Côte D'ivoire

CÔTE D'IVOIRE

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENVIRONMENT
POPULATION
MIGRATION
ETHNIC GROUPS
LANGUAGES
RELIGIONS
TRANSPORTATION
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL PARTIES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
ARMED FORCES
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ECONOMY
INCOME
LABOR
AGRICULTURE
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
FISHING
FORESTRY
MINING
ENERGY AND POWER
INDUSTRY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DOMESTIC TRADE
FOREIGN TRADE
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
INSURANCE
PUBLIC FINANCE
TAXATION
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH
HOUSING
EDUCATION
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
MEDIA
ORGANIZATIONS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FAMOUS IVOIRIANS
DEPENDENCIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Republic of Côte d'Ivoire

République de Côte d'Ivoire

CAPITAL: Yamoussoukro

FLAG: The flag is a tricolor of orange, white, and green vertical stripes.

ANTHEM: L'Abidjanaise, beginning: "Greetings, O land of hope."

MONETARY UNIT: The Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr), which was originally pegged to the French franc, has been pegged to the euro since January 1999 with a rate of 655.957 CFA francs to 1 euro. The CFA franc is issued in coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 CFA francs, and notes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 CFA francs. CFA Fr1 = $0.00192 (or $1 = CFA Fr521.74) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Assumption, 15 August; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Independence Day, 7 December; Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday, Easter Monday, Ascension, Pentecost Monday, 'Id al-Fitr, and 'Id al-'Adha'.

TIME: GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

The Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, on the south coast of the western bulge of Africa, has an area of 322,460 sq km (124,502 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Côte d'Ivoire is slightly larger than the state of New Mexico. Roughly rectangular in shape, it extends 808 km (502 mi) se–nw and 780 km (485 mi) ne–sw. It is bordered on the n by Mali and Burkina Faso, on the e by Ghana, on the s by the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the w by Liberia and Guinea, with a total boundary length of 3,110 km (1,932 mi) and a coastline of 515 km (322 mi).

In 1983, Côte d'Ivoire's capital was moved to Yamoussoukro, about 225 km (140 mi) northwest of the former capital, Abidjan, in the south-central part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Except for the prolongation of the Guinea Highlands (in the northwest, from Man to Odienné), which has peaks of over 1,000 m (3,280 ft), the greater part of Côte d'Ivoire is a vast plateau, tilted gently toward the Atlantic. It is drained by four major rivers running roughly parallel from north to south—the Cavally (on the Liberian frontier), Sassandra, Bandama, and Komoé. They are not of much value for transportation, since they are sluggish in the dry season, broken by numerous falls and rapids, and subject to torrential flooding in the rainy season. Lake Kossou (Lac de Kossou), in the center of the country, has been formed by the impoundment of the Bandama. From Ghana to Fresco, the coast is almost a straight line, flat and sandy, with a series of deep lagoons behind it; from Fresco to the Liberian frontier, it is more broken, with small cliffs and rocky outcrops.

CLIMATE

The greatest annual rainfall, about 200 cm (79 in), is along the coast and in the southwest. The coastal region has a long dry season from December to April, followed by heavy rains from May to September. Farther north, there is only one wet and one dry season, with rainfall heaviest in summer, culminating in September, and lightest in January. The country's lightest rainfall is in the northeast, averaging 109 cm (43 in) annually. Average temperatures along the coast range from 24° to 32°c (75° to 90°f) in January and from 22° to 28°c (72° to 82°f) in July. At Bouaké, in the center of the country, minimum and maximum temperatures in November, the hottest month, average 21° and 35°c (70° and 95°f); the range is from 20° to 29°c (68° to 84°f) in July, the coolest month. At Ferkéssédougou, in the far north, temperatures range from 21° to 36°c (70° to 97°f) in March and from 17° to 30°c (63° to 86°f) in November.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The southern Côte d'Ivoire forest is a typical rain forest; it has a canopy at around 21–24 m (70–80 ft), with isolated trees pushing up above 37 m (120 ft). Farther north, the rain forest gives way to scattered stands of deciduous trees, and mahogany is widespread. Still farther north, oil palm, acacia, breadfruit, and baobab characterize the transition to true savanna, where shea nut and traveler's palm are common.

The jackal, hyena, panther, elephant, hippopotamus, numerous monkeys, and many other mammals are widely distributed. Crocodiles and chameleons, as well as venomous serpents (horned vipers, mambas, and many others) and pythons, are numerous. Among indigenous birds are vultures, cranes, pigeons, turtle doves, parrots, and herons. Venomous spiders and scorpions abound. As of 2002, there were at least 230 species of mammals, 252 species of birds, and over 3,600 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Most of Côte d'Ivoire's forests, once the largest in West Africa, have been cut down by the timber industry, with only cursory attempts at reforestation. During the first half of the 1980s, deforestation averaged 290,000 ha (717,000 acres) per year, while reforestation was only 6,000 ha (15,000 acres) per year. Between 1983 and 1993, the country's forest and woodland was reduced by nearly 25%. In 2000, about 22% of the total land area was forested.

The land is also affected by desertification and climate changes, including decreased rainfall. In 2000, Côte d'Ivoire had 76.7 cu km of renewable water resources, of which 67% was used for farming and 22% for urban and domestic use. Water pollution is a significant environmental problem in Côte d'Ivoire due to chemical waste from agricultural, industrial, and mining sources: about 92% of the country's city dwellers and 72% of the rural population have safe water. Reports indicate that in the mid-1990s, the nation was using approximately 6,000 tons of pesticides and 78,000 tons of fertilizers per year. The country's lack of sanitation facilities also contributes to the pollution problem. Only about 39% of the population has access to sanitation systems.

In 2003, about 6% of the total land area was legally protected. There were three natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and six Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 23 types of mammals, 11 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 14 species of amphibians, 11 species of fish, 1 type of mollusk, and 105 species of plants. Threatened species include Pel's flying squirrel, the white-breasted guinea fowl, the thresher shark, and the red capped monkey.

POPULATION

The population of Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 18,154,000, which placed it at number 56 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 41% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 103 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.2%, a rate the government viewed as too high. Factors the government planned to address included the high fertility rates (5.5 births per woman) and low contraceptive use. The projected population for the year 2025 was 25,114,000. The population density was 56 per sq km (146 per sq mi).

Movement to the cities has been a problem in recent decades. The UN estimated that 46% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005 (up from 13.2% in 1950), and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.58%. The capital city, Yamoussoukro, had a population of 416,000 in that year, while the metropolitan population of the former capital, Abidjan, was estimated at 3,660,682. Other major urban areas are Bouaké (estimated at more than 461,618) and Daloa (206,200); towns with populations of more than 20,000 include Gagnoa, Korhogo, Agboville, Abengourou, Dimbokro, Man, and Grand Bassam.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Côte d'Ivoire. The UN estimated that 9.6% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

MIGRATION

Flourishing economic activity in Côte d'Ivoire attracts large numbers of workers from neighboring countries. In 1988 foreign workers constituted 28% of the national total. Migratory laborers from Burkina Faso, estimated at more than one million, work chiefly on the cocoa and coffee plantations. In addition, several hundred thousand Ghanaians, Guineans, Malians, Senegalese, and Mauritanians live in Côte d'Ivoire. As of September 1998, Côte d'Ivoire was harboring 85,000 of the more than 350,000 Liberian war refugees who started coming to Côte d'Ivoire in 1989 with the start of the civil war in Liberia. Following a 1997 census, it was discovered that some 1,500 Sierra Leonean refugees had been living in Côte d'Ivoire disguised as Liberian refugees. The government has since agreed to recognize them as Sierra Leonean refugees. A mass voluntary repatriation program for the Liberian refugees was implemented between June 1997 and December 1999, after which remaining Liberian refugees were to receive assistance in local integration. In 2004, there were 72,088 refugees living in Côte d'Ivoire along with 2,111 asylum seekers, and an official 38,039 displaced persons. Another 7,594 refugees returned to Liberia that year.

In 2005, the net migration rate for Côte d'Ivoire was estimated as zero migrants per 1,000 population, down from 3.0 in 1990. Most of the non-African population consists of French and other Europeans, and Lebanese and Syrians. Foreigners can buy land and vote in Côte d'Ivoire; some cabinet ministers are foreign born. In 2004 an estimated 500,000 to 800,000 internally displaced persons lived in Côte d'Ivoire.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The ethnic composition of Côte d'Ivoire is complex with more than 60 ethnic groups represented. The Akan group, which primarily occupies the eastern and central regions of the country, accounts for about 42.1% of the population. The Baoulé are the single largest subgroup of the Akan people, accounting for about 20% of the total population. The Voltaiques (Gur) account for about 17.6% of the population. The Northern Mandes from the northwest region of the country make up about 16.5% of the population. The Krou people in the southwest account for about 11%; the Bété are the largest subgroup. The Southern Mandes from the western regions account for about 10% of the population. Non-Africans include about 14,000 French and 130,000 Lebanese expatriates.

LANGUAGES

The official language is French. Of the more than 60 African languages spoken by different ethnic groups, the most important are Agni and Baulé, spoken by the Akan group; the Kru languages; the Sénoufo languages; and the Mandé languages (especially Malinké-Bambura-Dioula).

RELIGIONS

Approximately 38.6% of the total population are Muslims. The next largest group is the Roman Catholic Church, with membership accounting for about 19.4% of the population. About 11.9% of the people practice traditional indigenous religions, about 6% are Protestant, and 3.1% follow other Christian faiths. About 1.3% belong to the Harrist Church, a Protestant denomination founded in 1913 by the Liberian minister William Hade Harris. There are also a number of syncretic religions combining Christian tenets with African traditional customs and beliefs. These include the Church of the Prophet Papa Nouveau and Eckankar. About 16.7% of the population do not claim any religious affiliation or preference.

A large variety of denominations are represented in the country, including Methodists, Southern Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, Assemblies of God, the Union of the Evangelical Church of Services and Works of Côte d'Ivoire, the Autonomous Church of Celestial Christianity of Oschoffa, the Yoruba First Church, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. There are a small number of Buddhists.

Religious and political affiliation often follows ethnic and regional lines. Most Muslims live in the north and most Christians live in the south. Traditionalists are generally concentrated in rural areas in the north and across the center of the country. The Akan ethnic group traditionally practices a religion called Bossonism.

The constitution implemented in 2000 provides for freedom of religion, however, Christianity has historically enjoyed a privileged status in national life with particular advantage toward the Catholic Church. For instance, Christian schools have long been considered official schools and so have received subsidies through the Ministry of Education; however, Muslim schools were considered religious institutions and were not considered for similar subsidies until 1994.

In 2001, the government initiated the Forum for National Reconciliation, designed in part to ease relationships between religious and ethnic groups. Through the Forum, Muslims accused the government of attempting to create a Christian state. Since then, the president has met with Muslim leaders to discuss their concerns and government leaders have made greater attempts towards interfaith understanding and acceptance. The Forum of Religious Confessions serves to improve relations and understanding between faiths. The Ministry of Religion promotes dialogue between religious groups and the government. All religious groups must register through the Ministry of the Interior. Muslim and Christian holidays are recognized as national holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

Côte d'Ivoire has one of the best-developed and best-maintained transportation systems in Africa. As of 2004, the nation's railway system consisted of a state-controlled 660-km (410-mi) section of a 1,146-km (712-mi) narrow gauge railroad that ran north from Abidjan through Bouaké and Ferkéssédougou to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. In 2002, Côte d'Ivoire had 50,400 km (31,318 mi) of roads, of which 4,889 km (3,038 mi) were paved. In 2003, there were 19,450 registered passenger automobiles and 94,900 registered commercial automobiles, trucks, and buses.

Harbor activity is concentrated at Abidjan (West Africa's largest container port), which has facilities that include a fishing port and equipment for handling containers, and San Pedro, a deepwater port that began operations in 1971. There are also small ports at Sassandra and Tabou. Two nationalized shipping lines serve West Africa and Europe. As of 1998, the merchant marine had one oil tanker (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,200 GRT. However, in 2002, there is no merchant marine. There are 980 km (56 mi) of navigable rivers, canals, and numerous coastal lagoons.

Air Ivoire, government-owned since 1976, operates domestic services and also flies to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, and Bamako, Mali. International flights to Paris, Dakar, and other African and European capitals are handled by Air Afrique, a joint venture owned by Côte d'Ivoire and other participating Yaoundé Treaty countries (72%) and by Air France and Union des Transports Aériens (28%). Côte d'Ivoire's principal airport, F.H. Boigny, is located in Abidjan. Secondary airports are located at Bérébi, Bouaké, Daloa, Man, Sassandra, Korhogo, Tabou, San Pedro, Guiglo, Bondoukou, Yamoussoukro, and Odienné. In 2004 there were an estimated 37 airports, 7 of which had paved runways as of 2005. In 2003, about 46,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Little is known of the early history of the area now called Côte d'Ivoire. Most of its peoples entered the country in comparatively recent times, mostly from the northwest and the east, although the Kru-speaking peoples came from west of the Cavally River (modern Liberia). European travelers described flourishing and well organized states in the north and east, with strongly hierarchical social organization and elaborate gold weights and ornaments. These states, such as the Agni kingdom of Indénié and the Abron kingdom of Bondoukou, were closely related linguistically and socially to the neighboring Ashanti of modern Ghana and formed with them, and with the Fon of Dahomey (now Benin) and the Yoruba and Bini kingdoms in Nigeria, an almost continuous string of relatively rich and developed states of the Guinea forest zone. Nearer the coast, the scale of social organization was much smaller, and innumerable small units recognized no political superior.

Modern European acquaintance with the west coast of Africa began with the Portuguese discoveries of the 15th century, culminating in the discovery of the route to India around the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 and the establishment of trading posts along the Senegal coast and the Gulf of Guinea. The Portuguese and Spanish were soon followed by the Dutch and English. Gold, ivory, ostrich feathers, gum arabic, and pepper were succeeded by slaves as the major trading commodities. French activity in what is now Côte d'Ivoire began in 1687, when missionaries landed at Assinié. In 1843, Adm. Louis-Édouard Bouet-Willaumez established French posts at Assinié and Grand Bassam, where treaties with the local chiefs provided for the cession of land for forts in exchange for tribute to the chiefs (coutumes ) at fixed rates and regular intervals.

After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the small garrisons of Assinié, Grand Bassam, and Dabou were withdrawn. French interests were confided to a resident trader named Verdier. He and a young assistant, Treich-Laplène, consolidated the French position along the coast. In 1887, Treich-Laplène signed treaties with Indénié, Bettié, Alangoa, and other chiefdoms of the interior, thus preventing British advances into eastern Côte d'Ivoire from Ashanti. Continuing northward to Kong, he joined forces with Col. Louis Binger, who had made his way from Bamako in French Sudan (Soudan Française, now Mali) to Kong and from there northeast to Ouagadougou in Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and back to Kong through Bondoukou. French claims to Upper Volta and northern Côte d'Ivoire, joining French Sudan and Niger in a continuous territory, were thus established. In 1893, the territory was renamed Côte d'Ivoire, and Col. Binger was appointed the first French governor. The new colony's frontier with Liberia was settled by a convention in 1892, and that with the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) by the Anglo-French agreement of 1893. The northern border was not defined until 1947.

French control of Côte d'Ivoire was, however, far from secured. Much of the region remained unexplored, and administrative control had still to be effectively organized in those areas whose chiefs had concluded treaties with the French. More serious still, Samory Touré, a Malinké from Guinea who periodically fought the French, had moved southeast after the French capture of Sankoro in 1892 and was continuing his struggle against the invaders in the region of Kong. Not until 1898, after prolonged fighting, was he finally captured near Man. Systematic military operations in the densely forested area between the upper Cavally and the upper Sassandra were carried out from 1908 onward before French rule was finally established in Côte d'Ivoire on the eve of World War I. In other parts of the colony, intermittent revolts continued throughout this period, stimulated by the imposition of a poll tax and opposition of many of the chiefs to the substitution of a tax rebate for the coutumes promised in the treaties. Nevertheless, some 20,000 Ivoirian troops were raised in the colony during World War I, when the greater part of the French forces was withdrawn.

In the interwar years, Côte d'Ivoire became a considerable producer of cocoa, coffee, mahogany, and other tropical products. Although European planters produced about one-third of the cocoa and coffee and most of the bananas, the share of African planters rapidly increased throughout this period. The railroad, begun in 1904, did not reach the northern part of the colony until 1925. Until 1954, Grand Bassam (opened 1901) and Port Bouet (opened 1932) were the principal ports; that year the deepwater port of Abidjan opened, following the cutting of the Ébrié Lagoon in 1950.

During World War II, Côte d'Ivoire, like the rest of French West Africa, remained under control of the Vichy government between 1940 and 1943. In 1941, the king of Bondoukou and thousands of his people made their way into the Gold Coast to join Gen. Charles de Gaulle's resistance forces. At the end of the war, Côte d'Ivoire was established as an overseas territory under the 1946 French constitution and given three deputies and three senators in the French parliament and an elected territorial assembly. By 1956, it produced 45% of all French West African exports, took in 30% of the imports, and seemed assured of continued economic advance.

In 1958, Côte d'Ivoire accepted the new French constitution in a referendum on 28 September and opted for the status of an autonomous state within the new French Community. On 4 December 1958, the Territorial Assembly, which had been elected by universal suffrage on 31 March 1957, formed itself into the Constituent Assembly and proclaimed the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire as a member state of the French Community. On 26 March 1959, the assembly adopted the first constitution of the new country. The legislature provided for in this constitution was chosen by a national election held on 17 April, and Félix Houphouët-Boigny was unanimously selected by the Assembly as prime minister on 27 April.

On 7 August 1960, the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire proclaimed its complete independence. On 31 October, a new constitution providing for a presidential system was adopted. In elections held on 27 November, Houphouët-Boigny was unanimously elected the country's first president. Although two plots to overthrow him, organized by government and party officials, were discovered in 1963, both failed, and in that year Houphouët-Boigny took over most key ministerial portfolios and consolidated his control over the Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire (PDCI).

Outbreaks of unrest plagued the Houphouët-Boigny government during the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1969, some 1,500 unemployed youths were arrested in the course of widespread rioting. In 1970, disturbances broke out in Gagnoa, Bouaké, and Daloa. These incidents were followed in 1973 by an alleged conspiracy to overthrow the government. Following a brief trial, two army captains and five lieutenants were sentenced to death, while others were given jail sentences ranging from 15 to 20 years of hard labor. Before the sixth PDCI congress in 1975, President Houphouët-Boigny pardoned some 5,000 persons, among who were 145 political prisoners, some associated with the Gagnoa disturbances. All death sentences were also commuted to 20 years of hard labor. Throughout this period, the government used a series of mass meetings called "dialogues" to win over new adherents. These public discussions were usually led by prominent members of the administration, and President Houphouët-Boigny often presided over them personally. During the second half of the 1970s, Houphouët-Boigny and the PDCI remained firmly in control, and Côte d'Ivoire became one of black Africa's most prosperous nations.

Houphouët-Boigny was reelected unopposed to his fifth five-year term as president in October 1980. The nation's first competitive National Assembly elections were held in the following month, as the ruling PDCI allowed 649 candidates to compete for the 147 seats, with a runoff between the two best-placed candidates in each constituency where there was no majority choice. A total of 121 new members were elected, while 54 of the 80 deputies who ran for reelection were defeated. Relations with neighboring countries have generally been favorable; in 1981, however, the death by suffocation of 46 Ghanaians who had been jailed near Abidjan on suspicion of drug smuggling led to friction with Ghana, which was resolved through Togolese mediation. Declining economic prospects in the early 1980s led to a series of strikes among professional workers, which Houphouët-Boigny accused a foreign power (presumed to be Libya) of fomenting.

Houphouët-Boigny won an unopposed sixth term as president in October 1985, reportedly receiving 100% of the vote in a turnout of over 99% of the eligible voters. In the following month, fewer than 30% turned out for the National Assembly elections, in which 546 candidates—all members of the PDCI but not screened—competed for 175 seats. Only 64 deputies were returned to office. Côte d'Ivoire celebrated the 25th anniversary of its independence on 7 December 1985 by releasing 9,500 convicted criminals from prisoners.

In 1990, Côte d'Ivoire entered a new political era as months of prodemocracy demonstrations and labor unrest led to the legalization of opposition parties, previously banned. Even within the PDCI, a progressive wing called for further liberalization. The first multiparty presidential and legislative elections were held on 28 October 1990 and 25 November 1990, respectively. HouphouëtBoigny was reelected as president with 81% of the vote. The PDCI carried 161 of the 175 seats and the Ivoirian Popular Front (FPI), 9 seats. Yet, outside observers saw the elections as less than free and fair. That November, the National Assembly passed a constitutional amendment to allow the Speaker to take over the presidency in the event of a vacancy (a provision eventually invoked on Houphouët-Boigny's death on 7 December 1993).

Meanwhile, popular disillusionment grew. Early in 1992, the president rejected the findings of his own investigative commission, which had found army chief of staff Gen. Robert Guei responsible for the shootings at Yopougon University in May 1991. Then Houphouët-Boigny left for a four-month "private visit" to France. Rioting followed a mass demonstration in February 1992, and the government used this as a pretext to jail opposition leaders. In protest, the FPI withdrew from the National Assembly, leaving it a PDCI exclusive preserve. Houphouët-Boigny continued to manage affairs from Paris. He returned in June to release the opposition leaders as part of an amnesty that also shielded the soldiers.

After Houphouët-Boigny's death, power was transferred smoothly to Henri Konan Bédié, who became president until the 1995 elections. Born in 1934 in Dadiekro, Côte d'Ivoire, Henri Konan Bedié was of the Baoulé ethnic group. Bedié's ties to his idol Boigny began at a young age. During his initial schooling in Bokanda, Guiglo, and Dabopu, Côte d'Ivoire, he distributed newspapers of Boigny's political party—the Rassemblement Démocratique Africain. As he grew up, Bedié's aspirations became clearer. He traveled to France to study law at the University of Poitiers after reconsidering a career in education; he worked his way through law school. He also obtained advanced degrees in economics and political science, as well as a doctorate in economics, and was appointed the first Ivoirian ambassador to the United States in his 20s. He opened the Ivoirian embassy in Washington, DC, during the last months of the Eisenhower administration and also established the Ivoirian mission to the United Nations when he was only 27. Bedié also served as Minister of Finance and National Assembly President, as well as an advisor to the International Bank on Reconstruction and Development. Throughout his posts, Boigny was his most significant supporter.

Bédié proved to be a controversial leader. A split in the PDCI occurred on his watch, as departing Assembly members formed the Rally of the Republicans (RDR) and, later, the Republican Front. Bédié, meanwhile, began cracking down on dissent, briefly imprisoning and exposing to beatings the editor of a prominent newspaper. In the year preceding the scheduled elections, Bédié also instigated electoral reforms strictly limiting candidates who desired to run for president. Opposition parties decried the new electoral code and vowed to boycott the elections.

The presidential elections held on 22 October 1995 were boycotted by the opposition in protest of Bédié's antidemocratic maneuvering since assuming office. Bédié was reported by government officials to have won 95% of the vote. Legislative elections were held in December. The opposition threatened to extend their boycott to these elections as well, but Bédié engaged the major parties in negotiations and agreed to allow representatives from the two largest parties to serve on the electoral commission overseeing the balloting. The elections were seen as relatively fair and resulted in a National Assembly with 146 seats held by the PDCI, 14 by the RDR, and 9 by the FPI. Presidential, legislative, and municipal elections were held, and Bédié was officially elected president.

Though Bédié's presidential win was seen as a significant accomplishment for the Baulé ethnic group, allegations of his corruption and discontent among Ivoirians continued to increase. After becoming president, Bédié maintained a low profile and granted few interviews to the press. Facing opposition from other politicians, Bédié invited members of some opposition parties to join his government. Only Bernard Zadi of the Union des Socieaux Démocrates party accepted and became minister of culture. Even though Bédié appointed nine ministers from his party, Alassane Ouattara-a Mandé from the northern tribes continued to be Bédié's most harsh enemy. Bédié had banned Ouattara's participation in the 1995 elections by claiming him a foreigner from neighboring Burkina Faso. Bédié subsequently stripped Ouattara of all outward signs of power and began a campaign against Ouattara's northern Dioulla-speaking tribes. Further, Bédié became very strict against any political opposition and went as far as to name a new director of the main television station to support his own agenda. Criticisms of corruption under his rule began to grow.

Therefore, as many believe, all of these actions could only lead to one outcome: a coup. Regardless, what occurred on 24 December 1999 nonetheless shocked many watchers of Côte d'Ivoire around the world. On that day, Gen. Robert Gueï led a coup d'etat and overthrew Bédié. Familiar scenes ensued: gunfire, occupation of the public television station, and the president fleeing the country. However, never before had such an event occurred in the country that was often referred to as the "Ivoirian miracle." Bédié immediately sought refuge in the French ambassador's residence, who, along with the French government, denounced the coup. Bédié, who mistakenly assumed the loyalty of the military, was evacuated from Côte d'Ivoire soon after. While many people around the world, including numerous African leaders, condemned the coup, the streets of Abidjan filled with celebrations. The fact was that Bédié had become increasingly unpopular after the 1995 elections. Gueï rallied his supporters by pledging to honor all Ivoirians, no matter where they were born.

However, many see Gueï's rise to power as a pro-Ouattara and pro-northern movement. Though he pledged to create conditions for democracy, fair elections, and a quick hand-over of civilian rule, many were skeptical. The ruling party for 39 years did not yet have time to recuperate from the shock.

Regardless of in-country support, Gueï and his office remained unstable. Many soldiers originally protested out of anger for lack of pay, but Gueï did not find a way to address their concerns and offer payment. This resulted in increased corruption and bribery—soldiers and police officers are known to stop motorists at random and demand payment through threats. As of 2000, all foreign debt repayment had been suspended. Gen. Gueï promised that as soon as political parties were formed, he would hold elections. They were tentatively set for October 2000, but the international community was concerned that Gueï had not ruled out his own presidential bid. Increasing military power and more defiance against Gueï's orders added to tensions in Côte d'Ivoire. Regional leaders, including US and French diplomats, warned Gueï against trying for the presidential bid, using the reasoning that international support for Côte d'Ivoire would be in jeopardy.

Presidential elections in which the principal candidates were excluded—including Ouattara and Bédié—were held on 22 October, which Gueï, who stood for election, proclaimed he had won. (In all, 15 of 19 presidential candidates were barred from running). In response to criticism that he had rigged the election, a violent popular uprising caused him to flee, and Laurent Gbagbo of the FPI, who was believed to be the actual winner, was proclaimed president. The results were eventually determined to be 59.4% for Gbagbo and 32.7% for Gueï. The main opposition parties, Ouattara's RDR and Bédié's PDCI, boycotted the elections. Although they joined Gbagbo's supporters in demanding Gueï's departure, they also called for the election to be annulled. In addition, that month fighting had erupted between the mainly southern Christian supporters of Gbagbo and the mainly northern Muslim supporters of Ouattara.

Parliamentary elections were held on 10 December 2000 and 14 January 2001; voter turnout was a mere 33.1%, as the elections were boycotted by the RDR. Gbagbo's FPI took 96 of the 225 seats in the National Assembly, to the PDCI/RDA's (African Democratic Rally) 94.

In March 2001, Gbagbo and Ouattara met for the first time since violence erupted between their supporters in October 2000, and agreed to work towards national reconciliation. Also in March, Ouattara's RDR gained a majority in local elections, taking 64 communes while the PDCI won 58. The FPI secured 34 communes and 38 went to independent candidates. There were calls for new presidential and legislative elections. In the 7 July 2002 county elections, the FPI and the PDCI each won 18 of the 58 departments. In August 2002, the RDR was awarded four ministerial positions in the new government.

On 19 September 2002, as Gbagbo was out of the country, an attempted military coup took place, destabilizing Abidjan and Bouaké, among other cities. Assumedly involved in plotting the coup, Gueï was killed; in addition, the Interior Minister and the former military commander of Bouaké were killed. France increased its military presence in Côte d'Ivoire to protect its large French community, and ECOWAS planned to send a peacekeeping force. Approximately 200 US Special Forces were sent to assist the government in putting down the mutineers. The original mutiny spread quickly into a general uprising in the Muslim north, against Gbagbo's southerner-dominated government. A ceasefire brokered by ministers from six African countries was signed by the government and rebels in Bouaké on 17 October, and direct negotiations between the Côte d'Ivoire Patriotic Movement (MPCI) and the government began on 30 October. The government agreed in principle to the idea of an amnesty and the reintegration of the mutineers into the army, but a political accord was not agreed upon. In what exacerbated the situation, two new rebel groups in the west emerged on 28 November—the Far Western Ivoirian People's Movement (MPIGO) and the Movement for Justice and Peace (MPJ). The MPCI continued to control the north while these two new groups controlled the southwest; the government continued to hold the majority of the south. France increased its troop presence; by the end of December, close to 2,500 French troops were in Côte d'Ivoire.

A succession of unification attempts and agreements have been characterized by broken promises, missed deadlines, deadlock, incomplete implementation, and failure to achieve lasting peace. Following incidents between the MPIGO, MPJ, and French troops in January 2003, the two rebel groups agreed to participate in talks outside Paris on 15 January. Attending the talks were the three rebel movements, a government delegation, the political parties represented in the National Assembly, and the RDR. The talks resulted in a settlement to create a government of national unity and reconciliation in which the rebels would be represented, and Gbagbo would remain as head of state but with diminished powers. Gbagbo signed the French-brokered Linas-Marcoussis Accord on 24 January, but tens of thousands of Ivoirians in Abdijan protested the deal on his return, attacking the French embassy and French-owned businesses, as the protesters accused France of imposing the agreement. In Accra, Ghana, in March, the parties involved in the power-sharing agreement finalized their plan for the creation of the government of national reconciliation: 10 cabinet posts were reserved for President Gbagbo's FPI; the PDCI, RDR, and MPCI each were granted 7 posts; and 7 posts were shared by the MJP and the MPIGO. Representatives of the rebel movements and those from the RDR failed to attend the inaugural cabinet meeting in Yamoussoukro on 13 March; only 21 of the newly appointed ministers attended. As of the middle of March 2003, some 3,000 people had been killed in the fighting, and more than one million had been displaced. The first meeting of cabinet ministers in the new government was held on 17 April 2003.

The UN news network IRIN characterizes the time since the Linas-Marcoussis Accord as a period of "no war, no peace." The peace accord faced major challenges. Political deadlock was punctuated with sporadic outbreaks of violence. The unity government was considerably volatile. The government lifted the curfew, French troops cracked down on lawlessness on the western side of the country, and a semblance of law and order was secured, albeit short-lived. Yet core problems of identity and citizenship, disarmament, and power sharing remained. Fresh fighting broke out soon after, followed by a trail of additional peace talks and broken promises. A total cease-fire was agreed on 1 May 2003, and an "End of the War" declaration issued on July 4. Both were broken, leading to the Accra, Ghana, round of talks and the signing, on 30 July 2004, of the Accra III Agreement. Yet again, September and October deadlines for legislative reform and rebel disarmament were not met by the parties. By 2004, a 10,000-strong UN peacekeeping force that included 4,000 French troops already in-country was deployed as part of the blueprint Linas-Marcoussis agreement to control the "zone of confidence" separating rebel-held north and government-controlled south. Still, tensions continued to escalate, and violence at an opposition rally in March 2004, later reported to have been planned, killed 120 people.

Gbagbo tried to crush the rebellion, but failed. Some experts on Côte d'Ivoire have linked Gbagbo to public statements to the effect that he never really accepted the Linas-Marcoussis agreement, but was forced to accept it because he lacked the military capacity to crush the rebellion. On 4 November 2004 the Côte d'Ivoire air force launched a campaign against rebel positions which shattered terms of the cease-fire agreement of 2003. Two days later a government aircraft bombed French barracks in Bouaké, killing nine French soldiers and one American civilian. The French brushed aside government claims that the attack was accidental, and launched a retaliation attack that decimated the small Côte d'Ivoire air force. This sparked several days of violent anti-French riots in Abidjan and elsewhere. On 15 November 2004 the UN Security Council placed Côte d'Ivoire under an immediate arms embargo and gave the government a month to get the peace process moving again. Ensuing talks sponsored by the African Union and mediated by South African president Thabo Mbeki culminated in the Pretoria Agreement, signed April 6, 2005 and a follow-up Pretoria II agreement in June 2005. The Pretoria agreements formally ended Côte d'Ivoire's state of war, and tackled sticky issues such as disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR); return of New Forces Ministers to government; legal issues surrounding national identity; establishment of an independent electoral commission; and re-affirmed legislative, elections, and disarmament requirements of the Linas-Marcoussis Accord. The legal issues surrounding identity are reported to have been resolved, on paper at least, through constitutional amendments and presidential decrees following Pretoria II. The major challenge remained implementation.

The former colonial master, France, has enjoyed a complex lovehate, and often self-conflicting relationship with the country. On the one hand France has provided military support for Gbagbo against the rebels. On the other hand analysts see French support within the 2003 accord for the rebel's uncompromising demand to change the Ivorian nationality legislation, as legitimizing the rebellion. The change included removing the concept of the ethnic identity (Ivoirité) that denied electoral and land-ownership rights to a substantial minority, particularly from the north. In November 2004 and early 2005 anti-French riots swept through the government-run south. The French retaliated, attacking and destroying Gbagbo's air force. Since the 2003 accord, the former colonial power has apparently withdrawn from negotiations.

The much-anticipated presidential elections scheduled for 30 October 2005, when President Laurent Gbagbo's mandate expired, were postponed in September. Disarmament initiatives agreed under the series of peace accords never materialized. On 14 October, the UN Security Council endorsed African Union proposals postponing the elections and allowed Gbagbo to remain in office for up to 12 more months. President Laurent Gbagbo accepted the UN resolution 1633 under which he would have to hand much of his power over to a new consensus prime minister. The prime minister was charged with broad responsibilities for security and defense, and was given the task of organizing credible elections by the end of October 2006.

Six weeks behind schedule because of bitter political bickering among the rebels and opposition parties, and at the third such attempt in one month, a high-powered African Union delegation consisting of Olusegun Obasanjo, Thabo Mbeki, and Niger's president Mamadou Tandja, finally announced the appointment of Charles Konan Banny, governor of West Africa's central bank, as interim prime minister on 5 December 2005. The appointment of Banny, who is seen as independent-minded and potentially neutral, was broadly welcomed by parties to the conflict. Even the New Forces rebels who had previously said that they would accept no one other than their own leader, Guillaume Soro express support for Banny. This appointment finally gave some hope for the war-torn country after more than three years of conflict. Côte d'Ivoire won strong endorsements from parties to the conflict, raising a new glimmer of hope for peace. Banny is said to have international standing and good relations with Gbagbo and Ivoirian opposition leaders, assets that diplomats hope will help him to turn his war-weary country around.

GOVERNMENT

Under the constitution of 31 October 1960, as subsequently amended, executive power is exercised by a president, elected for a five-year term by direct universal suffrage (from age 18). The president, who appoints the Council of Ministers (cabinet), may initiate and veto legislation; the veto may be overruled by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. A 1980 constitutional amendment created the new post of vice president, to be elected with the president and to become head of state automatically in the case of vacancy by death, resignation, or "absolute hindrance"; the post was left vacant, however. A 1985 constitutional amendment eliminated it, making the president of the National Assembly the interim successor for 45-90 days in the event of a vacancy, and is tasked with organizing new elections in which the winner completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. In January 2003, Seydou Diarra was appointed as transitional prime minister by President Gbagbo as part of the French-brokered peace plan to create a national government of reconciliation and unity, after civil war began in September 2002. A 41-member cabinet was agreed upon, which was to include 9 ministers from 3 rebel groups: the MPCI, MPIGO, and MPJ. As of December 2005, Banny remained the prime minister, pending yet another transitional premier to oversee transition to peace under a UN-sponsored one-year postponement of elections scheduled for 30 October 2005, and conduct of fresh elections by 30 October 2006. The president is currently the head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces with wide-sweeping powers, and selects the prime minister, who is the head of government. However, the UN Security Council resolution of October 2005 that endorsed postponement of 2005 elections for a year requires the president to hand over much of his powers, including military resources and organizing elections for a more powerful transitional prime minister.

The unicameral National Assembly consists of 225 members, elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term in the same year as the president. The country had a de facto one-party system until May 1990, when opposition parties were allowed. The post of prime minister was created after the November 1990 elections. Controversial electoral reforms were instituted in 1995, just prior to elections. The Pretoria Agreement of April 2005 provided for reorganization of the electoral commission. However, in late November 2005 a quarrel brewed over composition of the National Electoral Commission that will organize the polls expected in October 2006. The quarrel spilled into the courts where the Supreme Court nullified the election of its chairman on grounds that several members were unfairly excluded from the vote.

POLITICAL PARTIES

From 1959 to 1990, the only political party in Côte d'Ivoire was the Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire (Parti Démocratique de la Côte d'Ivoire—PDCI), headed by President Félix HouphouëtBoigny. The PDCI developed from the Côte d'Ivoire section of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Africain), formed in 1946. In the 1959 elections, Houphouët-Boigny made it clear that no party that did not fully accept Côte d'Ivoire membership in the French Community would be tolerated. After the elections, the number of constituencies was reduced to four for the whole country, and later a single nationwide constituency was established, with a single list of candidates for the National Assembly. In 1980, members of the National Assembly were chosen in 147 separate districts; in 1985, they were chosen from 175 districts.

In May 1990, opposition parties were legalized and contested the 1990 elections. Among the two-dozen parties registered were the Ivoirian Popular Front (FPI), the Ivoirian Workers' Party (PIT), the Ivoirian Socialist Party (PSI), and the Ivoirian Human Rights League. In April 1994, some 19 parties formed a center left opposition alliance, the Groupement pour la Solidarité (GPS). Also formed in 1994 was the Rally of the Republicans (RDR), a coalition of defectors from the PDCI. The 1995 legislative elections resulted in a National Assembly constituted as follows: PDCI, 146 seats; RDR, 14; and FPI, 9. The year 2000 marked the first time in almost 40 years that the PDCI was not in power. The 10 December 2000 and 14 January 2001 parliamentary elections were boycotted by the RDR. The FPI won 96 of 225 seats; the PDCI took 94; the RDR won 5, although it boycotted the elections; the PIT won 4; the Union of Democrats of Côte d'Ivoire (UDCI) took 1 seat; the Movement of Future Forces (MFA) won 1 seat; and independents secured 22 seats. Two seats were vacant.

Elections scheduled for 30 October 2005 were postponed with UN endorsement. The Security Council resolution 1633 of 2005 requires transparent, free, and fair elections. The elections were scheduled to for 30 October 2006.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Côte d'Ivoire is divided into 19 regions, 58 departments, and 196 communes, each headed by an elected mayor, plus the city of Abidjan with 10 mayors. A process of decentralization began in 1977, and has been regarded as the most thoroughgoing and effective in Francophone Africa. In the March 2001 local elections, the RDR gained control of the largest number of communes (64), followed by the PDCI (58), and the FPI (34). Thirty-eight went to independent candidates. In July 2002, the FPI and PDCI each won 18 of the 58 departments.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The judicial system is based on the French civil law system and customary law. The Supreme Court heads the formal judicial system, which includes a Court of Appeals and lower courts. In rural areas, domestic and other local disputes are often handled through traditional village institutions in accordance with customary law, although the formal court system is increasingly displacing these traditional forms. A grand mediator, whose office is provided for in the constitution to bridge traditional and modern methods of dispute resolution, settles disputes that cannot be resolved solely by traditional means. Military courts only try military personnel. Persons convicted by a military court may petition the Supreme Court. An independent Constitutional Council composed of seven members appointed by the president handles such issues as candidate eligibility in presidential and legislative elections, announcement of final election results, conduct of referendums, and constitutionality of legislation.

The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive branches in ordinary criminal cases. Under the constitution and in practice, however, the judiciary accedes to the executive on political and national security issues.

ARMED FORCES

Côte d'Ivoire's armed forces numbered 17,050 active personnel in 2005, including the 1,350-member Presidential Guard. There were 6,500 in the Army, which included three infantry battalions, one armored battalion, and one artillery battalion. Equipment included 10 main battle tanks and five light tanks. There were 900 personnel in the Navy, which had two patrol/coastal vessels and a single amphibious landing ship tank. The air force had 700 personnel, including nine combat capable aircraft, seven of which were also used in a training capacity. There was also a paramilitary gendarmerie force of 7,600. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $191 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Côte d'Ivoire was admitted to UN membership on 20 September 1960 and is a member of ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, as well as the WTO (1995). It belongs to the African Union and various other intergovernmental organizations, including the African Development Bank, the ACP Group, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), G-24, and G-77. Together with other countries of former French West Africa, it participates in the West African Customs Union, and it was the organizer of the Conseil d'Entente, which unites Benin, Niger, Togo, and Burkina Faso in a customs union. In May 1975, Côte d'Ivoire was one of the signatories to a treaty that created ECOWAS, an economic organization that includes both French- and English-speaking West African countries. Côte d'Ivoire joined the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD) in 2004. It is an associate member of the European Union. Abidjan is the headquarters for the African Development Bank and houses the secretariat of the Conseil d'Entente and the West African office of the World Bank.

Côte d'Ivoire is part of the Nonaligned Movement and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. The United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI) was established in 2004 to facilitate implementation of peace agreements designed to calm political unrest within the country; 41 nations are a part of the mission. In environmental cooperation, Côte d'Ivoire is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the London Convention, International tropical timber Agreements, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Côte d'Ivoire's wealth rests essentially on the production of coffee, cocoa, cotton, and tropical woods, which account for over 40% of GDP and two-thirds of exports. It has become the largest cotton producer south of the Sahara and is also investing in rubber production, with the goal of joining Liberia as one of Africa's leading rubber producers. The nation is the world's fifth-largest producer of coffee and the world's largest producer of cocoa; bananas, palm oil, and pineapples are other products of importance. Industrial activity, consisting chiefly of processing industries, is well developed. Mining remains of limited significance, with diamonds and offshore oil the only important minerals produced.

For the first 15 years after independence, Côte d'Ivoire's economy expanded at a remarkable rate reaching the double digits. During the 1980s, however, Côte d'Ivoire began experiencing an economic slowdown because of falling export prices, rising import prices, and heavy debt-service costs as a result of borrowing during the boom years.

In January 1994 France devalued the CFA franc, cutting its value in half. Within days of the devaluation, marketplace fights became common as shoppers reacted to merchants' attempts to cut their losses by marking up the prices of existing stocks. The population was forced to stop buying expensive imports in favor of locally produced products, which put more money into the pockets of local farmers and tradesmen. In addition, exports became more competitive, encouraging economic production. Despite the initial trauma, the devaluation ultimately led to average growth rates of 7% per year between 1995 and 1999. Although inflation initially shot up to 32% in 1994, it fell to 7.7% in 1995, and 2.5% in 2000. The post-devaluation boom waned in 1999, though, because of lower coffee, palm, rubber, and cocoa prices. The GDP growth rate in 2001 was estimated at -1%. Commodity prices, however, rebounded in 2001.

Due to the instability following the attempted coup that took place in 2002, and the resulting fighting, Côte d'Ivoire's economy suffered greatly, affecting everyone from business people to local artisans and farmers. Côte d'Ivoire's neighbors—including Burkina Faso and Mali—also felt the blow from the civil war.

The economy recovered slightly in 2004, with a GDP growth rate of 1.6% (as opposed to negative growth in 2002, and 2003, when the rate was -1.6% and -3.8% respectively). Inflation remains under control at around 3.3%. Although Côte d'Ivoire is one of the sub-Saharan countries with the highest economic potential, it remains mired in a political and military crisis. The situation has deteriorated in 2004 when the president's troops attacked and killed nine French peacekeeping forces.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Côte d'Ivoire's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $24.8 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,400. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at -1.5%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 27.7% of GDP, industry 16.7%, and services 55.6%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $141 million or about $1 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.0% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $252 million or about $15 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.9% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) totaled $9.46 billion or about $56 per capita based on a GDP of $14.0 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.7%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 30% of household consumption was spent on food, 4% on fuel, 1% on health care, and 18% on education. It was estimated that in 1995 about 37% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

As of 2005, Côte d'Ivoire's workforce totaled an estimated 6.95 million, of which about 68% were engaged in agriculture. The unemployment rate in urban areas was estimated at 13% in 1998.

With the exception of the police and the military services, all citizens can form or join a union. All unions must be registered, a process that takes three months and which is routinely granted. Organized workers account for a very small segment of the workforce because most are involved in the informal sector or agriculture. As of 2005, about 1.5 million workers or 15% of the labor force in the formal economy are unionized. Collective bargaining is recognized as is the right to strike. However, before a strike can be initiated, a six day notification period must be given.

The law provides a 40-hour workweek for all except agricultural workers, for whom longer working hours are permitted. The legal minimum work age is 14 years, but this is only enforced in large companies and in the civil service. Many children work on farms and do menial jobs in the informal sector in urban areas. A government-set minimum wage varies from sector to sector, with the lowest wage being around $73 per month in 2005, for the industrial sector. Construction workers have a slightly higher minimum wage rate. Foreign workers are generally employed in the informal economy where labor laws do not apply.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture provides a living for about 46% of Ivoirians and accounts for about one-half of the country's sizable export earnings. Only 23% of the land is cultivated, but farming is intensive and efficiently organized. Most production is in the hands of smallholders, but there are numerous European-owned plantations, far more than in neighboring West African countries.

The main food crops (with their 2004 production in tons) are yams, 3,050,000; manioc, 1,500,000; rice, 1,150,000; plantains, 1,350,000; and corn, 910,000. Sweet potatoes, peanuts, and in the northern districts, millet, sorghum, and hungry rice (fonio) are also grown. Vegetable and melon production in 2004 amounted to 633,910 tons, consisting mostly of eggplant, fresh tomatoes, cabbage, okra, peppers, and shallots. The government sought during the 1970s to reduce or eliminate rice imports, but in 2004, 868,321 tons were imported. The economic decline during the 1980s coupled with high population growth has necessitated the modernization of agricultural production, with less dependence on coffee and cocoa. When cocoa and coffee prices were booming from the late 1960s until the early 1980s, the government profited by paying the farmers only a fraction of the money earned from the export of the crops.

However, they remain the principal cash crops and together provide about 45% of the country's export earnings. Côte d'Ivoire is Africa's leading producer of coffee, which is grown in the southern and central parts of the country, almost entirely on smallholdings. Coffee production reached a peak of 367,000 tons in 1981 and then declined because of drought and bush fires; in 2004 the total was only 159,769 tons. Cocoa production has increased markedly since the early 1970s; it is now the nation's leading cash crop, and Côte d'Ivoire is the world's leading producer, accounting for 37% of world production in 2004. Output rose from 379,000 tons in 1980 to 1,331,494 tons in 2004, in part because of the use of high-yield plants and improvement in planting methods and upkeep.

Banana production (252,423 tons in 2004) fluctuates from year to year because of climatic conditions; exports in 2004 were 227,225 tons. Production of pineapples in that year was 176,917 tons; palm oil, 292,278 tons; and palm kernels, 50,248 tons. Rubber plantations yielded 136,872 tons, and cotton production reached 300,000 tons of seed cotton, and 152,000 tons of cotton fiber. Coconut production was 240,000 tons in 2004.

Six sugar complexes were established in the 1970s and early 1980s. These met domestic demand and provided an export surplus of over 60,000 tons of raw sugar in 1982, but the cost of production far exceeded the world market price and two complexes were converted to rice plantations. Production of sugarcane was about 930,000 tons in 2004.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Much of the country lies within tsetse-infested areas, and cattle are therefore concentrated in the more northerly districts. In 2004 there were an estimated 1,460,000 head of cattle (compared with 383,000 in 1968), 1,192,000 goats, 1,523,000 sheep, and 342,700 hogs. There are 33 million chickens; 31,214 tons of eggs were produced in 2004. Milk production is small and there are no processing facilities so the milk is consumed fresh; production in 2004 was 25,912 tons.

In 2004, meat productions included (in tons): beef, 52,200; poultry, 69,300; pork, 11,760; and sheep and goat, 9,429. Nomadic production accounts for around half of cattle herds and is mainly undertaken by non-Ivoirian herders. Settled herders are concentrated in the dry north, mainly in Korhogo, Ferkessedougon, Bouna, Boundali, Odienne, and Dabakala. Sheep and goat rearing is a secondary activity for many herders. Pork production is periodically affected by African swine fever; potential increases are limited by the fact that Muslims account for 40% of the population.

FISHING

In 1964 a modern fishing wharf was opened at Abidjan, which is Africa's largest tuna fishing port, handling about 100,000 tons of tuna each year. There are fish hatcheries in Bouaké, Bamoro, and Korhogo. Commercial fishing for tuna is carried on in the Gulf of Guinea; sardines are also caught in quantity. The total catch was 71,841 tons in 2004, with commercial fishing accounting for 25%; artisanal fishing, 74%; and aquaculture, 1%.

FORESTRY

There are three types of forest in Côte d'Ivoire: rain forest, deciduous forest, and the secondary forest of the savanna region. Total forest area in 2000 was 7,117,000 hectares (17,586,000 acres); the natural rain forest constitutes the main forest area, as only 184,000 hectares (455,000 acres) are planted forests. In 1983, the government acknowledged that the nation's forest area, which totaled approximately 16 million hectares (40 million acres) at independence in 1960, had dwindled to about 4 million hectares (10 million acres). However, the deforestation rate still averaged 3.1% during 1990–2000. The lingering political instability since the outbreak of hostilities in 2002 has contributed to illegal logging and increased deforestation.

The forested area is divided into two zones, the Permanent Domain (PD) and the Rural Domain (RD). The PD consists of classified forests, national parks, and forest areas. This includes major forested areas made up of 231 classified forest areas, 9 national parks and 3 forest reserves, 7 semiclassified forests, and 51 unclassified forests. The total area of the national parks and reserves is 1,959,203 hectares (4,841,191 acres). Forest exploitation activities are prohibited in the classified forest areas, which cover an estimated 4,196,000 hectares (10,368,000 acres). However, for maintenance purposes, limited logging is permitted occasionally in classified forests, which amounted to 148,271 cu m in 2003. These forests are spread throughout the country in three zones: 31.8% in the humid dense forest in the south, 30.5% in the semi-deciduous forests of central Côte d'Ivoire, and 33.7% in the savannah forests in the north. The RD, where logging is permitted, covers 66% of the total land area of Côte d'Ivoire. However, the effective area for forestry production is estimated at 2.9 million hectares (7.2 million acres).

In 2003, forest products accounted for $269 million in export value, providing the third most important source of foreign revenue after cocoa and petroleum products. The major export markets were Italy, Spain, Germany, France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, India, Ireland, Senegal, and Morocco. The total 2003 roundwood harvest was 11,615,000 cu m (410,010,000 cu ft). Tropical hardwood production primarily consists of logs, 70%; lumber, 20%; and veneer and plywood, 10%. At one time, mahogany was the only wood exploited, but now more than 25 different types of wood are utilized commercially. The major species planted are teak, frake, framire, pine, samba, cedar, gmelina, niangon, and bete. The increasing scarcity of forest resources is adversely impacting value-added industries, leaving lumber and veneer production in a steady state of decline.

MINING

Minerals represented a minor component of the economy, of which petroleum was a leading industry. All mineral rights were vested in the state, the Ministère des Ressources Minières et Pétrolières was responsible for administering the sector, and prospecting and mining were subject to control of the state-owned Société d'Etat pour le Développment Minier de la Côte d'Ivoire (SODEMI). Mineral commodities were estimated to account for 10% of the country's exports, excluding the value of smuggled gold and diamonds; the government was planning to implement a diamond certification scheme to respond to worldwide concerns over conflict diamonds. Diamond output in 2004 was estimated at 230,000 carats, unchanged from 2003, but down from the 306,500 carats produced in 2002. Although kimberlites were known to exist at Kanangone, Seguela, and Tortiya, diamonds were produced only from alluvial deposits at Tortiya and Seguela. Gold production in 2004 was 1,219 kg, compared to 1,313 Kg in 2003. The Agbaou gold permit's resources were more than 26,000 kg. A number of foreign companies had gold interests in Côte d'Ivoire, among them a French consortium that in 1991 began to exploit a mine estimated to contain 500,000 tons of gold ore with a content of 7 grams of gold per ton. Tantalite production was estimated at 400 kg in 2004. Côte d'Ivoire in 2004 also produced cement, columbite, gravel and crushed rock, and sand. The production of building materials was a leading industry in the country.

The country's total iron ore resource was estimated to be 3,000 million tons, with deposits at Monogaga, Mount Gao, Mount Klahoyo, Mount Nimba, Mount Segaye, Mount Tia, and Mount Tortro; poor infrastructure has hampered development of these resources. There has been recent interest in constructing a gas pipeline to service an iron ore pelletizing plant onsite, and the government has been actively pursuing a project to build a 500 km railway that would connect Mount Nimba and the San Pedro port. Falconbridge Ltd. of Canada continued evaluation of its Touba-Biankouma license, whose laterite deposit of nickel and cobalt was estimated to be 292 million tons of ore at a grade of 1.46% nickel and 0.11% cobalt. Ilmenite fields containing an estimated 500,000 tons of the rare metal have been discovered near Grand Lahou. Copper, titanium, chromite, bauxite, and asphalt were among other known minerals not yet exploited commercially. In 2001, Côte d'Ivoire agreed with six West African countries to form a free-trade zone to expand economic and infrastructural development. Despite the 1999 military coup and continuing civil unrest in 2001, Côte d'Ivoire's 8,000 paved roads and two active ports made it attractive for business

ENERGY AND POWER

Côte d'Ivoire has become in recent years an important supplier of energy to the sub-Saharan region as a result of its reserves of natural gas, excess electrical generating capacity, and recent offshore finds of oil and natural gas.

Offshore oil was discovered in 1977, with production starting three years later. The bulk of the country's oil and gas wells, (86%), are situated in shallow marine areas, with another 7% located in deep offshore wells. Only 7% of the country's oil and gas wells are onshore. Estimates by the Oil and Gas Journal have placed the country's proven petroleum reserves at 100 million barrels, as of 1 January 2005. Production for 2004 was estimated at 35,541 barrels per day, with crude oil accounting for 35,000 barrels per day. However, recent finds and new production at several offshore fields and blocks may push the nation's proven reserves and output totals higher. For example, the Espoir field, which began producing in early 2002, is estimated to contain recoverable reserves of 93 million barrels of oil and 180 billion cubic feet of gas. Also, Block CI-40, which is jointly operated by Canadian Natural Resources, Svenska Petroleum and the state oil corporation, Société Nationale d'Opérations Pétrolières de la Côte d'Ivoire (Petroci), and which lies 5 miles to the south of the Espoir field, is estimated to have recoverable oil reserves of 200 million barrels. In Block CI-112, located off Côte d'Ivoire's western coast, is estimated by Vanco Energy Company to contain 2.7 billion barrels of oil in the block's San Pedro ridge and in other deposits.

Although natural gas was initially discovered in Côte d'Ivoire in the 1980s, it has only been recently developed As of 1 January 2005, the country is estimated to have of natural gas reserves of 1.00 trillion cu ft. In 2003, natural gas output and domestic consumption were each estimated at 46 billion cu ft.

Côte d'Ivoire's oil and gas industry is managed by Petroci. Founded in 1975, Petroci was restructured in 1998 into a holding company, Petroci Holding, with three subsidiaries: Petroci Exploration-Production which handles upstream gas and oil activities; Petroci Gaz, which is responsible for the natural gas sector; and Petroci Industries-Services which manages all other related services. Petroci Holding manages the three subsidiaries as well as the country's holdings in the gas and oil sectors.

Côte d'Ivoire uses hydroelectric and thermal generating facilities to provide all of its electrical power. As of 1 January 2002, the country's generating capacity stood at an estimated 0.90 million kW. Although hydropower accounts for around two-thirds of its generating capacity, it accounts for less than half of the power generated. In 2002, an estimated 4.8 billion kWh of electric power was generated, of which 38% was hydroelectric and 62% thermal. Gas powered stations alone generated more than half of the total power produced The use of natural gas fueled power stations has also made Côte d'Ivoire into an exporter of electricity. In 2002, exports of electricity to neighboring countries totaled 1.6 billion kWh. Benin, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Togo are among the countries connected to Côte d'Ivoire's power grid. Domestic consumption of electric power in 2002 is reported to total 3.109 billion kWh. Compangnie Ivoirienne d'Electriciti (CIE) is the sole supplier of power, and manages, not only the government-owned generating plants, but also the transmission and distribution of power. Although official estimates place the percentage of people living in urban areas that have access to electricity at 77%, less than 15% of those living in rural areas have such access. Rural electrification has become a major priority with the government.

INDUSTRY

Côte d'Ivoire's industrial activity is substantial by African standards. It accounted for 29% of GDP in 2000. The development of processing industries, especially in the Abidjan region, has been significant. Bouaké has become a large industrial center, and numerous thriving industries have been built up in the forest zone of the southern coastal region. These include palm oil mills, soap factories, a flour mill, fruit canning factories, a tuna canning factory, breweries, beer and soft drink plants, rubber processing plants, sugar mills, cotton ginning plants, and coffee- and cocoabean processing plants. The chemical and lubricant industries are also significant. In 1998, industrial GDP grew 12% with increased capacity utilization and plant expansion and renovation. Exports of light manufactured goods had increased by 2002.

The lumber industry, producing largely for export, included plywood factories and numerous sawmills. The construction materials industry, comprised of brick works, quarries, and cement plants, experienced an approximate 25% growth rate from 1996 to 1999. The Abidjan airport was completely renovated in 2001, and there are plans to expand the Port of Abidjan.

Recoverable oil reserves in the country amount to 100 million barrels. Petroleum products account for more than 11% of export earnings. The oil refinery at Abidjan produces enough refined petroleum products for the country to be self-sufficient in them. Côte d'Ivoire is known more as an oil-refining country than an oil-producing one. The Abidjan refinery was scheduled for privatization by 2000. Recoverable gas reserves amount to 1.1 trillion cubic feet (Tcf), and the country is destined to become a gas exporter.

Cotton production is expanding in the north of the country, and a thriving textile industry has developed around it, including such activities as ginning, spinning, weaving, and printing.

The civil war that began in 2002 inhibited growth in all sectors, from large industry in Abidjan to small artisan work. Fighting prevented raw materials from the north of the country to make their way to businesses and ports in the south.

In 2004, industry made up 19.4% of the economy, agriculture, 27.8%, and services, 52.8%. Most (68%) of the 6.7 million laborable population was employed by the agricultural sector. Côte d'Ivoire continues to be one of the most industrialized sub-Saharan countries, but the precarious political situation prevents the country from exploiting this position fully.

Country	Exports	Imports	Balance
World	5,493.4	3,536.3	1,957.1
France-Monaco	1,047.0	1,152.6	-105.6
Netherlands	974.3	117.2	857.1
United States	389.3	114.1	275.2
Spain	309.5	82.8	226.7
Italy-San Marino-Holy See	188.4	111.3	77.1
United Kingdom	169.1	247.6	-78.5
Nigeria	164.4	509.8	-345.4
Belgium	147.1	80.2	66.9
Equatorial Guinea	130.9	…	130.9
Ghana	124.4	…	124.4
(…) data not available or not significant.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Scientific institutes in Côte d'Ivoire conduct research in such fields as tropical forestry, livestock and veterinary medicine, cotton and tropical textiles, coffee, cocoa, oils, rubber, savanna food crops, and citrus fruits. The French Institute of Scientific Research for Cooperative Development, founded in 1946, has a center in Abidjan and extensions in Bouaké and Man. The National University of Côte d'Ivoire in Abidjan includes faculties of sciences, medicine, and pharmacy; and an institute of renewable energy. A technical school in Bingerville offers training in electrical engineering, and a teachers' training college at Yamoussoukro includes schools of industrial technology and engineering. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 31% of college and university enrollments.

In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $27 million, accounting for 3% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

European firms play an important part in the economy, and the French and Lebanese population has a strong influence in importing and marketing decisions. They buy and export lumber, coffee, cocoa, and palm oil products and import capital and consumer goods. Most European firms have their headquarters in Abidjan; many are also represented in Bouaké. In Abidjan and Bouaké there are specialty shops in such lines as dry goods, foodstuffs, hardware, electrical appliances, and consumer electronics. In the smaller towns of the interior, bazaars and individual merchants and peddlers deal in locally grown products and a few imported items.

Domestic trade is generally on a cash basis, but in the countryside, bartering is common. Many shopkeepers extend credit to farmers until the end of the harvest season. Major credit cards are not generally accepted. Installment purchase has been introduced for automobiles and major appliances. Prices and profit margins are regulated by the government for basic food products, many imported goods, and certain services.

Business hours are generally from 8 am to noon and from 3 to 6 pm, Monday through Friday, and some businesses are open on Saturday. Banks are normally open on weekdays from 8 to 11:30 am and 2:30 to 4:30 pm. Many businesses close during the month of August for vacation.

FOREIGN TRADE

Côte d'Ivoire has generally enjoyed a positive trade balance since independence. Cocoa is Côte d'Ivoire's largest export commodity (28%), cornering over a quarter of the world's exports in the market (26%). The country also exports wood (7.5%), coffee (8.4%), fruits and nuts (4.7%), fish (3.6%), and cotton (4.1%). Côte d'Ivoire's exports go to France, the Netherlands, and the United States.

In 2004, exports reached $5.1 billion (FOB—free on board), while imports grew to $3.4 billion (FOB). The bulk of exports went to the United States (11.6%), the Netherlands (10.3%), France (9.5%), Italy (5.5%), Belgium (4.7%), and Germany (4.7%). Imports included fuel, capital equipment, and foodstuffs, and mainly came from France (24.3%), Nigeria (19.2%), and the United Kingdom (4%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Côte d'Ivoire's exports have diversified over the years, ranging from a reliance on cocoa, coffee, and other tropical agricultural products, to new growth in exports of light manufactured goods, petroleum products, and electricity. The success of these exports has led to a positive foreign trade balance. The country, however, has external debt service arrears in the amount of $415 million (2001). Total external debt stands at around $11 billion, approximately the same amount as annual GDP, or more than three times annual export earnings. The country also has internal debt service payments of over $2 billion, or approximately 18% of GDP.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2001 the purchasing power parity of Côte d'Ivoire's exports was $3.6

Current Account			352.8
Balance on goods		2,524.0
Imports	-3,320.0
Exports	5,844.1
Balance on services		-1,015.2
Balance on income		-687.1
Current transfers		-468.9
Capital Account			5.5
Financial Account			-1,099.2
Direct investment abroad		…
Direct investment in Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)		179.9
Portfolio investment assets		-35.0
Portfolio investment liabilities		52.1
Financial derivatives		…
Other investment assets		-413.0
Other investment liabilities		-883.1
Net Errors and Omissions			-17.1
Reserves and Related Items			757.9
(…) data not available or not significant.

billion while imports totaled $2.4 billion resulting in a trade surplus of $1.2 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Côte d'Ivoire had exports of goods totaling $3.95 billion and imports totaling $2.41 billion. The services credit totaled $487 million and debit $1.23 billion.

Exports of goods and services reached $6.9 billion (FOB—free on board) in 2004, up from $5.8 billion (FOB) in 2003. Imports grew from $3.2 billion in 2003, to $4.2 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently positive in both years, hovering at around $2.6 billion. The current account balance was also positive, slightly improving from $295 million in 2003, to $303 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (excluding gold) grew to $1.7 billion in 2004, covering almost five months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Côte d'Ivoire is a part of the Communaute Financiere Africaine, in particular, the Union Economique et Monetaire de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (UEMOA). The central bank for all UEMOA members is the Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (BCEAO) in Dakar. CFA francs (Communauté Financière Africaine francs), are guaranteed by France at a rate of 100:1 without limitation. There are 15 commercial banks in Côte d'Ivoire. These include SGBCI, BIAO, BOCICI, SIB, Citibank, Paribas, BHCI, Ecobank, Bank of Africa, and HSBC Equator Bank. The African Development Bank is headquartered in Abidjan.

In late 1996, the Banque internationale pour le commerce et l'industrie de la Côte d'Ivoire (BICICI) forecast growth of 7.3% for 1996. Banking activity had followed the improving national economic environment. BICICI expected credit in the economy to rise by 4.3% in 1996, and money supply by 20%, marked by further substantial growth in household savings.

Public credit institutions provide credit to farmers and agricultural cooperatives, mortgages and personal loans, real estate financing, and loans to small industries. The Ivoirian Industrial Development Bank was inaugurated in 1965 to provide medium- and long-term credit for industrial projects. The National Agricultural Development Bank, created in 1968, extends loans to the agricultural community. The National Bank for Savings and Credit is the state savings institution.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $1.8 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $2.5 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.95%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6.5%.

As of 2004, a total of 39 companies were listed on the West African Stock Exchange. Total market capitalization as of that year was $2.083 billion. As of that same year, the BRVM Composite Index rose 17.1% from the previous year to 87.6.

INSURANCE

There were over 30 insurance companies in Abidjan in 1999. Domestic companies accounted for almost 80% of the business. Third-party motor liability insurance is compulsory. In 2002, all direct premiums written totaled $162 million, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $109 million. In 2000 (the latest year for which data was available), AXA was the country's top nonlife insurer, with $16.5 million of nonlife premiums written. In that same year, Groupama Vie was the leading life insurer, with $14.2 million in gross premiums written.

PUBLIC FINANCE

In the first quarter of 1999, the government admitted to a budget shortfall of $125 million, which it explained as a loss of import duties and tax and customs fraud. The government has been accused repeatedly of corrupt practices and mismanagement of public revenues, including extra-budgetary spending. The government began a privatization program in 1990 that had succeeded in selling 56 out of 60 chosen national enterprises by 1999.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Côte d'Ivoire's central government took in revenues of approximately $2.4 billion and had expenditures of $2.8 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$396 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 70.4% of GDP. Total external debt was $13.26 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were CFA Fr1,375.3 billion and expenditures were CFA Fr1,297.3 billion. The value of revenues US dollars was us$2 million, based on a official exchange rate for 2001 of us$1 = CFA Fr711.98 as reported by the IMF.

TAXATION

From the end of May 2001, as some order was restored after the coup attempt in January, the government began instituting and planning reforms in tax structure and tax administration under the guidance of the IMF and the World Bank. The government wrote off tax arrears from prior to 1992 amounting to about €460 million. Most domestic state revenues come from indirect taxes

Revenue and Grants	1,375.3	100.0%
Tax revenue	1,172.8	85.3%
Social contributions	114.2	8.3%
Grants	40.3	2.9%
Other revenue	48	3.5%
Expenditures	1,297.3	100.0%
General public services	…	…
Defense	…	…
Public order and safety	…	…
Economic affairs	…	…
Environmental protection	…	…
Housing and community amenities	…	…
Health	…	…
Recreational, culture, and religion	…	…
Education	…	…
Social protection	…	…
(…) data not available or not significant.

on imports and exports, and on consumer products, and from business taxes. In 2002 the minimum 5% customs duty on all imports was extended.

The Côte d'Ivoire divides income into five categories according to its source-industrial and commercial profits, salaries and wages, marketable securities, land, and noncommercial profits. Each type is subject to its own specific tax. Individuals are taxed on their total income from all categories under the progressive Gen. Income Tax (IGR), which takes into account the number and type of persons in the taxpayer's household.

Companies pay a tax for Industrial and Commercial Benefits (BIC) at a rate of 35% of profits, with a 0.5% minimum rate on turnover. Water, oil, and electricity producers are subject to a minimum 0.1% rate. Individually-owned companies pay 25%. The tax on capital gains is included in the corporate tax. The New Code for Investments of 1995 offers programs of tax holidays, exemptions and reductions as incentives for foreign investment. Subsidiaries of foreign corporations are subject to withholding tax of 12% (18% if the profit is exempt from corporate tax). The withholding tax on income from royalties is 20% and from interest, 18%. Dividends to nonresidents are subject to 18% withholding, but this may be reduced to 10% or 12%. All withholding taxes may be reduced or eliminated by the terms of bilateral double-taxation prevention agreements. The Côte d'Ivoire has double-tax treaties with about 20 countries, the United States not included among them. There is a real estate tax and a tax on capital gains from securities. Otherwise capital and capital gains are not taxed.

The main indirect tax is the value-added tax (VAT), which, as of 2 July 2001, was set at the unified rate of 20% with the abolition of the reduced rate of 11%. Supplies to ships and aircraft are exempt from VAT. Also levied is a tax on service provided (TSP) of 10% on certain financial and other services, a business franchise tax, a petroleum products tax, a tax on automobiles (50%-100%).

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

A fiscal import duty, applied to all incoming goods regardless of origin, serves primarily as a source of revenue. A customs duty is levied on all goods coming from places other than franc zone countries. Combined, they equal a maximum of 35%. Products from franc zone countries, especially France, receive preferential customs treatment. An excise tax is levied on alcoholic beverages and tobacco; export duties and taxes are imposed on specified commodities. There is also a 20% value-added tax (VAT), and a 2.6 % statistical tax that must be paid on all declarations. All imports valued at more than CFA Fr1 million need licenses, which are issued on a quota basis. Bilateral customs agreements have been concluded with Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin, and some other countries. A 1997 agreement with UEMOA countries established a reduction of 60% customs duties manufactured and marketed in the zone.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Foreign (that is, non-French) investment was negligible until the issuance of the 1959 investment code, which eliminated all special privileges for French companies. A new investment code was adopted in 1984. To finance national investment, all businesses had to lend 10% of their profits to the government, but this loan was rebated if they reinvested twice that sum in government-approved industries. Investment incentives included tax holidays, export bonuses, duty-free imports of equipment and machinery, free repatriation of capital and profits, and tax stabilization clauses. The 1984 code was particularly intended to help small- and mediumsized enterprises, with greater incentives for firms locating outside the Abidjan area.

The New Investment Code of 1995 modified the code of 1984 to further encourage private sector investment for larger enterprises. Incentive packages were particularly aimed at attracting foreign investment in the petroleum, telecommunications, and mining sectors, which were being privatized. As a venue for foreign direct investment, Côte d'Ivoire had in its favor a well-developed infrastructure by third world standards (two ports with inland rail linkages, paved roads, advanced telecommunications facilities), a release from overwhelming external debt through the Paris Club and the HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Countries) initiative of the IMF and World Bank, and, most famously, a long record of political stability. This last was broken in the coup of 1999, a popular uprising in 2000, and a troop mutiny in March 2002.

Annual foreign direct investment (FDI) inflow fell over 43% between 1997 and 2000–2001—from about $450 million in 1997 to an average of about $256 million in 2000 and 2001. The political turmoil has created uncertainty in the private sector, which due to recent privatizations has delayed planned infrastructure improvements in the railroads, the petroleum sector, telecommunications, and electricity and water supply.

FDI has come primarily from France, which is the source of 55–60% of accumulated FDI stock. FDI flows account for 40–45% of total capital in Ivorian firms, about 25% of which is French. Other important sources of FDI include the United States (8.4% in 1997), United Kingdom (7.3%), and Benelux countries (4.6%)

The economic downturn registered in 2004 has depleted the government's cash flow, reduced the tax base, and increased the country's debt. The political turmoil that followed towards the end of that same year has seriously deteriorated the business climate and has scared away potential foreign investors.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Since independence, Côte d'Ivoire has engaged in an economic program aimed at ending its reliance on outside assistance and at achieving self-sustained growth. Its economy has remained one of the most developed on the African continent, and its religious, ethnic, and political stability was a model for other African nations. Under current conditions, however, the Côte d'Ivoire economy will remain highly vulnerable to commodity price variations and dependent upon outside assistance into the foreseeable future, a future mortgaged by its earlier levels of borrowing. Increased efforts to liberalize the economy by privatizing state-owned companies have also helped to improve economic performance, as has increased capital investment. The country's debt in 2000 was approximately $13 billion. Côte d'Ivoire hoped to become classified as a "newly industrializing country" by the year 2025. In September 2002 mutineering soldiers attempted a coup, however, and the country was divided into government-controlled and rebel-held areas. After a cease-fire was declared in January 2003 and a government of national unity was formed, President Gbagbo declared on 4 July 2003 that the civil war was over, and there were hopes that the disrupted economy would return to a state of stability.

In March 2002, Côte d'Ivoire negotiated a three-year $366 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility Arrangement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to support the government's economic program.

Although it is one of countries with the highest potential in subSaharan Africa, Côte d'Ivoire remains a country divided in two, with a fragile political situation and a lot of social tension. The cocoa industry, although largely under government control, has suffered indirectly from this conflict and prospects for the 2005–06 crop are dim. Other sectors suffered permanent damages, notably the tourism sector and the goods hauling one (with much of the trade lost to neighboring Ghana and Togo).

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance system covers all employed persons and there is a special program for civil servants. Contributions from employers and employees finance the system, and the retirement age is set at 55 years. Employed women are entitled to a maternity benefit equal to 100% of the person's last earnings for a total of 14 weeks. Work injury insurance is funded by employers at varying rates depending on the degree of risk in the job. A family allowance is available to all workers with children and there is also a birth grant and a maternity allowance.

Women play a subordinate role in society even though the constitution prohibits sex discrimination. Domestic abuse occurs frequently and is generally not reported due to the shame it brings upon the family. Women are often forced into marriage, and inheritance practices favor men. Women's advocacy groups are addressing the indifference of authorities to female victims of violent crimes. Female circumcision, also known as female genital mutilation, is illegal, but is still practiced in many areas of the country. The government took action against statutory rape of school girls by teachers, in part to combat low rates of enrollment due to teen pregnancies.

Security forces commit widespread abuses, including killings and arbitrary arrest and detention. Journalists are regularly beaten and harassed. The government restricts the freedom of press, assembly, speech, and movement.

HEALTH

The public medical services are more important than the small number of private physicians and clinics. In 2004, there were an estimated 9 physicians, 31 nurses, and 15 midwives per 100,000 people. About 77% of the population had access to safe water in 2000. Total health care expenditures were estimated at 3.7% of GDP.

Malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness, yaws, leprosy, trachoma, and meningitis are endemic. A broad program was set up in 1961 to control these and other diseases; compulsory vaccination against smallpox and yellow fever was instituted, efforts by mobile health units to track down cases and provide treatment were intensified, and general health measures were tightened both within the country and at the borders. In 1999, the country immunized children up to one year old as follows: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 62%, and measles, 62%. Malnutrition affected 24% of children under five years old.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.60 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 570,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 47,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

The high incidence of HIV/AIDS is attributed to a lack of HIV education programs.

Approximately 60% of females underwent female genital mutilation. The birth rate in 1999 was 41.8 per 1,000. The infant mortality rate in 2005 was 90.83 per 1,000 live births, and 14% of all births were classified as low weight. In 2005, average life expectancy in Côte d'Ivoire was estimated at 48.62.

HOUSING

Housing remains an issue of major concern in Côte d'Ivoire, particularly in Abidjan, which has been the focus of continued migration from rural areas. Extensive slum clearance has been carried out in the former capital, but shantytowns still persist on the outskirts. About 70% of the housing in Abidjan are habitats de cour. These consist of a series of connected living units with shared outbuildings for kitchen and sanitation services. There is generally a shared courtyard as well. It has been estimated that about 60% of the residents in Abidjan live in slum settlements. Police officers, soldiers, customs officials, top-level bureaucrats, and foreign salaried government employees receive free housing.

According to the latest available figures, the housing stock totaled nearly two million units, with about six people per dwelling. In 1990, only about 49% of the total population had access to improved sanitation systems; 65% had access to improved water systems.

EDUCATION

Education is free at all levels. Primary education lasts for six years and secondary for seven years (four years of lower secondary followed by three years of upper secondary). Secondary students might choose a seven-year technical program instead of general studies.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 61% of age-eligible students; 67% for boys and 54% for girls. In 2001, secondary school enrollment was about 19% of age-eligible students; 24% for boys and 14% for girls. It is estimated that about 51% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 11:1 in 2003. The ratio for secondary school was about 36:1 in 1995.

In 1996, the National University of Côte d'Ivoire split into three separate universities: the Université de Cocody, the Université d'Abobo-Adjamé, and the Université de Bouaké. There are other universities and institutions offering a variety of higher education programs. In 1998, there were about 97,000 students enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 48.1%, with 60.1% for men and 38.2% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.6% of GDP, or 21.5% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library, in Abidjan, was created in 1968 from the former library of the French Institute of Black Africa and has a primarily scientific collection; in 2002, it contained over 75,000 volumes. The library of the African Development Bank at Abidjan, was founded in 1970, and has 40,000 volumes. A Public Information Center of the World Bank is also located in Abidjan. Abidjan has a municipal library with 50,000 volumes, the National University library with 95,000 volumes, and several small research libraries. The French Cultural Center holds 43,000 volumes.

The Museum of Côte d'Ivoire in Abidjan features ethnological, sociological, artistic, and scientific exhibits. The Native Costume Museum was founded in 1981 in Grand Bassam. Regional museums are located in Bondoukou, Bingerville, Abengourou, Bonova, Duekoue, and Vavova. A general interest museum was founded in 1992 in Korhogo.

MEDIA

Telephone and telegraph services are government owned. In 2003, there were an estimated 14 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 3,400 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 77 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

All news media are owned or controlled by the government or the ruling PDCI. In 2002, daily newspapers included the Frenchlanguage daily Fraternité Matin, with a circulation of 80,000; Ivoir'Soir (50,000); Le Jour (16,000); and La Voie.

The government also controls radio and television broadcasting. Radio broadcasts are in French, English, and indigenous languages; television is in French only. Some international broadcasts are available, but transmission of some programming has been disrupted by the government in the past. In 1998, there were 2 AM and 9 FM radio stations, with 14 television stations reported in 1999. In 2003, there were an estimated 185 radios and 61 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 9.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 14 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were three secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

Though the constitution provides for free expression and a free press, the government is said to impose significant restrictions on print and electronic media.

ORGANIZATIONS

Chambers of commerce, industry, and agriculture have their headquarters in Abidjan, including the National Federation of Industry of Côte d'Ivoire. The International Labour Organization Regional Office for Africa is also in Abidjan. There are a number of employers' associations and agricultural producers' cooperatives. Some multinational trade and professional organizations are based in the country, including the Inter-African Coffee Organization and the African Union of Sports Medicine. A consumer cooperative also functions.

The African Music Rostrum, also based in Abidjan, is a multinational cultural organization to promote African musical arts.

Côte d'Ivoire has many clubs devoted to various sports. There are at least three scouting organizations and several other youth organizations are active, many of which are related to religious organizations.

Amnesty International has chapters within the country. There are also national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Caritas, UNICEF, the Society of St. Vincent De Paul, and Habitat for Humanity.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Due to political unrest, the small tourism industry has declined since 2002. Fine beaches, specially built tourist villages, and photo safaris through the wildlife preserves are the principal attractions.

Passports are required, but visas are not for stays of up to 90 days. A vaccination certificate for yellow fever is needed from all foreign visitors.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Abidjan at $241 per day, and in Yamoussoukro, $218.

FAMOUS IVOIRIANS

Queen Abla Pokou (b.1720), the legendary heroine of the Baoulé people, led them to Côte d'Ivoire from the territory that is now Ghana. Félix Houphouët-Boigny (1905–1993) was the first African to be a French Cabinet minister (1956–69); he was elected as Côte d'Ivoire's first president in 1960 and was continually reelected until his death. Henri Konan-Bédié (b.1933) became president in 1993, a post he held until his ouster in a military coup in 2000 led by Robert Guéï. Laurent Koudou Gbagbo (b.1945) defeated Guéï in presidential elections held later in 2000. The nation's outstanding literary figure, Bernard Binlin Dadié (b.1916), is known abroad for several volumes of poetry and a novel; he has held many government posts, including minister of cultural affairs from 1977–86.

DEPENDENCIES

Côte d'Ivoire has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dun and Bradstreet's Export Guide to Côte d'Ivoire. Parsippany, N.J.: Dun and Bradstreet, 1999.

Kamoche, Ken M. (ed.). Managing Human Resources in Africa. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Mundt, Robert J. Historical Dictionary of the Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire). 2nd ed. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995.

——. Historical Dictionary of the Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire). Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Rapley, John. Ivoirien Capitalism: African Entrepreneurs in Côte d'Ivoire. Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner Publishers, 1993.

Schneider, Hartmut. Adjustment and Equity in Côte d'Ivoire. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1992.

Sheehan, Patricia. Côte d'Ivoire = Ivory Coast. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2000. [Juvenile]

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.