TUNISIA

Republic of Tunisia
Al-Jumhuriyah at-Tunisiyah

CAPITAL: Tunis

FLAG: Centered on a red ground is a white disk bearing a red crescent and a red five-pointed star.

ANTHEM: Al-Khaladi (The Glorious).

MONETARY UNIT: The Tunisian dinar (d) is a paper currency of 1,000 millimes. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 millimes and of ½, 1, and 5 dinars, and notes of 1, 5, 10, and 20 dinars. d1 = $0.78125 (or $1 = d1.28) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 20 March; Martyrs' Day, 9 April; Labor Day, 1 May; Victory Day, 1 June; Republic Day, 25 July; Women's Day, 13 August; Evacuation Day, 15 October; Accession of President Ben Ali, 7 November. Movable religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', 1st of Muharram (Muslim New Year), and Milad an-Nabi.

TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the northern coast of Africa, Tunisia has an area of 163,610 sq km (63,170 sq mi), extending 792 km (492 mi) n–s and 350 km (217 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Tunisia is slightly larger than the state of Georgia. It is bounded on the n and e by the Mediterranean Sea, on these by Libya, and on the w by Algeria, with a total boundary length of 2,572 km (1,598 mi), of which 1,148 km (713 mi) is coastline.

Tunisia's capital city, Tunis, is located on the northern coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

The Nemencha mountains—eastern extensions of the Atlas chain—divide the country into two distinct regions, the well-watered north and the semiarid south. The latter includes Tunisia's highest point, Jebel Chambi, 1,544 m (5,064 ft), near Kasserine. The northern region is further divided into three subregions: the northwest, with extensive cork forests; the north-central, with its fertile grasslands; and the northeast, from Tunis to Cape el-Tib, noted for its livestock, citrus fruits, and garden produce. The southern region contains a central plateau and a desert area in the extreme south, which merges into the Sahara and is characterized by date palm oases and saline lakes, the largest of which is Chott el Djerid. The Medjerda, the most important river system, rises in Algeria and drains into the Gulf of Tunis.

CLIMATE

Tunisia consists of two climatic belts, with Mediterranean influences in the north and Saharan in the south. Temperatures are moderate along the coast, with an average annual reading of 18°c (64°f), and hot in the interior south. The summer season in the north, from May through September, is hot and dry; the winter, which extends from October to April, is mild and characterized by frequent rains. Temperatures at Tunis range from an average minimum of 6°c (43°f) and maximum of 14°c (57°f) in January, to an average minimum of 21°c (70°f) and maximum of 33°c (91°f) in August. Precipitation in the northern region reaches a high of 150 cm (59 in) annually, while rainfall in the extreme south averages less than 20 cm (8 in) a year.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Tunisia has a great variety of trees, including cork oak, oak, pines, jujube, and gum. More than one-fourth of the country is covered by esparto grass, which is the characteristic vegetation of the steppe region. Jackal, wild boar, and several species of gazelle are numerous. Horned vipers and scorpions are common in the Sahara. The sleeved mouflon, a species of wild sheep, is found in the mountains. As of 2002, there were at least 78 species of mammals, 165 species of birds, and over 2,100 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Loss of agricultural land to erosion, and degradation of range and forest lands because of overgrazing or overcutting of timber for fuel are major concerns. Erosion threatens about 76% of the nation's land area. Overcrowding and poor sanitation in urban centers are also major environmental problems. Pollution from industry and farming activities threatens the nation's limited water supply. Tunisia has about four cu km of renewable water resources with 86% of annual withdrawals used for farming and 1% for industrial purposes. Only 60% of the people living in rural areas have access to improved water sources. The nation's cities produce about 0.9 million tons of solid waste; inadequate disposal of toxic and hazardous wastes poses health risks.

There are four national parks, including one natural UNESCO World Heritage Site; however, in 2003 less than 1% of the total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 10 types of mammals, 9 species of birds, 3 types of reptiles, 9 species of fish, and 5 species of invertebrates. Threatened species in Tunisia include the Barbary hyena, Barbary leopard, two species of gazelle (Cuvier's and slender-horned), the Mediterranean monk seal, and oryx. The Bubal hartebeest has become extinct. A World Wildlife Fund project succeeded in rescuing the Atlas deer from near extinction.

POPULATION

The population of Tunisia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 10,043,000, which placed it at number 80 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 7% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 27% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 1.1%. The government has had a commitment to family planning and reproductive health since the 1990s. The projected population for the year 2025 was 11,583,000. The overall population density was 61 per sq km (159 per sq mi), ranging from only about 4 per sq km (10 per sq mi) in the south to over 1,000 per sq km (400 per sq mi) in the thickly settled north.

The UN estimated that 65% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.59%. The capital city, Tunis, had a population of 1,996,000 in that year. Other cities are Sfax (Safaqis); Ariana (a suburb of Tunis); Bizerte (Binzart); Gabes; and Sousse (Susa).

MIGRATION

French and Italian migration to Tunisia dates from the French military occupation of 1881. There were 255,000 Europeans in Tunisia in 1956, but most have since left the country. With the conclusion of the Franco-Algerian war in 1962, 110,000 Algerian refugees returned to their homeland.

Internal migration constitutes a serious problem. Rural unemployment has caused significant population movement to urban centers, where conditions are often harsh. Since 1964, the government has sought to decentralize industry and to resettle nomads and seminomads in permanent villages. Many Tunisians seek employment abroad; in the early 1990s there were approximately 350,000 Tunisian workers in foreign countries, mostly Libya and France. The total number of migrants in 2000 was 38,000. In 2003, the Tunisian government, along with the Algeria and Morocco, cracked down on sub-Saharan migration that was heading toward Europe.

In 2004, there were some 90 refugees and 12 asylum seekers. The net migration rate in 2005 was estimated as -0.54 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory. Worker remittances in 2003 were $1.1 billion.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Tunisia has a highly homogeneous population, almost entirely of Arab and Berber descent (98%). The small European population (1%) consists mostly of French and Italians. Tunisian Jews and other groups make up the remaining 1% of the populace.

LANGUAGES

Arabic is the official language and one language used in commerce. French is taught to all school children and is also commonly used in commerce and administration. Small numbers of people speak Berber.

RELIGIONS

Islam is the state religion and nearly all Tunisians are Sunni Muslims. A small number are of the mystical Sufi branch. The Christian community, which contains only about 25,000 people, is made up primarily of Roman Catholics, Russian Orthodox, French Reformists, Anglicans, Greek Orthodox, and a small number of Jehovah's Witnesses and Seventh-Day Adventists. There are approximately 1,500 Jews in the country and about 150 Baha'is.

The constitution provides for the free exercise of religions that do not disturb the public order. Under this stipulation, the government restricts groups that are considered to be part of Islamic fundamentalist movements. Though members of other established, non-Muslim religions are generally allowed to practice freely, proselytizing is prohibited by law. Muslims who convert to another faith are often denied the right to vote, obtain a passport, and to enlist in the army, as well as facing social discrimination. Members of the Baha'i faith are only allowed to practice their faith in private, since the government considers the religion to be a heretical sect of Islam. The government offers some state support of the Jewish community, such as paying the salary of the grand rabbi, presumably based on the point that Judaism is considered to be indigenous to the country. The government prohibits the formation of political parties based on religious doctrines.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2002, Tunisia had 23,100 km (14,354 mi) of highway, of which 18,226 km (11,326 mi) were paved, including 142 km of expressways. Roads connected the major cities and provided access to most regions of the country. In 2003, there were 585,194 passenger cars and 288,285 commercial vehicles. The Tunisian National Railway Co. (Société National des Chemins de Fer Tunisiens) operates over 2,152 km (1,337 mi) of standard, narrow and dual gauge track, located mostly in the northern region and central plateau. Most of the country's rail system is narrow gauge, accounting for 1,674 km (1,040 mi), followed by standard gauge at 468 km (291 mi). The remainder—10 km (6.2 mi)—consists of dual gauge right-of-way. A metro rail system for Tunis opened in 1985.

Tunisia has excellent shipping facilities at Tunis, the principal port, and at Sfax, Sousse, Bizerte, and Gabes; Sekhira is the port for oil exports. The free port terminal at Zarzis is scheduled for further development at an estimated cost of $20.8 million, in order to expand harbor and storage facilities. Tunisia's modest merchant fleet, established in 1958, operates a freighter service principally to French ports. As of 2005 there were 12 ships of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 124,733 GRT. The Tunisian Navigation Co. is the principal shipping firm.

Airports in 2004 numbered an estimated 30, of which 14 had paved runways as of 2005. Tunis-Carthage Airport, about 14 km (9 mi) from the capital, provides direct connections to most of the major cities of Europe and the Middle East. There are five other international airports, at Menzel Bourguiba (Monastir), Zarzis (Jerba), Tozeur, Tabarka, and Sfax. Tunis Air, the national airline, is owned by the Tunisian government (51%), Air France, and Tunisian citizens. In 2003, about 1.720 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

The history of early Tunisia and its indigenous inhabitants, the Berbers, is obscure prior to the founding of Carthage by seafaring Phoenicians from Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) in the 9th century bc. A great mercantile state developed at Carthage (near modern-day Tunis), which proceeded to dominate the western Mediterranean world. The great Carthaginian general Hannibal engineered the monumental trans-Alpine assault on Rome in 211 bc and inflicted costly losses on the Roman Empire until choosing suicide rather than capture in 183 bc. Carthage was eventually burned to the ground by the Romans at the culmination of the Punic Wars in 146 bc. The Romans subsequently rebuilt the city, making it one of the great cities of the ancient world. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Tunisia fell successively to Vandal invaders during the 5th century ad, to the Byzantines in the 6th century, and finally to the Arabs in the 7th century. Thenceforth, Tunisia remained an integral part of the Muslim world.

In the 9th century, the governor of Tunisia, Ibrahim ibn Aghlab, founded a local dynasty nominally under the sovereignty of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Baghdād. The Aghlabids conquered Sicily and made Tunisia prosperous. In 909, the Fatimids ended Aghlabid rule, using Tunisia as a base for their subsequent conquest of Egypt. They left Tunisia in control of the subordinate Zirid dynasty until the 11th century, when the Zirids rebelled against Fatimid control. The Fatimids unleashed nomadic Arab tribes, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, to punish the Zirids, a move resulting in the destruction of the Zirid state and the general economic decline of Tunisia. In the 13th century, the Hafsids, a group subordinate to the Almohad dynasty based in Morocco, restored order to Tunisia. They founded a Tunisian dynasty that, from the 13th century to the 16th, made Tunisia one of the flourishing regions of North Africa. In the beginning of the 16th century, however, Spain's occupation of important coastal locations precipitated the demise of Hafsid rule.

In 1574, the Ottoman Turks occupied Tunisia, ruling it with a dey appointed by the Ottoman ruler. The dey's lieutenants, the beys, gradually became the effective rulers, in fact if not in name. Ultimately, in 1705, the bey Husayn ibn 'Ali established a dynasty. Successive Husaynids ruled Tunisia as vassals of the Ottomans until 1881 and under the French until 1956, the year of Tunisia's independence (the dynasty was abolished in 1957). During the 19th century, the Tunisian dynasts acted virtually as independent rulers, making vigorous efforts to utilize Western knowledge and technology to modernize the state. But these efforts led to fiscal bankruptcy and thus to the establishment of an international commission made up of British, French, and Italian representatives to supervise Tunisian finances. Continued rivalry between French and Italian interests culminated in a French invasion of Tunisia in May 1881. A protectorate was created in that year by the Treaty of Bardo; the Convention of La Marsa (1883) allowed the Tunisian dynasty to continue, although effective direction of affairs passed to the French. French interests invested heavily in Tunisia, and a process of modernization was vigorously pursued; at the same time, direct administration in the name of the dynasty was gradually expanded. The Tunisians, in turn, supported France in World War I.

The beginnings of modern nationalism in Tunisia emerged before the outbreak of the war, with hopes of greater Tunisian participation in government encouraged during the war by pronouncements such as the Fourteen Points (1918) of Woodrow Wilson. When these hopes were not realized, Tunisians formed a moderate nationalist grouping, the Destour ("Constitutional") Party. Dissatisfaction over the group's poor organization led, in 1934, to a split: the more active members, led by Habib Bourguiba, founded the Neo-Destour Party. France responded to demands for internal autonomy with repression, including the deposition and exile of the sovereign Munsif Bey. On 23 August 1945, the two Destour parties proclaimed that the will of the Tunisian people was independence. But the French still held firm. In December 1951, they again rejected a request by the Tunisian government for internal autonomy. The situation worsened when extremists among the French colonists launched a wave of terrorism. Finally, on 31 July 1954, French Premier Pierre Mendès-France promised the bey internal autonomy. After long negotiations accompanied by considerable local disorder, a French-Tunisian convention was signed on 3 June 1955 in Paris. On 20 March 1956, France recognized Tunisian independence.

In April 1956, Habib Bourguiba formed the first government of independent Tunisia, and on 25 July 1957, the National Assembly, having established a republic and transformed itself into a legislative assembly, elected Bourguiba chief of state and deposed the bey. A new constitution came into effect on 1 June 1959. Bourguiba won the first presidential election in 1959 and was reelected in 1964, 1969, and 1974, when the National Assembly amended the constitution to make him president for life.

Economic malaise and political repression during the late 1970s led to student and labor unrest. A general strike called by the General Union of Tunisian Workers (UGTT) on 26 January 1978, in order to protest assaults on union offices and the harassment of labor leaders, brought confrontations with government troops in which at least 50 demonstrators and looters were killed and 200 trade union officials, including UGTT Secretary-General Habib Achour, were arrested. Prime Minister Hedi Nouira was succeeded by Mohamed Mzali in April 1980, marking the advent of a political liberalization. Trade union leaders were released from jails, and Achour ultimately received a full presidential pardon. In July 1981, the formation of opposition political parties was permitted. In elections that November, candidates of Bourguiba's ruling Destourian Socialist Party, aligned in a National Front with the UGTT, garnered all 136 National Assembly seats and 94.6% of the popular vote. An economic slump in 1982–83 brought a renewal of tensions; in January 1984, after five days of rioting in Tunis, the government was forced to rescind the doubling of bread prices that had been ordered as an austerity measure.

After independence, Tunisia pursued a nonaligned course in foreign affairs while maintaining close economic ties with the West. Tunisia's relations with Algeria, strained during the 1970s, improved markedly during the early 1980s, and on 19 March 1983 the two nations signed a 20-year treaty of peace and friendship. Relations with Libya have been stormy since the stillborn Treaty of Jerba (1974), a hastily drafted document that had been intended to merge the two countries into the Islamic Arab Republic; within weeks after signing the accord, Bourguiba, under pressure from Algeria and from members of his own government, retreated to a more gradualist approach toward Arab unity. A further irritant was the territorial dispute between Libya and Tunisia over partition of the oil-rich Gulf of Gabes, resolved by the international Court of Justice in Libya's favor in 1982. Tunisian-Libyan relations reached a low point in January 1980, when some 30 commandos (entering from Algeria but apparently aided by Libya) briefly seized an army barracks and other buildings at Gafsa in an abortive attempt to inspire a popular uprising against Bourguiba. In 1981, Libya vetoed Tunisia's bid to join OAPEC and expelled several thousand Tunisian workers; more Tunisian workers were expelled in 1985.

Following the evacuation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from Lebanon in August 1982, Tunisia admitted PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat and nearly 1,000 Palestinian fighters. An October 1985 Israeli bombing raid on the PLO headquarters near Tunis killed about 70 persons. By 1987, the PLO presence was down to about 200, all civilians.

In 1986 and 1987, Bourguiba dealt with labor agitation for wage increases by again jailing UGTT leader Achour and disbanding the confederation. He turned on many of his former political associates, including his wife and son, while blocking two legal opposition parties from taking part in elections. Reasserting his control of Tunisian politics, Bourguiba dismissed Prime Minister Mzali, who fled to Algeria and denounced the regime. A massive roundup of Islamic fundamentalists in 1987 was the president's answer to what he termed a terrorist conspiracy sponsored by Iran, and diplomatic relations with Tehrān were broken. On 27 September 1987, a state security court found 76 defendants guilty of plotting against the government and planting bombs; seven (five in absentia) were sentenced to death.

General Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, the trusted minister of interior who had conducted the crackdown, was named prime minister in September 1987. Six weeks later, Ben Ali seized power, ousting Bourguiba, whom he said was too ill and senile to govern any longer. He assumed the presidency himself, promising political liberalization. Almost 2,500 political prisoners were released and the special state security courts were abolished. The following year, Tunisia's constitution was revised, ending the presidency for life and permitting the chief executive three five-year terms. Elections were advanced from 1991 to 1989 and Ben Ali ran unopposed. Candidates of the renamed Destour Party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), won all of the 141 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, although the Islamist party, an-Nahda, won an average of 18% of the vote where its members contested as independents.

The constitution does not permit political parties based on religion, race, regional, or linguistic affiliation, and thus Islamist parties in Tunisia face an uphill battle in gaining official recognition. After an attack on RCD headquarters in 1990, the government moved decisively against its Islamist opposition. Thousands were arrested and in 1992 military trials, 265 were convicted.

In the March 1994 presidential election, two men not Islamist-affiliated, after announcing their candidacy for the presidency, were arrested and Ben Ali again was unopposed and was reelected with 99.9% of the vote. In the electoral system established for the 1994 Chamber of Deputies elections, the number of seats had been increased from 144 to 163. That year, a new proportional system was established where 144 of the seats were to be contested and were won by the majority party and the remaining 19 were to be distributed to the remaining contesting parties according to their vote draw at the national level. In the parliamentary elections the president's RCD took all 144 seats with the remaining six parties dividing up the 19 set-aside seats. In the 1995 municipal elections, out of 4,090 seats contested in the 257 constituencies, independent candidates and members of the 5 recognized political parties won only 6 of the seats.

In July 1998 Ben Ali announced his plans to contest the presidential elections scheduled for October 1999. Two other candidates, Mohamed Belhaj Amor of the PUP and Abderrahmane Tlili of the UDU also announced their candidacy. The parliament had again been enlarged to 182 members, with 34 seats guaranteed to the opposition. In the 1999 elections Ben Ali received 99.4% of the votes, with Amor receiving 0.3% and Tlili 0.2%. The RCD was awarded with 148 seats and the 5 other official parties splitting the remaining 34 seats.

In the 1990s Tunisia continued to follow a moderate, nonaligned course in foreign relations, complicated by sporadic difficulties with its immediate neighbors. Relations with Libya remained tense after ties were resumed in 1987. However, Ben Ali pursued normalized relations, which dramatically improved over the next few years. Thousands of Tunisians found work in Libya as the border was reopened. In 1992 the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against Libya due to its decision not to hand over for trial suspects in the Pan Am bombing affair. Tunisia did not wholeheartedly support all of the UN Security Council sanctions due to the real economic ties that the two countries have. Due to these ties Libya's difficulties impacted on the ability of Tunisia and the Union of the Arab Maghreb (UAM) to establish closer relations with the European Union. From 1995 forward, Tunisia lobbied at the international level for the cessation of the sanctions due to the suffering that was caused to the Libyan people as well as to the regional tensions that the sanctions were creating. By 1997 Tunisia had quietly resumed joint economic projects and bilateral visitation with Libya. Following Libya's 1998/99 decision to hand over the Pan Am bombing suspects for trial in the Netherlands for the 1988 Pam Am explosion over Lockerbie, Scotland, Tunisia moved to normalize relations with Libya, including resumption of TunisAir flights to Tripoli in June 2000.

Ben Ali also appeared committed to the promotion of the UAM, an organization that became formalized in 1989 with Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Ben Ali became president of the organization for 1993, though at this point the active work toward unification of the five countries was put on hold due in large part to the political and economic difficulties that Algeria and Libya faced internally and internationally. In 1999 the leaders of Morocco and Tunisia again called for a resuscitation of the organization and pledged to work toward that end in the following year.

Tunisia's relations with Algeria in the 1990s were controlled by the Islamist issue. The leadership of Tunisia's not-officially-recognized ah-Nahda party continued to be closely watched by both countries. With the decision of the Algerian military to annul their January 1992 elections in order to prevent the Islamists from gaining control of the government, relations improved between the two countries. Algeria signed a border agreement in 1993 with Tunisia, ratified during a state visit of the Algerian leader. Reciprocal visits between the leadership of the two countries reinforced their commitment to controlling their joint border and fighting "extremism."

In 1988 'Abu Jihad, the military commander of the PLO, was assassinated near Tunis by Israeli commandos, provoking a Tunisian protest to the United Nations Security Council and a following resolution of condemnation of the Israeli aggression by the Council. However, relations with Israel then improved, and in 1993, Tunisia welcomed an official Israeli delegation as part of the peace process. Joint naval exercises between the two countries took place in March 1994. The PLO offices in Tunis were closed in 1994 as the new Palestinian Authority (PA) took up residence in Gaza. In 1996, following PA elections, Tunisia moved to establish low-level diplomatic relations with Israel as it also announced its decision to recognize PA passports. However, with the slowing of the peace process and the election of the Netanyahu government in Israel, improving relations between Israel and Tunisia cooled and remained on hold.

Ben Ali also moved to normalize relations with Egypt and visited Cairo in 1990 to that end, the first such trip by a Tunisian president since 1965. In 1997 several agreements regarding economic and cultural cooperation were signed between the two countries.

Although the United States has provided economic and military aid, Tunisia opposed American support for Kuwait following Iraq's invasion in 1990. The support of Iraq in this crisis caused a rift in relations with Kuwait that were finally healed, through Ben Ali's efforts, with the visit of Kuwait's crown prince to Tunis in 1996 and a loan from the Kuwait-based Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development being granted to Tunisia. At the same time, Tunisia continued good relations with Iraq and continued to call for a cessation of UN sanctions against Baghdād.

The consistent stance of Ben Ali's government toward Islamist parties has brought him friends in the West, though his own poor human rights record has provoked consternation from Western governments and vocal criticism from Western media and human rights organizations. Complaints against his regime have included torture under interrogation, deaths in custody, secret or unfair trials and long prison sentences for opposition leaders, inhumane prison conditions, and restrictions on free speech and the press, including controls on the use of satellite dishes. Ironically, the UN Committee against Torture (along with numerous other human rights groups and including the Arab Commission of Human Rights) denounced the police and security forces in Tunisia, while Tunisia was unanimously elected to the UN Human Rights Commission in 1997. This caused international controversy, and by 2006, a Human Rights Council replaced the UN Human Rights Commission. The Human Rights Council was meant to be a standing body that would meet year-round to promote and protect human rights with a membership that excluded the worst human rights violators.

In July 1995, Tunisia signed an association agreement with the European Union that in 2007 would make the country part of a free-trade area around the Mediterranean known as the European Economic Area, the first southern Mediterranean country to be brought into the planned association. The United States has continued to offer praise to Tunisia and encouragement of US investment, but has held off on requested military aid. Relations with Italy, Tunisia's second-largest trading partner after France, have been complicated by the issues of illegal immigration from Tunisia and of fishing rights.

On 6 April 2000, Bourguiba died at age 96. A seven-day period of mourning was declared, and thousands of mourners lined his funeral procession route.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the United States called upon all states to implement counterterrorism measures. On 11 April 2002, a truck exploded at a synagogue on the Tunisian resort island of Djerba, killing 21 people, including 14 German tourists. German intelligence officials reported the bombing was a terrorist attack, and cited links to the al-Qaeda organization. In November, Ben Ali called for an international conference on terrorism to establish an international code of ethics to which all parties would be committed. In December, the United States praised Tunisia for its efforts in combating terrorism, and for its "record of moderation and of tolerance in the region."

In a referendum held on 26 May 2002, voters overwhelmingly approved a series of constitutional amendments that would make a marked change in the country's political structure. They included: additional guarantees regarding the pretrial and preventive custody of defendants; the creation of a second legislative body; the elimination of presidential term limits, along with the setting of a maximum age ceiling of 75 years for a presidential candidate; and the consecration of the importance of human rights, solidarity, mutual help, and tolerance as values enshrined in the constitution.

In November 2002, Ben Ali announced a series of electoral reform measures. In addition to the creation of a second legislative body (Chamber of Advisors approved by the May referendum) these included provisions to further guarantee the fairness of voter registration and election processes, and provisions to reduce the minimum requirement for campaign financing and reimbursement by the state. He also called on radio and television operators to provide wider coverage of opposition parties and nongovernmental organizations, and introduced a bill that would guarantee citizens' privacy and protection of personal data.

Presidential and legislative elections were held on 24 October 2004. Ben Ali was reelected for a fourth term with 94.5% of the vote. His contenders included Mohamed Bouchiha (PUP), Mohamed Ali Halouani (Ettajdid), and Mounir Beji (PSDL). The main opposition group, the Democratic Progressive Party (PDP), pulled out of the election two days before the vote, saying its participation would only legitimize a masquerade of democracy. The legislative election for the Chamber of Deputies was dominated by the RCD, as was the election for the new Chamber of Advisors held on 3 July 2005. The next presidential and Chamber of Deputies elections were to be held in October 2009. The next Chamber of Advisors election was to be held July 2011.

GOVERNMENT

According to the constitution of 1959, Tunisia is an Islamic republic, although since independence it has been a thoroughly secular state. The president, who is chief of state, must be a Muslim and a Tunisian citizen, born of a Tunisian father and grandfather, and at least 40 years old. He serves a five-year term. The president enjoys extensive powers, initiating and directing state policy and appointing judges, provincial governors, the mayor of Tunis, and other high officials, The cabinet, headed by a prime minister, varies in size and is under presidential domination.

The unicameral National Assembly or Chamber of Deputies (Majlis al-Ummah) was expanded in 1993 to 163 members and again in 1997 to 182 members, elected by general, free, direct, and secret ballot. Since 1994 the opposition has been guaranteed a number of seats in the assembly, with the changes introduced in 1997 guaranteeing them 20% of the assembly seats. All citizens 20 years of age or older may vote; candidates must be at least 25 years old and born of a Tunisian father or Tunisian mother. The assembly sits twice a year for five years, but may be extended in the event that a national emergency prevents new elections. Presidential ratification is required before a bill passed by the legislature can become law, but the assembly may override the president's veto by a two-thirds majority. The president may enact decrees in an emergency or when the assembly is in recess.

A series of constitutional amendments were overwhelmingly approved by voters in a 26 May 2002 referendum. Civil liberties were expanded, and human rights were guaranteed. Provisions for a second legislative body, a Chamber of Advisors, were made. Presidential term limits were abolished, and the age limit for a presidential candidate was raised from 70 to 75, thereby making Ben Ali, then age 65, eligible for reelection in 2004 and 2009.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) dominates the country's political life. Its leader from its founding as the Neo-Destour Party in 1934 to 1987 was Habib Bourguiba. In the first national elections in 1956, all 98 seats in the National Assembly were won by the National Union, a united front of the Neo-Destour Party with the UGTT, the National Union of Tunisian Farmers, and the Tunisian Union of Craftsmen and Merchants. In the November 1959 elections for the National Assembly, the Communist Party (Parti Communiste Tunisien) presented a list of 13 candidates in Tunis and Gafsa; elsewhere, the Neo-Destour Party was unopposed, and the ruling party won all 90 seats at stake. From 1959 to 1994, the RCD (acting in 1981 as part of a National Front with the UGTT) held a monopoly of Assembly seats.

Banned in 1963, the Communist Party was the first opposition group to be fully legalized under the political liberalization of 1981. Two other parties, the Movement of Social Democrats (Mouvement des Démocrates Socialistes—MDS) and the Party of Popular Unity (Parti de l'Unité Populaire—PUP), failed to retain their provisional authorization when each fell short of receiving a 5% share of the total vote in the November 1981 election but nevertheless were formally legalized in 1983. The principal Islamist party, an-Nahda, has been outlawed. In 1992, it was hit hard by the jailing of many of its senior leaders.

Due to a change in the 1994 electoral code to guarantee the opposition would win seats, opposition parties such as the Movement of Social Democrats (MDS) entered the Chamber of Deputies. As of 2006, there were seven officially recognized opposition parties: MDS, PUP, the Union of Democratic Unionists (UDU), Ettajdid (also called the Renewal Movement), the Social Democratic Liberal Party (PSDL), plus the Democratic Progressive Party (PDP) and the Democratic Forum for Labor and Liberties (FDTL), the only two not represented in the Chamber of Deputies as of the October 2004 elections. The RCD held 152 of the 182 seats as of 2006. The Islamist an-Nahda remained an outlawed party.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Tunisia is divided into 23 provinces (wilayets, or governorates). Each province is headed by a governor appointed by the president through the secretary of interior. The governor is assisted by elected municipal councils and a governmental council, members of which are appointed for a three-year term by the central government on the governor's nomination. Each province is in turn divided into delegations (mutamadiyat ), the number of which varies with the size and social and economic importance of the province. The number of communes, or municipalities, in 2006 was 257. In local elections boycotted by the opposition in 1990, RCD candidates won control of all but one of the councils. In 1990 proportional representation for municipal elections was introduced, where the winning party would receive 50% of the council seats with the remaining seats to be proportionally divided between the other political parties according to their electoral draw.

Municipal elections were held in May 2005. Local council members serve five-year terms.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. The judiciary is susceptible to being influenced by the executive branch in practice. Magistrates are appointed by the president upon recommendation of the Supreme Council of the Magistracy; its members are drawn from the Department of Justice and the courts of appeal and cassation. In 2006, there were 51 cantonal courts, 23 courts of first instance, and 3 courts of appeal, located in Tunis, Sousse, and Sfax. A Court of Cassation in Tunis has three civil sections and one criminal section; it acts as the ultimate court of appeal. In addition, a High Court is constituted for the sole purpose of prosecuting a member of the government accused of high treason. The Council of State is an administrative tribunal empowered to resolve conflicts between citizens and the state and public authorities; as an accounting department, it is empowered to audit and examine government records.

Civil and criminal law generally follows French-influenced practices that evolved during the period of the protectorate. Since 1956 there has been a steady reform of existing Islamic legislation, including the abolition of polygamy. Shariah courts were abolished in 1956.

A military tribunal consisting of a presiding civilian judge from the Court of Cassation and four military judges hears cases involving military personnel as well as cases concerning civilians when national security is deemed to be at stake. Decisions of the military tribunal may be appealed to the Court of Cassation.

ARMED FORCES

As of 2005, Tunisia had an Army of 27,000 active personnel equipped with 84 main battle tanks, 48 light tanks, 60 reconnaissance vehicles, 268 armored personnel carriers, and 276 artillery pieces. The Navy numbered 4,500 personnel. Major naval units totaled over nineteen patrol boats and two logistics/support vessels. The Air Force had 3,500 personnel, with 27 combat capable aircraft that included 12 fighters and 3 fighter ground attack aircraft, in addition to 11 search and rescue, 11 support, and 37 utility helicopters. Paramilitary forces consisted of a 12,000-member National Guard. Tunisia participated in peacekeeping efforts in the DROC, Burundi, Côte d'Ivoire and Ethiopia/Eritrea. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $436 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Admitted to the United Nations on 12 November 1956, Tunisia belongs to ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the World Bank, the FAO, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, IAEA, and the WHO. The nation also participates in the African Development Bank, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Islamic Development Bank, the Arab League, OAPEC, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD), G-77, the Arab Maghreb Union, and African Union. The nation has observer status in the OAS and Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone. Tunisia was the site of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) headquarters from 1982–93. Tunisia is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Tunisia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the London Convention, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Agriculture is still the mainstay of the Tunisian economy, although minerals (especially crude oil and phosphates), textiles, and tourism are the leading sources of foreign exchange. Industrial development has increased rapidly since the 1960s. Tunisians live a middle class lifestyle with almost 80% of household owning their own home. The GDP grew by 4.7% annually during 1961–70, by 7.3% during 1970–81, by only 2.9% during 1982–87, and by 4.6% during 1988–98. It stood at 4.8% in 2001. GDP growth slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 due to agricultural drought and sluggish tourism. Better rains between 2003–05 helped push GDP growth to around 5%. An association agreement with the European Union signed in 1998 was forecast to have negative short-term effects to the economy (due to the required drop of trade barriers), but positive long-term effects. Roughly 80% of foreign trade is carried out with Europe, and a free trade zone between Tunisia and the EU is to come into effect in 2010 as a result of the association agreement.

After a period of socialist economic policies Tunisia began a structural reform program with the IMF designed to encourage a market-based economy. Privatization of state-owned enterprises began in 1987 with 67 of the government's 189 companies privatized through 1995. The privatization program, however, focused on smaller companies so as not to disrupt employment. Privatization of the energy, construction materials, and transport sectors, all of which contain unprofitable and overstaffed entities, has yet to occur. The reforms also decontrolled domestic prices and liberalized foreign trade. The private sector accounted for about 60% of output in 1999.

Tourism, increasing as a growth sector, experienced a decline in 2001 following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States: there were 13% fewer tourists arriving in Tunisia in the first half of 2002 than during the same period in 2001. However, the government doubled its expenditures on tourism promotion in 2002. A drought in 2001–02 caused a decrease in cereal production, as well as in the production of olive oil, but rains returned over the 2003–05 period. By 2006, industrial production, total exports, and the number of tourists had all increased. Overall total visitors to the country were approximately 5.1 million in 2003; goals were 2004, 5.5 million; 2005, 6 million, and 2006, 6.5 million. Half the number of visitors come from Maghreb countries such as Libya and Algeria. There was a marked increase in total visitors from European countries as France and Germany, despite a terrorist attack in early 2002 in which 21 people, mostly German tourists, were killed. The number of visitors from Eastern Europe also increased in the mid-2000s. Tourism contributes approximately 7% of GDP.

Unemployment remained high in 2005 (at an estimated 13.5%, but likely higher). In 2002, the banking and insurance sectors began to be privatized. Foreign trade, in terms both of imports and exports, increased markedly in 2001–02. The increases in exports during those years were due to the textile and clothing sector, leather and footwear sector, mechanical and electrical industries, and the agro-food, phosphates, and energy sectors.

Tunisia began to open its telecommunications sector to foreign business in 2002. Thirty-five companies were due to be privatized in 2003–04, including the national petroleum distribution company (SNDP), the state automobile manufacturer (STIA), and the joint Tunisian/Algerian white cement company (SOTACIB). Twelve hotels were also up for sale, and the sale of the government's share in the partially state-owned Banque du Sud was nearing completion.

In 2001, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia agreed to set up a free trade zone ahead of the 2010 target for trade barriers to end in the Euro-Mediterranean area. The Great Arab Free Trade Zone was eventually expected to encompass 10 Arab nations.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Tunisia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $76.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $7,600. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.9%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 13.8% of GDP, industry 30.7%, and services 55.6%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $1.250 billion or about $126 per capita and accounted for approximately 5.0% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $306 million or about $31 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.3% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Tunisia totaled $15.62 billion or about $1,578 per capita based on a GDP of $25.0 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.5%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 28% of household consumption was spent on food, 8% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 12% on education. It was estimated that in 2001 about 7.6% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

Tunisia's labor force was estimated at 3.41 million in 2005. In 1995 (the latest year for which data was available), estimated employment by sector was as follows: services 55%, industry 23%, and agriculture 22%. Since 1958, regional workshops to combat underemployment have provided jobs in land development, reforestation, terracing, and drainage. Full employment has been a goal of successive development plans; however, rates of unemployment and underemployment have remained high. The estimated unemployment rate in 2005 was 13.5%.

The only trade federation is the General Union of Tunisian Workers (Union Générale des Travailleurs Tunisiens—UGTT). In 2002, about 15% of the workforce belonged to the UGTT. Unions have the right to strike after a mandatory notice period of ten days. Regional labor councils seek to foster cooperation between management and labor. Collective bargaining contracts cover 80% of the private workforce.

The labor code sets the regular workweek at 48 hours with one 24-hour rest period for most sectors. If the workday exceeds 10 hours, overtime rates must be paid. All workers are entitled to annual paid leave of up to 18 working days. All nonagricultural employers with over 40 workers are required to have a medical facility available. In 2002, the minimum wage was $138 per month in industry and $4.27 per day in agriculture.

The minimum age for agricultural work is 13 years and the minimum age for manufacturing is 16. Children must attend school until 16 and have restricted working hours until the age of 18. The laws are somewhat effectively enforced but children can still be seen performing agricultural work in rural areas and working as vendors in urban areas.

AGRICULTURE

In 2003, about 25% of the labor force engaged in agriculture, which accounted for about 14% of GDP. Fertile land is generally limited to the north, where cereals, olives, fruits, grapes, and vegetables are produced. In the southern desert and plateau, desert farming is precarious, but barley is produced in quantity. About 4,900,000 hectares (12,108,000 acres) are arable. Cereals account for 1,347,000 hectares (3,328,000 acres), while tree crops utilized 2,000,000 hectares (4,492,000 acres).

Harvests have traditionally yielded sizable surpluses for export, chiefly to France. Tunisia's early growing season allows the nation to profit from exporting fresh produce to Europe before European crops ripen. Crops fluctuate greatly in size, however, depending upon the weather. In very poor years, wheat and barley must be imported to satisfy local food requirements.

Chief grain crops in 2004 were wheat, 1,722,000 tons, and barley, 395,000 tons. Olive trees number some 55 million; output of olives in 2004 comprised 650,000 tons, with 130,000 tons of olive oil produced in 2004/05. Other important commodities (with 2004 production estimates, in thousands of tons) were tomatoes, 970; oranges, 106; potatoes, 375; peppers, 255; dates, 122; and grapes, 122.

The government has undertaken irrigation and soil conservation projects to improve agricultural production and raise the living standard of rural areas. The 1962–71 plan aimed at constructing 40 dams, mostly in the Medjerda River system, plus opening over 1,000 new wells, particularly in the southern regions. In the period 1962–64, the government initiated a program to help the new cooperative farm system, with a total investment of d150.5 million; remaining European-owned farms were nationalized as part of the program. In 1969, however, the development of cooperatives was halted, and appropriated land was redistributed to individual Tunisian owners. Irrigation and flood-control projects, many undertaken with foreign aid, were under way in Bizerte, the Medjerda River basin, and other locales in the early 1980s. To increase and direct the flow of capital to this sector, the government has established the Agricultural Investment Promotion Agency and the National Agricultural Development Bank.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Although animal breeding is a major occupation in the central plateau and southern region, the largest herds are in the well-watered north. In 2005 there were an estimated 6,700,000 sheep, 1,400,000 goats, 750,000 head of cattle, 231,000 camels, 230,000 asses, 81,000 mules, 57,000 horses, 6,000 pigs, and 64 million chickens. Meat production in 2005 consisted of 120,600 tons of poultry, 55,000 tons of beef, 55,000 tons of mutton, and 9,500 tons of goat meat. Milk production in 2005 was 60,500 tons; cheese, 3,800 tons.

Since 1970, a great effort has been undertaken to develop the livestock sector to meet increased demands created by Tunisia's improved standard of living and expanding tourism. Poultry farming is being encouraged to provide farmers with an additional resource and to increase protein in the local diet.

FISHING

Commercial fishing takes place along the Mediterranean coast and in the Lake of Tunis and Lake Achkel. Small quantities of tuna, sardines, shrimp, and lobsters are exported. Except for some trawler and sponge fishing, most activity is on a limited scale; the 2003 catch was 92,507 tons. In 2003, fish and fishery products exports exceeded $105 million. The National Fisheries Office owns part of the trawler fleet.

FORESTRY

Forested lands cover about 510,000 hectares (1,260,000 acres), a large proportion of which was state owned. The oak and pine forests of the northern highlands provide cork for export (some 9,000 tons produced annually) and firewood for local use. Estimated forestry output in 2004 included wood for fuel, 2,137,000 cu m (75.4 million cu ft); wood-based panels, 104,000 cu m (3.67 million cu ft); paper and paperboard, 94,000 tons; and sawn wood, 20,400 cu m (720,419 cu ft).

MINING

In 2004, Tunisia's mineral production included barite, clay, gypsum, iron ore, lead, phosphate rock, silver, zinc and salt. Washed phosphate rock production in 2004 totaled 7,954 metric tons (gross weight). (12.9 million tons in 2000; 90% from open-pit mining) was entirely controlled by the government-owned Compagnie des Phophates de Gafsa (CPG), founded in 1896. CPG was the largest company in Tunisia, both in terms of employees and capital investment, directly employing 9,000 people and indirectly employing over 200,000. The Kef Eschfair Mine accounted for 29.5% of total ore volume; the Kef Eddour Mine, 19.6%; and the Jallabia Mine, 18.2%. The underground M'rata Mine was closed in 2000. Known reserves of crude phosphate, in the south, amounted to 100 million tons (5% of world reserves). High-grade iron ore was found in the north, while lead and zinc, mined intermittently since Roman times, were widely dispersed. International interest in developing Tunisia's lead-zinc deposits continued to grow. High-quality marine salt was exploited along the coast. Uranium was discovered in 1965. In 2004, preliminary mineral production included: washed phosphate rock, 7,954,000 metric tons (gross weight); iron ore (metal content), 128,000 metric tons, up from 97,000 metric tons in 2003; zinc concentrate (gross weight), 52,747 metric tons; mined lead, 5,500 metric tons (estimated); cement (hydraulic and white), 7.124 million metric tons; marine salt, 608,000 metric tons; and gypsum, 130,000 metric tons (estimated). Barite, clays, fertilizers (triple-superphosphate, phosphoric acid, diammonium-phosphate, and ammonium nitrate), gravel, lime, sand, and stone were also produced. No fluorspar was mined during 2000–04.

ENERGY AND POWER

Tunisia has only modest reserves of oil, no known reserves of coal, but fairly robust reserves of natural gas.

As of 1 January 2005, Tunisia's reserves of crude oil totaled 308 million barrels. Petroleum output in 2004 was estimated at 79,800 barrels per day, of which almost all of it was crude oil. In 2000 Tunisia became a net importer of oil. In 2002, production of refined oil products averaged 37,360 barrels per day, while demand for refined oil products that year averaged 87,860 barrels per day. Imports of all petroleum products in 2002 averaged 86,630 barrels per day, with crude oil imports accounting for 23,280 barrels per day. Exports of crude oil in 2002 averaged 60,820 barrels per day. Nearly 75% of Tunisia's oil production comes from the El Borma (the country's largest) and the Ashtart fields. Tunisia has a single oil refinery at Bizerte, which as of 1 January 2005, had a crude oil refining capacity of 34,000 barrels per day.

Tunisia's proven reserves of natural gas as of 1 January 2005, totaled 2,750 billion cu ft, of which around two-thirds of it is located offshore. In 2003, natural gas production totaled 100 billion cu ft, up from 88 billion cu ft in 2002 and 79 billion cu ft in 2001. Tunisia's consumption of natural gas is also increasing. According to Tunisia's state-owned electric and gas company, Societé Tunisienne de l'Electrcité et du Gaz (STEG), natural gas accounted for 44% of all energy consumed in 2005, up from 14% in 2003. The Miskar gas field, located about 130 km (80 mi) into the Gulf of Gabes, produces the majority of the country's natural gas.

In 2002, Tunisia's electric power generating capacity was 2.894 million kW, of which 2.894 million kW of capacity was dedicated to conventional thermal fuel plants. Hydroelectric capacity that year came to 0.054 million kW, followed by geothermal/other sources at 0.020 million kW. Electric power output that same year totaled 11.140 billion kWh, of which 11.044 billion was produced by fossil fuel burning facilities. Hydropower produced 0.066 billion kWh, followed by geothermal/other at 0.030 billion kWh. Demand for electric power in 2002 totaled 10.301 billion kWh. In 1999 more than 94% of Tunisian households had access to electrical power.

INDUSTRY

Tunisia has a relatively diversified economy, with agricultural, mining, energy, and manufacturing production. Manufacturing industries, particularly those producing for export, have fueled Tunisia's growth for many years. They contribute one-fifth of total GDP, three-quarters of export earnings, and employ more than one-fifth of the labor force. The manufacturing industry is dominated by textile and leathers operations, followed by the electrical and mechanical industries, chemical exports (mainly phosphate by-products), and agribusiness. Agribusiness includes flour milling; fish, fruit, and vegetable canning; olive oil processing; and sugar refining. As one of the world's largest sources of phosphates, the country's mineral-processing industries are dominated by the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. Handicrafts industries produce clothing, rugs, pottery, and copper and leather goods for both local and export markets.

The skills of the Tunisian work force and their relatively low wages have led an increasing number of European clothing firms to subcontract their work to Tunisian factories, thereby causing a sharp increase in Tunisia's exports of clothing. Textiles are the primary source of foreign currency revenue, with more than 90% of production being exported. The electrical power industry in Tunisia increased dramatically in the early 2000s, with the state supporting major renovations in existing plants, and the construction of new power plants. Tunisia has approximately 60 automotive assembly plants.

An oil refinery at Bizerte has a production capacity of 34,000 barrels per day. In December 2005, the Ministry of Industry and Energy opened bidding to build a new $150 million refinery at La Skhirra; the Ministry planned to finalize the contract by 2007.

In 2005, the industrial production growth rate was estimated at 3.8%.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Pasteur Institute, founded in 1893, conducts medical research in Tunis. That city is also home to institutes for the study of veterinary science (1897) and geology (1962). There are research centers for agronomy (founded in 1914) and forestry (1967) in Ariana. Science and engineering students account for about one-third of college and university enrollments. The University of Sciences, Technologies, and Medicine of Tunis (Tunis II, founded 1988) maintains a comprehensive science program, including faculties of medicine and mathematics, physics, and natural sciences and schools of veterinary medicine, health sciences and technology, engineering, computer science, and agriculture. The University of Sfax (founded in 1988) has faculties of medicine and science.

In 2002, Tunisia had 1,013 scientists and engineers, and 34 technicians engaged in research and development per million people. In that same year, Tunisia's expenditures on research and development totaled $416.080 million, or 0.63% of GDP. Of that amount, 51.1% came from government sources, followed by higher education at 35.1%. Business provided 8% and 5.9% came from foreign sources. High technology exports in 2002 totaled $177 million, or 4% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Rades/Tunis is the principal commercial, industrial, and distribution center; most of the import and export houses, banks, and mining firms have their central offices in the city. Other commercial and distribution centers are Sfax, noted for olive oil and phosphate shipments, and Bizerte, known for grain and olive oil. Fairs are held at various times of the year in Sfax, Sousse, Tunis, and other towns. Most businesses are family-owned and operated. The government has posed some resistance to the establishment of foreign firms, particularly foreign franchises. An extensive system of price controls was for the most part eliminated in 1998, but the government still exerts pressure on private firms to show restraint in price increases. The chief advertising media are daily newspapers, outdoor displays, and motion picture theaters. The first private radio station started broadcasting in November 2003, and a private satellite television channel started broadcasting in February 2005. Other private television and radio stations are expected in the future. Arabic is the language of sales promotion, French the language of commercial correspondence.

Normal business hours in winter are from 8:30 am to 1 pm and 3 to 5:45 pm, Monday–Friday. Summer business hours are from 8:30 am to 1 pm Monday through Saturday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Tunisia's foreign trade is based upon the export of mineral and agricultural products, textiles, and chemicals in exchange for consumer goods, raw and processed materials, and agricultural and industrial equipment. Apparel, textiles, and leather are now the major exports. By 2000 their share of exports amounted to nearly half of total export value. The petroleum industry's share in Tunisian foreign trade dropped from a peak of 44% of the total in 1984 to only 12% in 2000.

Garments make up a large portion of Tunisia's export commodities. Other exports include crude petroleum, chemicals, manufactured fertilizers, and vegetable oils. In 2000 Tunisia's imports

were distributed among the following categories: consumer goods. 12.0%; food, 5.9%; fuels, 10.6%; industrial supplies, 39.4%; machinery, 20.8%; and transportation, 11.4%.

The EU is the focus of Tunisia's foreign trade, accounting for an estimated 80% of exports and 71% of imports in 2000. France is by far Tunisia's largest trading partner, being the market for 33.1% of Tunisia's exports in 2004 and the source of 25.2% of its imports. The next three largest trading partners in 2004 were Italy, Germany, and Spain. Tunisia's main non-EU trading partner is Libya.

Overall, Tunisia's export revenue grew 12% year-on-year in 2005, led by olive oil exports. Tunisia in 2005 was the world's leading exporter of olive oil in bulk, alongside Turkey. Most of the exports go to Italy and Spain, where the oil is blended with local product for the internal market, freeing up local oils for export.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Since 1960, Tunisia has experienced perennial trade deficits. These have been partly covered by tourist income, by remittances from Tunisian workers abroad, and by foreign investment and assistance. The 8th Development Plan (1992–96) aimed at improving the balance of payments deficit from 4.2% of GDP in 1991 to 2% by 1996 by encouraging free trade, foreign direct investments, and elimination of exchange restrictions. The budget deficit declined from 4.0% of GDP in 1997, to 1.7% of GDP in 1998, due to the privatization of two cement plants. The country's trade deficit rose substantially in 2000, by nearly 20%. Imports rose 16.5%, and exports climbed 14.9%. Food exports decreased, driven by weak olive oil sales. Although textile exports still remain the country's leading source of hard currency, ready-to-wear apparel sales have fallen off in recent years. Nevertheless, high petroleum product prices made up the difference for the decline in lower-performing export sectors in the early 2000s.

In 2005, exports were estimated at $10.3 billion, and imports were valued at $12.86 billion. The current-account balance stood at -$492 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of Tunisia (Banque Centrale de Tunisie-BCT), established in September 1958, is the sole bank of issue. The Tunisian Banking Co. (Société Tunisienne de Banque-STB) was established in 1957; it is the leading commercial and investment bank; the state holds 52% of the STB's capital.

The banking system is a mixture of state-owned and private institutions which offer a variety of financial instruments and services. There are 13 commercial banks; eight development banks; eight leasing companies; eight offshore banks; a savings bank; five portfolio management institutions; two merchant banks. Commercial banks include Citibank, Amen Bank, Banque International Arabe de Tunisie (BIAT), Banque Nationale Agricole (BNA); and one merchant bank is International Maghreb.

Of the 12 commercial banks, one is fully state-owned and four others are part-owned by the state. These five banks control 70% of total bank assets. Total estimated assets of these banks amounted to $8.9 billion in 1997. In 1999, the World Bank approved a $159 million loan to support banking reform efforts in Tunisia. The weak banking system is under government duress and has a low average credit line. Commitments under the WTO and EU free trade agreement will begin to liberalize the banking sector.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $4.8 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $11.3 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 6.04%.

A stock exchange began operations in Tunis in May 1970. While its activities have been expanding steadily, they remain limited to transactions in securities issued by the state and the stocks of a few private or government-owned firms, including 46 companies, 13 of them banks. Between 2000 and 2001, the Tunisian stock exchange reported a 30% loss. As of 2004, a total of 44 companies ware listed on the Tunis Stock Exchange, which had a market capitalization of $2.641 billion. In 2004, BVM General index rose 3.7%

from the previous year to 974.8. The exchange completed a shift to fully electronic trading, but remains under the government eye.

INSURANCE

Although Tunisians have traditionally resisted taking out insurance, the insurance market has begun to grow rapidly, with turnover growing by 24% in 1994. Vehicle insurance is the biggest category. There are 22 companies in all, 15 of which are Tunisian and seven foreign, including firms from France and Italy. Four of the Tunisian companies are state-owned including the biggest, STAR, founded in 1958. The insurance business is shared roughly equally between state-owned and private companies. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $456 million, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $416 million. Star was Tunisia's top nonlife insurer in 2003, with gross written nonlife premiums of $137.6 million, while HAYETT was the leading life insurer that year, with gross written life insurance premiums of $7.1 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Each year, an administrative budget and a development budget are submitted to the National Assembly. Levies on imports provide the major sources of current revenue, but trade agreements with the WTO and the EU will disturb this pattern. Government spending amounted to about half of GDP in 1999, 60% of which was spent on social projects. The Tunisian government's economic reform programs are lauded as some of the best in the world by international financial institutions. Reforms included liberalized prices, reduced tariffs, and lowered debt-to-GDP ratios. Since the privatization program was launched in 1987, about 140 state-owned enterprises had been fully or partially privatized as of 2002.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Tunisia's central government took in revenues of approximately $7.3 billion and had expenditures of $8.3 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$982 million. Public

debt in 2005 amounted to 58.7% of GDP. Total external debt was $18.91 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2004, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were d10,296 million and expenditures were d11,091 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$8,267 million and expenditures us$8,907 million, based on a market exchange rate for 2004 of us$1 = d1.2455 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 16.8%; defense, 4.9%; public order and safety, 7.7%; economic affairs, 14.9%; housing and community amenities, 5.1%; health, 5.5%; recreation, culture, and religion, 3.2%; education, 20.1%; and social protection, 21.9%.

TAXATION

The standard corporate tax rate was 35% in 2005. Exporting resident companies are exempt from most taxes. However, all companies are liable to a minimum tax of 0.5% of turnover, with a ceiling of d2,000 (about us$1,470). There is also a 0.2% turnover tax on industrial and commercial establishments. Capital gains are taxed at 35%. Dividend income is not taxed, but income from royalties is subject to a 15% withholding tax if made to nonresidents.

Personal taxes include a progressive income tax and a benefits tax levied on gross salaries and paid quarterly by the employer to the National Social Security Fund. The inheritance (succession) tax is 6%.

The main indirect tax is Tunisia's value-added tax (VAT), with a standard rate of 18%, a reduced rate of 6% and a top rate of 29%. The VAT is assed on all transactions and on imports.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Tunisia's import duties, as of 2005, range from 10% to more than 200%. Most goods do not need import licenses. Exceptions include textiles and automobiles. There is a 3% customs formality fee based on the total duties paid on the import. Certain luxury goods are assessed a consumption tax as high as 700%. Most goods entering Tunisia are subject to an 18% value-added tax (VAT). However, some goods are subject to VAT rates of 6%, 10%, and 29%. As of 1999, all cotton imports were duty-free. The import of weapons and health care products is strictly controlled, while imports that go against health, morality, or cultural heritage are prohibited.

In 1969, Tunisia was granted associate membership in the European Community. Under the accord, which was renewed in 1976 and 1983, the EC countries removed customs duties and quotas on nearly all of Tunisia's industrial exports. In 1995, Tunisia signed a free trade accord with the renamed European Union that will remove tariff and other trade barriers on most nonagricultural goods, services, and capital by 2008. Tunisia is also a member of the World Trade Organization.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

In 1972, an investment law provided special benefits to companies manufacturing commodities for export, a regulation that stimulated some foreign involvement, particularly in the textile industry. Incentives consisted of partial or total tax exemption for periods of 10–20 years, as well as exemption from customs and import duties on raw materials and equipment. A similar law that encouraged investment in industries producing for local markets was enacted in 1974 and amended in 1981; the statute required that such firms exhibit partial (in many cases majority) Tunisian ownership. A 1981 law offered incentives for investment in less-developed regions. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Algeria participated with Tunisia in development banks to channel Arab investment funds.

Tunisia's severe balance of payments crisis forced the government to reverse many of its protectionist and socialist policies under structural adjustment programs supervised by the IMF and World Bank. A new investment code was passed in 1989 offering further tax and customs concessions to local as well as foreign investors, particularly in export-oriented enterprises. Tunisian law still prohibits ownership of land by non-Tunisians, although a special 40-year land lease system permits agricultural development by foreign companies. In January 1994 the government adopted an investment incentives law that, in conjunction with added provisions, offers tax reductions on reinvested profits and revenues, and optional depreciation schedules for production equipment. For companies that export at least 80% of their output, the incentives include a 10-year profits tax holiday, with a 50% reduction thereafter; full tax and duty exemptions on materials and services used in production; full tax exemption on reinvested profits and revenue; and duty-free import of capital goods that have no local equivalent. Large investments with high job creation may qualify to use state land virtually rent-free.

Foreign property is still at risk of expropriation by the Tunisian government and in 1995 an American company had property taken without compensation. The government also reserves the right to take property by eminent domain, in which case just compensation is offered. There remain many restrictions on foreign investment as the government pursues a gradualist approach, caught between pressure to liberalize from the IMF and the WTO, and a fear of igniting a popular uprising. Under the terms of its accession to the WTO (29 March 1995), Tunisia was obligated to relax restrictions on foreign participation in its information, telecommunications, and financial services industries by 2003.

The annual inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Tunisia peaked at $778.8 million in 2000, up from $368 million in 1999. The annual inflow has fallen since, caught in the global economic slowdown of 2001 and, in particular, the decline in FDI flows worldwide following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States. FDI inflow in Tunisia was $486 million in 2001 and $402 million in 2002. Tunisia attracted FDI totaling $626 million in 2003. Total FDI in Tunisia by 2004 was estimated at $14.3 billion. FDI in manufacturing industries, the main generator of jobs and exports and the real indicator of the investment climate, totaled $216 million in 2003 compared with $180 million in 2002.

As much as 75% of FDI in Tunisia has been in the petroleum sector. Other important sectors are textiles, and mechanical and electrical industries. The telecommunications industry is ready for substantial growth. France is the largest investor, followed by Italy, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

As of 2004, 2,600 companies had established operations in Tunisia as a result of FDI. About 85% are totally exporting operations, the vast majority in the textile and footwear industries.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The plan for 1973–76 proposed increasing investments by 75% over the previous ten-year plan. An annual growth rate of 6.6% was targeted for the period. Fully 75% of the plan's investments were to be financed with international aid. Manufacturing industries received the largest single allocation of total investment under the 1977–81 plan. Once again, the burden of financing the program fell on external sources, with Arab funds accounting for 30% of the anticipated foreign capital. Actual growth came close to the target of 7.5% a year in real terms. The development plan for 1982–86 set forth three main goals: employment growth, regional development, and balance of payments equilibrium. Some 33% of the total expenditure was to be invested in labor-intensive industries. Performance fell far short of the goal of 6% a year in real growth.

The inauguration of the 1987–94 development plan followed the foreign exchange crisis of 1986, and the adoption of an International Monetary Fund (IMF) sponsored economic rehabilitation scheme. Services were to receive 39%, agriculture 19%, and manufacturing 16%. This plan was successfully completed, winning the country accolades from investment institutions. The 1994–96 development plan was based on strong expansion in the manufacturing industry (8.7%) and tourism (22%). The plan called for further cuts in consumer subsidies and the privatization of many state assets. The economic development plan of 1997–2001 called for investment in telecommunications infrastructure, continued privatization of industry, and lowering of trade barriers.

The 10th economic development plan of 2002–06 aimed at improving the competitiveness of the economy; increasing the private sector's share in investment; setting up a knowledge economy; and securing sustainable economic and social development and a creation of new jobs while maintaining global balances. Targets set for economic development included: an average economic growth of 5.7% a year; an increase in private sector investment to 60% (the total investment rate would be brought to 26.6% by 2006); and the consolidation of the national savings rate to reach 26% of GNP by 2006, allowing for the financing of 91% of projected investment.

As of 2006, the tourism industry was growing. A surge in demand for new housing and luxury units and a series of plans to expand transportation infrastructure and develop Tunis's growth corridors combined to improve conditions for both the construction industry and foreign investors. Challenges for the economy remaining are high unemployment, the existence of the "gray" economy, the continued dominance of the public sector, and masses of bureaucratic red tape that increase the cost of doing business in the country.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system provides benefits including maternity payments, family allowances, disability and life insurance, and old age insurance. The system covers private-sector employees and some categories of fishermen. There are special systems for government workers, agricultural workers, the self-employed, fishermen, artists and intellectuals. Pensions normally are provided at age 60, and benefits are equal to 40% of average earnings, plus 0.5% for each 3 months of contributions above 120. Work injury insurance is compulsory for employers and covers all salaried workers including domestic servants. Unemployment benefits are provided for all salaried nonagricultural workers and payable for six months.

Tunisian women enjoy full civil and political rights under the law. Educational and employment opportunities are growing steadily. The law specifically requires equal pay for equal work and this is generally respected. Inheritance laws, based on Muslim tenets, discriminate against women. Domestic violence occurs but the police and courts regard the issue as a family matter. In 2004 the government launched a morality campaign, which penalized women deemed immodest in dress or behavior. The rights of children are protected.

Human rights organizations are permitted to operate in Tunisia, but may be subject to some government restrictions and harassment. Continuing human rights abuses include arbitrary arrest and detention and abuse of prisoners, including torture.

HEALTH

Free health services are available to about 70% of the population, with about 90% of the population having access to health care services. As of 2004, there were an estimated 70 physicians, 287 nurses, 13 dentists, and 17 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 5.1% of GDP.

Health conditions improved significantly in the 1990s and early 2000s, although diet and sanitation remain deficient. Epidemics have virtually disappeared and the incidence of contagious diseases has been considerably reduced. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 75%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 90%; polio, 90%; and measles, 89%.

The government supports a family planning program. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 16.8 and 5 per 1,000 people. About 60% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. The fertility rate in 2000 was 2.1 children per woman surviving her childbearing years. Infant mortality was 24.77 per 1,000 live births in 2005 and average life expectancy was 74.89 years. Maternal mortality was 70 per 100,000 live births.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

The government has spent well over d1 billion on workers' housing. Since the mid-1960s, trade unions have provided new housing for members. Financial assistance to needy homeowners is provided by a national housing fund.

In 2000, the housing stock stood at about 2,501,000 serving about 1,999,200 households, with an average of 4.78 people per household. By 2003, the number of households had increased to 2,137,600 with an average of 4.61 people per household. About 45% of all housing was considered to be of modern construction, including detached apartment complexes and villas. About 54% of all housing was of traditional construction, such as an Arabic-style home.

In 2001, the Ministry of Housing announced that the amount of available housing had exceeded the number of families by about 13% and that there had been a decrease in slums by about 1.2%. However, squatter communities, called gourbvilles, are still prevalent in urban regions.

EDUCATION

On becoming independent in 1956, Tunisia inherited a small but efficient educational system based on French and, to a lesser extent, Islamic influence. In 1958, the government nationalized most of the existing facilities; remaining private institutions were subject to government regulation. In the same year the government began a comprehensive plan for educational development to achieve universal, free, compulsory primary education and a significant expansion of the secondary school system.

Primary school covers nine years of study in two cycles of six plus three years. Secondary school covers an additional four years, with two years of general education plus two years of specialized education in arts, mathematics, experimental sciences, technology, or economy and management. Vocational studies are also available at the secondary level. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 19% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 97% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 64% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that nearly all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 22:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 20:1.

The University of Tunis was founded on 31 March 1960. In total there are 162 institutions of higher education, including 13 universities. In 2003, it was estimated that about 27% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 74.3%, with 83.4% for men and 65.3% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 6.4% of GDP, or 18.2% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library (est. 1885) in Tunis contains a special collection of rare Arabic and Oriental manuscripts. The University of Tunis library has 220,000 volumes. The Arab League Documentation and Information Center, with 25,000 volumes, has been housed at Tunis since 1980. The collections of Tunisia's approximately 380 public libraries hold over 2.7 million volumes. There are also 23 regional libraries throughout the country.

The Bardo National Museum, founded in Tunis in 1888, has the largest collection of Roman mosaics in the world. Another fine collection is located at the museum in Sousse, which contains archaeological remains dating from the 6th century bc to the 6th century ad. The Raqqada Museum, housed in a former presidential palace near Kairouan, has the country's largest collection of Islamic art, including manuscripts of the Quran (Koran) from the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Other museums are in Monastir, Sfax, Qairouan, Maktar, Sbeitla, Sousse, and Carthage. The National Institute of Archaeology is located in Tunis, as is the Center of Living Arts and the Museum of Traditional and Popular Art.

MEDIA

Tunisia's well-developed postal, telephone, and telegraph system is government-operated and links all the important cities. A marine cable connects Tunisia with France, and a land cable links it with Algeria and Morocco. In 2003, there were an estimated 118 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 108,700 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 192 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government-owned Tunisian Radio-Television Broadcasting (ERTT) broadcasts in Arabic, French, and Italian over one national station, one international station, and five regional stations. Relay stations bring in programs from Italian television. In 2004, the government owned the two major television networks and all but one of the national radio stations. Egyptian and British channels are available via satellite. In 2003, there were an estimated 158 radios and 207 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 40.5 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 64 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 19 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

In 2004, there were over 250 newspapers and magazines in the country. There were eight major daily newspapers, including (with language of publication and 2002 circulation rates as available) As-Sabah (Arabic, 50,000), Assahafa/La Presse (Arabic), Le Renouveau (French, 23,000), Al Amal (Arabic, 50,000), La Presse de Tunisie (Arabic/French, 40,000), L'Action (French, 40,000), and Errai El-Am (Arabic). The Arabic Ach Chourouk (110,000) and the French Le Temps (42,000) are major weeklies.

The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press. However, the government is said to limit these freedoms significantly through economic control, confiscations, imprisonment, and detention. Government permits are required for distribution of publications. Criticism of high government officials or fundamental state institutions can result in seizure or suspension of the offending publication.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are chambers of commerce in Tunis, Sfax, Sousse, and Bizerte; the Tunisian Union of Industry, Commerce, and Crafts, a national association of trade federations and business interests, is in Tunis. The National Union of Tunisian Farmers is very active. There are professional associations for several different fields, particularly those involving medicine and healthcare.

The National Union of Tunisian Women promotes greater participation by women in economic, political, and cultural affairs. National youth organizations include the Tunisian General Union of Students, the Young Constitutional Democrats, the League of Arab States Youth and Sports Division, Junior Chamber, and Scouts of Tunisia. Kiwanis and Lions Clubs have active programs. There are several sports associations, including the multinational African Boxing Confederation, African Rugby Football Union, and the African Table Tennis Federation.

The multinational Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization encourages cultural unity among Arab countries.

The Arab Institute for Human Rights and the Arab Medical Union, both based in Tunis, are multinational, social action organizations. Other international organizations with national chapters include Greenpeace, Amnesty International, Caritas, UNICEF, and the Red Crescent Society.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tunisia's cosmopolitan capital city, Tunis, the ruins of Carthage, the ancient Muslim and Jewish quarters of Jerba, and the modern coastal resorts in the vicinity of Monastir and Sousse are among the main tourist attractions. Recreations include hunting, hiking, golf, tennis, and other water sports.

Tunisia has been investing in the tourism industry since the late 1990s. In 2003, there were 5,114,303 foreign visitors. Tourist expenditures reached about $1.9 billion that year, and hotel rooms numbered 110,009 with 222,018 beds and an occupancy rate of 42%. Visitors stayed in Tunisia an average of six nights.

According to 2005 US Department of State estimates, the daily cost of staying in Tunis or Carthage was $165, and other areas about $117.

FAMOUS TUNISIANS

Ancient Carthage was located near the site of modern Tunis. Its most famous leader was Hannibal (247–183 bc), the general who campaigned in Italy for several years (218–211 bc) but who was defeated by the Romans under Scipio Africanus at Zama in 202 bc. The dominant figure of modern Tunisia was Habib Bourguiba (Habib bin 'Ali ar-Rugaybah, 1903–2000); he led Tunisia to independence, formed its first government, and was president from 1957 to 1987. Mongi Slim (1908–69) served as president of the 16th session of the UN General Assembly (1961–62). Mohamed Mzali (b.1925) has served in numerous government posts, including prime minister in 1980–86. Gen. Zine el 'Abidine Ben 'Ali (b.1936) assumed the presidency in 1987.

Tunisia's noteworthy literary figures include Albert Memmi (b.1920), the author of The Statue of Salt (1957), who writes in French; and Mahmoud Messadi (1911–2004), who wrote in Arabic. Prominent Tunisian painters are Ammar Farhat (1911–86) and Jallah bin 'Abdallah (b.1921).

DEPENDENCIES

Tunisia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Borowiec, Andrew. Modern Tunisia: A Democratic Apprenticeship. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998.

McDougall, James (ed.). Nation, Society and Culture in North Africa. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2003.

Perkins, Kenneth J. Historical Dictionary of Tunisia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1997.

Zartman, I. William (ed.). Tunisia: The Political Economy of Reform. Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner, 1991.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.