieces. The Navy and the Air Force numbered 100 each. Operable naval units consisted of three patrol/coastal craft. The Air Force's equipment consisted of three transport aircraft and two utility helicopters. Paramilitary forces consisted of the Guyana People's Militia which had more than 1,500 members. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $5.92 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Guyana became a member of the United Nations on 20 September 1966; it belongs to ECLAC and several specialized agencies of the United Nations, such as the FAO, ICAO, ILO, IMF, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, and the World Bank. Guyana served on the UN Security Council in 1975–76 and 1982–83. General Mohamed Shahabuddeen, a former vice president and deputy prime minister of Guyana, served on the International Court of Justice from 1987–96. Guyana is a member of the ACP Group, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Caribbean Development Bank, G-77, the Latin American Economic System (LAES), the OAS, the Río Group, the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), and CARICOM. Georgetown is home to offices of the European Union, the Inter-American Development Bank, the UN Development Program (UNDP), the WHO, and the OAS. The CARCICOM Secretariat is also headquartered in Georgetown.

The nation is also a member of the Nonaligned Movement and participates in the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL). In environmental cooperation, Guyana is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, International Tropical Timber Agreements, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Guyana's economy is dominated by the production and processing of primary commodities, of which sugar, gold, and bauxite are the most important. Much of the country is undeveloped, with more than 90% of the population and almost all of the agriculture concentrated in the narrow coastal plain. The interior is sparsely settled, and communications are poor. The bulk of the population is engaged in agriculture, either as laborers on sugar plantations or as peasant cultivators of rice. Although sugar and rice continued to be important export earners, bauxite and gold share comparable percentages of national exports. The government plays a direct role in the sugar industry; the nation's leading sugar producing company was nationalized in 1976.

Beginning in the late 1970s, Guyana's economy suffered a severe decline, attributable both to the increasingly high costs of imported oil and petroleum products (39% of Guyana's merchandise imports in 1983) and to sagging production and prices of Guyana's exports. In 1982 there were serious shortages of basic commodities, foreign exchange reserves dwindled, and Guyana was forced to reschedule its debts. In 1985, the IMF declared Guyana ineligible for further loans because of noncompliance with fund conditions and high arrears.

However, Guyana's economy improved dramatically under the Economic Recovery Program (ERP) launched by the government in April 1989. The program, which was designed with the assistance of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank officials; was supported by Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It marked a drastic reversal in government policy away from a predominantly state-controlled, socialist economy towards a more open, free market system. The government reformed its monetary and fiscal policy establishing a free market in foreign currency, which was designed to stabilize the exchange rate and put an end to runaway inflation. The exchange rate remained stable at g$125 to the dollar and inflation dropped from a 1989–91 annual average of 60–100% to only 14% in 1992. The growth rate reached 6% in 1991, after 15 years of decline. The government also eliminated price controls, removed import restrictions, promoted foreign investment, and divested itself of 15 of 41 state-owned enterprises by 1997.

Real GDP growth of 6.2% registered in 1997 marked the seventh consecutive year of strong recovery, with all of the key sectors demonstrating significant increases in production. Growth was particularly strong in the major export industries, including rice and sugar. Inflation had fallen to 4.2%. In July 1998, Guyana entered into a three-and-a-half-year arrangement with the IMF under a program which combined both the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) with a credit line of about $70 million. However, a severe drought and political turmoil due to the 1997 elections combined to produce a contraction of -1.7% in 1998. Real GDP grew a reported 3% in 1999, but as the pace of structural reform slackened, the currency appreciated, and the country's overall terms of trade weakened, inflation jumped to 8.7%, up from 4.7% in 1998. In May 1999 the country received some debt relief under the Highly Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative mounting initially to $92 million. In 2000, real GDP contracted 1.4% though inflation declined to 5.8%. In early 2001, the IMF suspended the ESAF/PRGF program with only 46% of the money paid out due to slippages in the government's implementation of fiscal and structural reforms that sent the budget deficit soaring to 6.3% of GDP in 2000 and 7% of GDP in 2001, respectively, even after grants. Real GDP growth in 2001 was 1.4%, and inflation declined to 1.5%. In September 2002, Guyana entered into a new three-year arrangement under the IMF's PRGF supported by a credit line of $73 million. The GDP was estimated to have grown 1.8% in 2002, with inflation at 4.3%.

In 2004, the GDP growth rate was 1.6%, up from–0.7% in the previous year; in 2005, the growth rate was expected to fall back, to 0.4%. The inflation rate, although fluctuating, remained under control—in 2004, it reached 4.6%, down from 6.0% in 2003. The growth in 2004 was mainly fueled by higher export earnings. The bauxite mining sector was scheduled for restructuring and privatization, which was expected to give an extra boost to the economy.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Guyana's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $3.0 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $3,900. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 0.5%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 5.5%. It was estimated that in 2005 agriculture accounted for 36.8% of GDP, industry 20.2%, and services 43%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $64 million or about $83 per capita and accounted for approximately 8.6% of GDP.

LABOR

In the latest years for which data was available, Guyana's workforce in 2001 was estimated at 418,000. In 1997, agriculture accounted for 27.8% of the workforce, with industry at 22.6%, services at 47.9%, and undefined occupations at 1.7%. The reported unemployment figure in 2000 was 9.1%, but this is considered vastly understated. There is a severe shortage of skilled labor.

Workers are legally entitled to form and join unions, although in practice this has been slow to materialize. Union membership accounts for approximately 32% of workers, primarily concentrated in the public sector and state-owned industry. Strikes are permitted provided they are approved by union leadership and meet the requirements of the collective bargaining agreement.

No person under 14 is legally permitted to work outside a family business. Child labor regulations are not effectively enforced and child labor remains a prevalent concern. The minimum public-sector wage was us$104 per month in 2002; there is no legally set minimum wage in the private sector. Hours of employment are set by various industries. Health and safety standards are established by the Factories Act but are not enforced due to lack of resources.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture, the main economic activity, provides nearly half the total value of exports and a large part of domestic food needs. Because the narrow strip of rich, alluvial soil along the coast lies in part below the high-tide mark of the sea and rivers, and because of heavy seasonal rainfall, agricultural expansion requires heavy expenditures for flood control, drainage, and irrigation. About 2.5% of the land is used for temporary and permanent crop production.

Guyana has two sugarcane harvests per year, and there are currently eight sugar mills in operation. About 90% of all cane is grown on land owned or leased by Guysuco, the government-owned sugar monopoly. Guysuco is managed under contract by the British firm Booker Tate. Independent farmers contribute only about 8% to total cane production. Guyana is not an efficient producer of sugar and cannot compete on the world market; it depends on preferential export markets for its sugar trade. Sugar production in 2004 was 3,000,000 tons, up from the 395,000 tons produced in 1971; sugar accounted for 29% of exports in 1980 and about 19% in 2004. Rice production in 2004 (501,500 tons) had more than doubled since 1991. Agricultural exports in 2004 totaled us$189.8 million. Other crops, grown for domestic consumption include bananas, citrus, cassava, and yams.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Livestock in 2005 included 110,000 head of cattle, 130,000 sheep, 79,000 goats, 13,000 hogs, and 20,000,000 chickens. Other important domestic animals are horses, mules, and donkeys. Extensive work is carried on to improve cattle productivity by importing breeding stock and providing artificial insemination and veterinary services.

FISHING

Efforts are being made to increase the fish catch in order to improve the local diet and reduce imports of fish. The catch was 60,304 tons in 2003. The principal species caught that year were Atlantic seabob (19,205 tons) and whitebelly prawn (2,218 tons). Fish exports amounted to us$54.2 million in 2003. The Demerara Fish Port Complex, built near Georgetown with Japanese aid, includes a fish-processing plant and office facilities.

FORESTRY

Forests cover about 16,879,000 hectares (41,708,000 acres), or 79% of the total land area. Commercial exploitation, however, is confined to a relatively small section in the northeast. The government-operated timber plant buys lumber from private sawmills and processes it with a view to standardizing and raising the quality of timber for export. Only about 20% of the forest area is reasonably accessible for timber exploitation. Green-heart is the most important timber produced and exported. Timber production was about 1,158,000 cu m (40,900,000 million cu ft) in 2004. Exports of forestry products amounted to us$29.4 million that year.

MINING

Guyana's primary mineral industries in 2003, were centered on bauxite, gold, diamonds, sand, and crushed stone. In 2003, production of bauxite totaled 1.7 million metric tons, up from 1.69 million metric tons in 2002. Mined gold production in 2003 totaled 12,170 kg, down from 13,581 kg in 2002. In 2003 about 8,400 kg of gold were produced by the Omai Mine. However gold output at the mine has been falling and exploration has failed to find new reserves. The mine was slated to cease operations. Diamond production in 2003 was estimated at 250,000 carats, up from 248,436 carats in the previous year. Diamond production since 1999 increased 450%, allegedly due to the breakup of a Brazilian smuggling ring. Sand and crushed stone were also mined in 2003. The Guiana Shield region was well known for its undeveloped resources of copper, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, platinum, and uranium, and undeveloped resources of columbite and tantalite were also being investigated in Guyana.

ENERGY AND POWER

Guyana has no known proven reserves of oil, natural gas, coal, or any oil refining capacity. As a result the country must import whatever refined petroleum products or other fossil fuels it consumes. In 2002, imports and consumption of refined petroleum products each averaged 11,270 barrels per day. There were no imports or consumption of natural gas or coal in that year.

Guyana's electric power sector in 2002, was marked by the near total use of fossil fuels to provide electric power, although there is a very small hydroelectric sector. In 2002, electric power generating capacity totaled 0.305 million kW, with conventional thermal plants accounting for 0.300 million kW and hydropower 0.005 million kW. Total electric energy produced in 2002 was 0.808 billion kWh, of which 0.800 billion kWh came from fossil fuels and the rest from hydropower. Consumption of electricity in 2002 was 0.751 billion kWh. Frequent power failures have hampered production and thus impeded economic growth. The lack of reliable electricity in and around Georgetown has prompted many businesses to utilize imported small diesel-operated generators, further increasing total fuel demand.

INDUSTRY

Industry is limited chiefly to processing gold, bauxite, sugar, and rice for export and food and beverages for the local market. Gourmet food processing is increasingly gaining in importance, including the production of certain jams, jellies, sauces, spices, and fruit purees. Manufacturing accounted for about 11% of GDP in 1998, when output decreased by 8.9% over the previous year. Industry as a whole accounted for 32% of GDP in 2000.

In 1993 the government announced a policy move toward total privatization, joint ventures, public share offers, employee and management buyouts, and leased management contracts. The government has followed a serious program of privatization of key state enterprises, such as the telephone utility—80% of which is owned by the US Virgin Islands firm Atlantic Telenetwork. In 1996, a number of companies were offered for privatization, including the state-owned Guyana Electricity Corporation (GEC), Guyana Airways Corporation, the Linmine and Bermine bauxite mines, Guyana National Printers, Guyana Stores, the Guyana Pharmaceutical Corporation, Versailles Dairy Complex, and the Wauna Oil Palm Estate. The GEC was privatized in 1999. The government continued its hold on the state monopoly Guyana Sugar Corporation (Guysuco). Following privatization of the government-owned rice mills and the transfer of rice transactions to the common market for foreign currency, the rice industry recovered and its production increased. In 1999, rice output increased 7.6% and sugar production increased 25.8% over 1998. Due to the fact that much development of infrastructure was needed, the construction sector realized significant growth in the early 2000s. In 2002, breakfast cereals manufactured through the processing of rice were seen as potential exports.

The share of the industry in the GDP was 19.9% in 2004; agriculture contributed with 38.3% and also was the main employer in the country; services came in first with a 41.8% share in the GDP. The oil industry was expected to be an important income earner in future years, although explorations in western Guyana proved unfruitful in the past.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The University of Guyana, founded in 1963 at Georgetown, has faculties of agriculture, health sciences, technology, and natural sciences. The Guyana School of Agriculture Corporation was founded in 1963. The Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, founded in 1974 at Stabroek and operated by the Organization of American States, aims to stimulate and promote rural development as a means of achieving the general development and welfare of the population. The Pan-American Health Organization has maintained an office in Georgetown since 1949. The Guyana Zoo, an adjunct of the Guyana Museum in George-town, specializes in the display, care, and management of South American fauna.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Domestic trade is conducted largely through small retail shops and kiosks scattered throughout the settled areas, and by cooperatives. Franchising began to show signs of growth potential, primarily in the fast-food industry. There are also traditional informal markets for the sale of agricultural products. One of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, the economy relies heavily on foreign aid and investment. Normal business hours are 8 am to 4:30 pm, Monday–Friday. Banks are open from 8 am to 12:30 pm and 3 to 5 pm weekdays.

FOREIGN TRADE

Leading exports are bauxite, sugar, rice, gold, shrimp, rum, timber, and molasses. In 1968, bauxite replaced sugar as Guyana's single most important export. From the 1970s to mid-1980s, however, world markets for Guyana's export commodities weakened

Country	Exports	Imports	Balance
World	472.1	556.8	-84.7
United Kingdom	105.1	35.7	69.4
Canada	94.4	8.1	86.3
United States	94.1	177.1	-83.0
Trinidad and Tobago	28.3	148.6	-120.3
Jamaica	26.5	4.4	22.1
Belgium	19.6	5.6	14.0
Barbados	19.2	6.4	12.8
Netherlands	15.7	14.2	1.5
Portugal	9.6	…	9.6
Antigua and Barbuda	7.1	…	7.1
(…) data not available or not significant.

while oil import costs rose, leading to chronic trade deficits. As a result of Guyana's economic reform program, import restrictions have been removed, and import licenses are granted routinely by the Ministry of Trade, Tourism, and Industry.

Guyana's biggest exports are sugar (25%) and gold (24%). The mining industry also produces a large amount of bauxite/alumina exports (16%). Foodstuffs account for substantial amounts of commodity export percentages, including rice (11%), shrimp (2.3%), and rum (2.0%).

In 2004, exports reached $570 million (FOB—Free on Board), while imports grew to $650 million (FOB). The bulk of exports went to Canada (23.2%), the United States (19.2%), the United Kingdom (10.9%), Portugal (9%), Belgium (6.4%), and Jamaica (5.2%). Imports included manufactures, machinery, petroleum, and food, and mainly came from Trinidad and Tobago (24.8%), the United States (24.5%), Cuba (6.8%), and the United Kingdom (5.4%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Guyana generally runs a deficit on current accounts, which became increasingly severe in the 1980s. Since 1989, the government has sought a policy of a free market in foreign currency and the removal of import prohibitions. Still, over half of the annual budget went to debt servicing during the 1990s and early 2000s. In 1996, Guyana's debt with Paris Club creditors was reduced by 67%; bringing total external debt to us$1.5 billion, or, slightly less than 100% of GDP. Guyana qualified for $590 million in debt service relief under the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative in 2000. As a result of its qualification for HIPC assistance, Guyana became eligible for a reduction of its multilateral debt for the first time. In 2002, Guyana negotiated a three-year $73 million loan with the IMF.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Guyana's exports was $505 million

Current Account			-90.6
Balance on goods		-58.9
Imports	-571.7
Exports	512.8
Balance on services		-19.9
Balance on income		-52.1
Current transfers		247.1
Capital Account			43.8
Financial Account			40.0
Direct investment abroad		…
Direct investment in Guyana		26.1
Portfolio investment assets		-22.1
Portfolio investment liabilities		4.5
Financial derivatives		…
Other investment assets		43.3
Other investment liabilities		-11.8
Net Errors and Omissions			16.6
Reserves and Related Items			-9.8
(…) data not available or not significant.

while imports totaled $585 million resulting in a trade deficit of $80 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1995 Guyana had exports of goods totaling $496 million and imports totaling $537 million. The services credit totaled $134 million and debit $172 million.

Exports of goods reached $589 million in 2004, up from $513 million in 2003. Imports grew from $571 million in 2003, to $647 million in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative, reaching -$58 million in both years. The current account balance was also negative, improving from -$91 million in 2003 to -$62 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (excluding gold) grew to $232 million in 2004, covering more than four months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Bank of Guyana is the central bank. In addition to the Bank of Guyana, seven commercial banks operate in the country. Three of them are foreign-owned, namely, Bank of Baroda, Bank of Nova Scotia, and The National Bank for Industry and Commerce (NIBC). In April 1994, the government sold its shares in the Guyana Bank for Trade and Industry (GBTI). In November 1994 the Demerara Bank (a private, domestic bank) and the Citizen's Bank started operations. Further liberalization of the financial sector occurred in April 1995 when Parliament approved the Financial Institutions Act of 1995. The new legislation aimed to tighten the supervisory and regulatory framework of the financial system. The NIBIC, one of Guyana's largest banks, was offered for privatization in 1996. By 2002, only one state-owned bank remained: the Guyana National Cooperative Bank (GNCB). The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $139.3 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $513.2 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 8.8%.

While a number of firms with publicly issued share capital are active, no large-scale securities market has developed.

INSURANCE

As of 1995, there were at least eight insurance companies operating in Guyana.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The budget follows the calendar year. Taxes finance the current account budget, with net surpluses or deficits being added to or subtracted from a general revenue balance. Nearly half of government revenue is derived from customs and excise receipts. Divestment of state enterprises, elimination of price controls and subsidies, and a reform of fiscal and monetary policy have led to debt restructuring and forgiveness. Nevertheless, in 1998, government expenditures were about 40% of GDP, and Guyana's debt reached 44% of GDP in 2000.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Guyana's central government took in revenues of approximately $320.1 million and had expenditures of $362.6 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$42.5 million. Total external debt was $1.2 billion.

TAXATION

Income taxes are the major source of direct tax revenue. Personal income taxes are levied at a rate of 0%, 20%, and 33.33%. The corporate tax rate is 45% for commercial companies (generally nonmanufacturing companies) and 35% for all other companies. Other taxes include property tax and consumption tax on locally manufactured goods, a withholding tax of 20% is placed on dividends, interest and royalties. There are also stamp taxes. Local government authorities derive their revenues primarily from land, building, and service taxes. Tax evasion is a constant problem.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Customs revenues are traditionally a main source of government income. Guyana uses the common external tariffs (CETs) of CARICOM. Intra-CARICOM trade is free of tariffs. The CET on imports is 5–20%. However, customs duties of 10–75% are also applied. Consumption taxes are also levied on imports, based on CIF (cost, insurance, and freight) value, but some items are exempted to encourage development. Export taxes range from 0.5% of value to 10%. There is an 80-acre gold export processing zone in Linden.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Investment by foreign firms accounted for the bulk of capital formation prior to the establishment of Guyana's cooperative republic in 1970. After Guyana became a cooperative republic, the government did little to attract foreign private investment. The Hoyte government, however, began efforts to obtain foreign investments for the rehabilitation of the bauxite industry and for oil prospecting and gold mining. New legislation to simplify foreign investment procedures was written in 1987.

The implementation of the Economic Recovery Program and the strong interest of the government in privatization attracted many foreign investors. In 1988, the government permitted foreign ownership of businesses operating in Guyana. In addition, the government was prepared to implement arrangements designed to facilitate investors' derivation of tax benefits in their home territories as well as tax credits in Guyana. Other investment incentives include: tax holidays, export allowances, accelerated depreciation, an export processing zone, and special provisions for agribusiness, mining, and tourism.

From 1997 to 2001, annual foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows to Guyana averaged $54 million, with a high of $67 million reached in 2000. For the period 1998 to 2000, Guyana's share of world FDI inflows was 2.2 times its share in world GDP. This was a marked improvement over the period 1988 to 1990 when Guyana's share of world inward FDI flows had been only 70% of its share in world GDP.

In 2002, $16.6 million were invested in a poultry farm—one of the few large investments in Guyana, in recent years. For 2005, the government planned to privatize the country's Linmine bauxite operations, which would have translated into a dramatic increase in capital inflows in that year.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

A continuing theme of Guyanese economic development policy has been the attempt, without great success, to expand agriculture and to diversify the economy. A seven-year development program (1966–72) aimed to move the country's economy away from its heavy dependence on sugar, rice, and bauxite and to increase funds for scientific, vocational, and technical training and agricultural education. A key feature of the 1972–76 development plan was its emphasis on improving Guyana's health and housing standards.

A decisive change in economic orientation was marked by the proclamation on 23 February 1970 of a cooperative republic. The government embarked on a policy of cooperative socialism by nationalizing the bauxite industry, seeking a redistribution of national wealth, and fostering the establishment of cooperative enterprises for agricultural production, marketing, transportation, housing and construction, labor contracting, services, and consumer purchases. Within a decade, about 80% of the economy was in the public sector.

As economic conditions declined in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the government instituted such austerity measures as import restrictions, foreign exchange controls, cutbacks in planned government spending, and layoffs of government employees.

From 1953 through 1986, Guyana received us$115.5 million in nonmilitary loans and grants. Multilateral assistance during the same period equaled us$265.4 million, of which 42% came from the IDB and 30% from the IBRD. The 1985 declaration by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that Guyana was ineligible to receive further assistance until outstanding debts with the fund had been repaid was an indication of how severe the nation's financial crisis had become. In 1983, the United States had vetoed aid from US and IDB sources, and late in 1985 a barter agreement with Trinidad and Tobago was suspended because of Guyana's failure to repay outstanding loans. As a result, the Hoyte government sought a rapprochement with international lending agencies: a delegation from the IMF, the World Bank, and the IDB visited Guyana late in 1986, and early in 1987 the Guyana dollar was devalued by 56%.

In the late 1990s, primarily as a result of economic reforms, agricultural output grew at a stable rate. Manufacturing output also grew because of improvements in electricity generation and distribution and improved incentives for private investments. These factors combined made continued recovery with real growth rates in excess of 5% per year possible until 1997. Drought and political instability threatened a decade of economic development.

The continuation of sound macroeconomic policies and public sector reform, together with multilateral and bilateral assistance, is crucial to sustaining growth. The fiscal situation was expected to continue improving in the short and medium term, largely as a result of increased current revenues. The inflation rate was likely to stay low, while the medium-term external position of Guyana was expected to remain clouded by the large external debt outstanding, so that the search for debt relief and preferred lending from international donors remained essential.

In 2000, Guyana became eligible for $590 million in debt service relief under the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. In 2002, Guyana negotiated a three-year $73 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement with the IMF, to support the government's economic reform program.

In 2005, the economy was expected to expand by only 2.5%, with most of the growth being fueled by higher investments in the public works projects and in the sugar industry. The loss of gold production from the Omai gold mine was expected to be offset by a higher output in the bauxite-mining sector. Fisheries were expected to suffer as a result of rising fuel costs, and overfishing posed a series of problems for the future.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system covers almost all employed and self-employed persons between the ages of 16 and 59. Social welfare benefits include workers' compensation, maternity and health insurance, death benefits, disability, and old age pensions. Workers contributed 4.8% of earnings, and employers made a 7.2% pay-roll contribution. Retirement pensions are 40% of average weekly earnings, disability pensions are 30%, and survivor benefits are 50% of the payable old age or disability pension. Maternity benefits are available for 13 weeks. Work injury laws have been in place since 1916.

Violence against women, including domestic violence, remained widespread in 2004, crossing socio-economic and racial lines. There is still social stigma attached to victims of rape, therefore the incidents largely go unreported. There is no legal protection against sexual harassment in the workplace. The law protects women's property rights in common law marriages and divorce, although divorce by mutual consent remained illegal.

Tensions between citizens of African descent and those of South Asian origin continued. Also, the land rights of the Amerindian population remained an issue. Guyana continued to have serious human rights problems, including police abuses, pretrial detention, and poor prison conditions.

HEALTH

In 2004, there were 48 doctors, 229 nurses, and 4 dentists per 100,000 people. Some 90% of the population of Guyana had adequate sanitation and 65% had access to safe water in 1994–95. In 2005 the average life expectancy was estimated at 65.50 years and the total fertility rate at 2.1. In the same year infant mortality was an estimated 33.26 deaths per 1,000 live births. A high incidence of malaria was present in 1997, with 34,075 new cases. That year, malaria was the country's second leading cause of death. Of the 6,506 cholera cases in 1995, 565 died. The incidences of filariasis, enteric fever, helminthiasis, nutritional deficiencies, and venereal diseases still were significant. Yellow fever remains a constant threat. In 1997, 82% of Guyana's children were vaccinated against measles, roughly a 28% increase from 1988.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 2.50 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 11,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 1,100 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Housing is a critical problem, as is the lack of adequate water supplies and of effective waste disposal and sewage systems. Overcrowding exists in many areas, with families of four or more members often living in one-room homes. Urban development plans have been prepared for Georgetown and New Amsterdam and a number of schemes, including the construction of low-cost rental housing, have been inaugurated. Loans are made through the Guyana Cooperative Mortgage Finance Bank, founded in 1973. To spur housing development, the government established the Guyana Housing Corp. in 1974. The government provides supervision by trained personnel for those willing to build their own homes. Housing is provided by some firms for their employees. Even so, housing shortages are prevalent and overcrowding and homelessness in urban areas is a great problem.

In the period 1996–2001, the government worked on programs for low-income housing. The result was the construction of about 91 settlements providing 50,000 housing units. The government has estimated that it must build 5,200 homes per year for at least 10 years to meet the national housing need.

Most housing units in the country are detached houses. Owners occupy over half of all dwellings. Most dwellings are wooden, with a smaller proportion made either of wood and concrete or concrete.

EDUCATION

Although educational standards are high, educational development has suffered from shortages of teachers and materials. School attendance is free and compulsory for eight years for children between the ages of 5 and 14. All schools in Guyana are public, as church and private schools were taken over by the government in 1976. Primary education lasts for six years. General secondary education (community high school) usually covers four years of study. Students will take an additional year to prepare for senior secondary school, which offers a two-year program ending with the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Exam. The academic year runs from September to July.

Most children between the ages of four and five attend some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 99% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 75% of age-eligible students, 58% for boys and 92% for girls. It is estimated that about 99% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 27:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 15:1.

The first students completed the one-year course at the Government Training College for Teachers in 1960. Teachers also are trained in the United Kingdom and at the University of the West Indies in Jamaica. The University of Guyana was established in 1963, and awarded its first degrees in 1967. The university has faculties in agriculture, the arts, health sciences, social sciences, education, and technology. The Kuru Kuru Cooperative College was established in 1970 to equip the Guyanese people both technically and philosophically for cooperative socialism and nation building. In 2003, about 6% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2003 was estimated at about 98.8%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 8.4% of GDP, or 18.4% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library in Georgetown, with holdings of more than 198,000 volumes, also functions as a public library and has 37 branches. The site of the National Library was originally built in 1909 as the Public Free Library, with funding in part from the American industrialist Andrew Carnegie. The Guyana Society Library (formerly the Library of the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society) is the oldest in the country and has a collection of rare books dealing with the Amerindians of Guyana. Other important libraries include the British Council Library, the Caribbean Community Secretariat, and the library of the US Information Agency. The University of Guyana, founded in 1963, maintains a library which has holdings of over 200,000 volumes.

The Guyana Museum in Georgetown has a collection of flora and fauna, archaeological findings, and examples of Amerindian arts and crafts. It also has an aquarium and a zoological and botanical park. The Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology is also found in Georgetown.

MEDIA

In 2002 there were 80,400 mainline telephones in use throughout the country with an additional 87,300 mobile phones. A public corporation runs the postal system. An international telex service was inaugurated in 1967. Overseas radiotelephone and cable services are provided by Cable and Wireless (W.I.), a private firm.

Broadcasting is carried on by the government-owned Guyana Broadcasting Corp. As of 2004, there was only one radio station and it was operated by the government. There were 13 television stations (only one of which was government-owned). In 1997 there were 817 radios and 306 television sets in use for every 1,000 people. In 2002, there were 125,000 Internet subscribers served by about 613 Internet hosts.

In 2004, there were three daily newspapers in Guyana, the Stabroek News (circulation 23,500 in 2002), which is an independent newspaper, Kaieteur News (also independent), and the Guyana Chronicle (23,000). The Mirror (circulation 25,000) is published twice a week by the People's Progressive Party.

The government is said to generally respect the constitutional provisions for freedom of speech and the press.

ORGANIZATIONS

Cooperative societies cover virtually every aspect of the economy. There is a chamber of commerce in Georgetown. Labor and industry organizations include the Guyana Manufacturers' Association and the Guyana Rice Producers' Association. There is a Guyana Consumers Association. Professional associations exist for teachers and lawyers.

There are a number of national youth organizations, including National Association of Youth and Students, the Progressive Youth Organization, Student Christian Movement of Guyana, the Trade Union Youth Movement of Guyana, Working Peoples Alliance Youth, and the Guyana United Youth Society. Scouting programs and YMCA/YWCA chapters are also active. There are several sports associations promoting amateur competition in a variety of pastimes.

Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, UNICEF, and the Red Cross have active chapters within the country.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Guyana's scenery varies from the flat marshy coastal plain to the savannas, plateaus, and mountains of the interior; the 226-m (740-ft) Kaieteur Falls, four times as high as Niagara, is the country's most outstanding scenic attraction. Tourist facilities are not very developed in Guyana, although there are hotels in Georgetown. Other attractions are the eco-resorts. Riding, hunting, fishing, and swimming are available in the southern savanna of the Rupununi. Cricket is the national sport.

All visitors are required to have a passport and an onward/return ticket. Visas are issued upon arrival for 30 days. In 2003, there were 100,911 foreign arrivals in Guyana, of whom 49% came from the United States.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily expenses for staying in Guyana at us$196.

FAMOUS GUYANESE

Citizens of Guyana who have established literary reputations abroad include the novelists Edgar Mittelholzer (1909–65), Edward Ricardo Braithwaite (b.1920?), and the poet and novelist Jan Carew (b.1925). Linden Forbes Sampson Burnham (1923–85), former leader of the PNC, dominated Guyanese politics from 1964 until his death. Cheddi Berret Jagan, Jr. (1918–97), founder of the PPP, was chief minister from 1957 to 1961 and premier from 1961 to 1964, and was the main opposition leader after returning to office in 1992. Hugh Desmond Hoyte (b.1930) served as president from 1985 to 1992. From 1997–99, Cheddi Jagan's wife Janet Jagan (b.1920) served as president; she resigned due to health reasons and was succeeded by Bharrat Jagdeo (b.1964).

DEPENDENCIES

Guyana has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burnett, D. Graham. Masters of All They Surveyed: Exploration, Geography, and a British El Dorado. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Calvert, Peter. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Latin America. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

D and B's Export Guide to Guyana. Parsippany, N.J.: Dun and Bradstreet, 1999.

Health in the Americas, 2002 edition. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Regional Office of the World Health Organization, 2002.

Herman, Marc. Searching for El Dorado: A Journey into the South American Rainforest on the Tail of the World's Largest Gold Rush. New York: Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 2003.

Mangru, Basdeo. A History of East Indian Resistance on the Guyana Sugar Estates, 1869–1948. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996.

Premdas, Ralph R. Ethnic Conflict and Development: The Case of Guyana. Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1995.