Benin

BENIN

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENVIRONMENT
POPULATION
MIGRATION
ETHNIC GROUPS
LANGUAGES
RELIGIONS
TRANSPORTATION
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL PARTIES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
ARMED FORCES
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ECONOMY
INCOME
LABOR
AGRICULTURE
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
FISHING
FORESTRY
MINING
ENERGY AND POWER
INDUSTRY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DOMESTIC TRADE
FOREIGN TRADE
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
INSURANCE
PUBLIC FINANCE
TAXATION
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH
HOUSING
EDUCATION
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
MEDIA
ORGANIZATIONS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FAMOUS BENINESE
DEPENDENCIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Republic of Benin

République du Bénin

CAPITAL: Porto-Novo

FLAG: Two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side.

ANTHEM: L'Aube Nouvelle (The New Dawn).

MONETARY UNIT: The Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr), which was originally pegged to the French franc, has been pegged to the euro since January 1999 with a rate of 655.957 CFA francs to 1 euro. The CFA franc has coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 CFA francs, and notes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 CFA francs. CFA Fr1 = $0.00208 (or $1 = CFA Fr480.56) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Anniversary of Mercenary Attack on Cotonou, 16 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 1 August; Armed Forces Day, 26 October; National Day, 30 November; Harvest Day, 31 December. Most religious holidays have been abolished, but Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas, 'Id al-Fitr, and Id al-'Adha' remain public holidays.

TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

The People's Republic of Benin (formerly Dahomey) is situated in West Africa on the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea, and has an area of 112,620 sq km (43,483 sq mi), extending 665 km (413 mi) n–s and 333 km (207 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Benin is slightly smaller than the state of Pennsylvania. Roughly wedge-shaped, Benin is bounded on then by Niger, on the e by Nigeria, on the s by the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean), on the w by Togo, and on the nw by Burkina Faso, with a total boundary length of 1,989 km (1,233 mi). The capital city of Benin, Porto-Novo, is located in the southeastern corner of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Difficult to access because of sandbanks, the coast has no natural harbors, river mouths, or islands. Behind the coastline is a network of lagoons, from that of Grand Popo on the Togo border (navigable at all seasons) and joined to Lake Ahémé, to that of Porto-Novo on the east, into which flows Benin's longest river, the Ouémé, navigable for some 200 km (125 mi) of its total of 459 km (285 mi). Besides the Ouémé, the only other major river in the south is the Kouffo, which flows into Lake Ahémé. Lake Ahémé is the largest lake in the country with an area of 100 sq km (39 sq mi). The Mono, serving from Parahoué to Grand Popo as the boundary with Togo, is navigable for 100 km (62 mi) but subject to torrential floods in the rainy season. Benin's northern rivers, the Mékrou, Alibori, and Sota, which are tributaries of the Niger, and the Pandjari, a tributary of the Volta, are torrential and broken by rocks.

North of the narrow belt of coastal sand is a region of lateritic clay, the main oil palm area, intersected by a marshy depression between Allada and Abomey that stretches east to the Nigerian frontier. North of the hills of Dassa, the height ranges from 60 to 150 m (200–500 ft), broken only by the Atakora Mountains (Chaine de L'Atakoria), stretching in a southwesterly direction into Togo.

CLIMATE

South of Savalou, especially in the west, the climate is typically equatorial—hot and humid, with a long dry season from December to March, in which the dry harmattan blows in a northeasterly to southwesterly direction. Temperatures range between 22°c (72°f) and 35°c (95°f), with the average 27°c (81°f). The great rains fall from March to July; there is a short dry season from July to September and a short wet season from mid-September to mid-November. In the southwest, average rainfall is considerably lower and the dry season longer: at Grand Popo, for example, average rainfall is about 82 cm (32 in) as compared with about 127 cm (50 in) in Porto-Novo and Cotonou. Northern Benin has only one wet season (May to September, with most rain in August) and a hot dry season in which the harmattan blows for three or four months. Temperatures range from a maximum of 40°c (104°f) in January to a minimum of 13°c (56°f) in June.

Although rainfall, which is highest in central Benin (135 cm/53 in), decreases as one moves northward, it remains high (97 cm/38 in) in most of northern Benin. In the southwest region, average rainfall drops to 82 cm (32 in) per year. This region is sometimes referred to as the "Benin window." The uncharacteristically low level of precipitation here is attributed to the destruction of native rain forest, which in turn caused a decrease in the evaporation of moisture into the air, resulting in fewer convection rains.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Apart from small isolated patches, little true forest remains. The coconut plantations of the coastal strip give way to oil palms and ronier palms growing as far north as Abomey; these are in turn succeeded by savanna woodland, in which the vegetation of the Guinea forest and the vegetation of the southern Sudan are intermingled, and then by characteristic Sudanic savanna. Trees include coconut, oil palm, ronier palm, ebony, shea nut, kapok, fromager, and Senegal mahogany.

Among the mammals in Benin are the elephant, lion, panther, monkey, and wild pig, as well as many kinds of antelope. Crocodiles and many species of snakes (including python, puff adder, and mamba) are widely distributed. Partridge, guinea fowl, and wild duck, as well as many kinds of tropical birds, are common. Insects include varieties of tsetse fly and other vectors of epidemic disease.

ENVIRONMENT

Benin has two national parks and several game reserves. In addition, the government has set aside 5,900 hectares (14,580 acres) for nurseries to foster reforestation. As of 2000, 6.9% of Benin's natural areas were protected. Among the government organizations with responsibility for the environment are the National Commission for Combating Pollution and for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment, which is under the Ministry of Public Health, and the Ministry of Rural Development and Cooperative Action.

The main environmental issues facing the people of Benin are desertification, deforestation, wildlife endangerment, and water pollution. The spread of the desert into agricultural lands in the north is accelerated by regular droughts. Benin has also lost 59% of its forests from uncontrolled agricultural practices and fires. Between 1983 and 1993 alone, forest and woodland was reduced by 12%. For the period between 1990–1995, deforestation occurred at an average rate of 1.25% per year. Benin has 10.3 cu km of renewable water resources. About 74% of the city dwellers and 55% of rural residents have access to safe drinking water.

Factors which contribute to the endangerment of the wildlife in Benin are the same as those which threaten the forests. As of 2002, there were at least 188 species of mammals, 112 species of birds, and over 2,500 species of plants. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 6 types of mammals, 2 species of birds, 1 type of reptile, 8 species of fish, and 14 species of plants. Threatened species include the cheetah, the sandbar shark, the green turtle, and the roan antelope.

POPULATION

The population of Benin in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 8,439,000, which placed it at number 89 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 44% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.9%. The government has been encouraged by international organizations to implement programs to reduce population growth and to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. The number of AIDS orphans grew from 22,000 in 1999 to 34,000 in 2003. The projected population for the year 2025 was 14,254,000. The population density was 75 per sq km (194 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 40% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 4.11%. The capital city, Porto-Novo, had a population of 238,000 in that year. Cotonou, the administrative and economic center and port, had a population of about 734,600. Other important towns are Abomey, Ouidah, and Parakou.

MIGRATION

Seasonal labor migration to both Nigeria and Ghana is considerable and of long duration, but estimates of its extent are not available. In 1995, there were 70,000 refugees from Togo in Benin. In June 1998, Benin and Burkina Faso became the first African countries to take in refugees approved by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for resettlement. The total number of migrants living in Benin in 2000 was 101,000.

The total number of refugees living in Benin in 2004 was 5,855. The net migration rate for 2005 was estimated as zero. Worker remittances totaled $101 million in 2003.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The population of Benin is 99% African. However, even though several of the larger groups in southern Benin are culturally and socially closely related, Benin is not ethnically or linguistically homogeneous, and there is a particularly marked division between the peoples of the south and those of the north. The largest ethnic group is that of the Fon or Dahomeyans (about 25%), the closely related Adja (about 6%), and the Aizo (about 5%), who live in the south of the country and are predominantly farmers. The Goun (about 11%), who are related to the Adja, are concentrated around Porto-Novo. The Bariba (about 12%) are the dominant people in northeast Benin. The Yoruba (more than 12%), essentially a farming people, came from Nigeria and are settled along the southeastern boundary of the country. In the northeast, the Somba (more than 4%) subdivide into a number of distinct groups. The Fulani (about 6%), traditionally nomadic herders, gradually are becoming sedentary. Other groups include the Holli, the Dendi, the Mina, and the Pilapila (or Yowa). The remaining 1% of the population is largely European, numbering about 5,500 in 2005.

LANGUAGES

The official language is French. However, many African languages are spoken. Fon and Yoruba are the most important in southern Benin. In the north there are at least six major tribal languages, including Bariba (a subgroup of the Voltaic group in which the Mossi language is most important) and Fulani.

RELIGIONS

An estimated 50% of the population follow traditional African religions. Even some who identify themselves as Christian or Muslim are likely to observe some traditional indigenous customs as well. The most common indigenous religion is Vodoun. Vodoun spread to the Americas with slavery and later became a source for African-inspired religions such as Santeria (in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean), voodoo (in Haiti), and Candomble (in Brazil). The Vodoun religion is based on a belief in one supreme being who rules over a number of lesser deities, spirits, and saints.

About 30% of the population are nominally Christian, with a majority belonging to the Roman Catholic church. Other denominations include Methodists, Baptist, Assemblies of God, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints, Celestial Christians, Seventh-Day Adventists, Rosicrucians, the Unification Church, Eckankar, and the Baha'i faith. About 20% of the population are Sunni Muslim.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. There is no state sponsored religion. Certain Christian and Muslim holidays are officially observed, along with one traditional indigenous holiday. An Ecumenical Day is celebrated in Ouidah each year on the first Wednesday of May.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2004, Benin had 578 km (359 mi) of narrow-gauge railroad. The Benin-Niger Joint Railway and Transport Organization, a public corporation, operates the passenger and freight railroad. The main line runs north from Cotonou to Parakou, with a branch to Segboroué in the west. The eastern line runs from Cotonou to Porto-Novo and Pobé.

Of Benin's 6,787 km (4,217 mi) of roads (excluding tracks) in 2002, only about 1,357 km (843 mi) are paved. The major roads are the coastal highway linking Benin with Lagos in Nigeria and Lomé in Togo; the road from Cotonou to Parakou (terminus of the railroad) and its extension via Kandi to Malanville on the Niger River; and the road north from Tchaourou that links Benin with Burkina Faso. In 2003, Benin had about 9,400 passenger cars and 14,900 commercial vehicles.

As of 2004, Benin had only 150 km of navigable waterways, which consisted of its portion of the River Niger, which forms the country's northern border. Regular transportation services from Parakou to Malanville and thence to Niamey (in Niger), either by road or, in the season when the Niger River is navigable, by river steamer, are important for the movement of produce to and from Niger via Cotonou, Benin's one port. Until 1965, the port was serviced by a wharf built in 1891. In 1965, a new deepwater port, constructed with French and European Development Fund assistance and capable of handling 1 million tons annually, was opened. In the mid-1980s, the port was expanded to handle 3 million tons a year. Landlocked Niger has a free zone in the port area of Cotonou. Because of overcrowded conditions at the port of Lagos, Cotonou has served as a relief channel for goods destined for Nigeria. It also serves as the chief port for Niger. There is boat traffic on the lagoons between Porto-Novo and Lagos, Nigeria, as well as on the rivers. Benin has no merchant marine.

In 2004, there were five airports, only one of which (as of 2005) had a paved runway, Cadjehoun Airport. Located at Cotonou, Cadjehoun Airport, has direct international jet service to Accra, Niamey, Monrovia, Lagos, Ouagadougou, Lomé, and Douala, as well as connections to other West African cities. Direct services also link Cotonou to Paris. International airlines include UTA and Air Afrique. There is a major airport at Parakou, and airfields of lesser importance at Natitingou, Kandi, and Abomey. Transports Aériens du Bénin (TAB), offering domestic services to Parakou, Natitingou, Djougou, Savé, and Kandi, and abroad to Lagos, Lomé, Ouagadougou, and Niamey, was founded in 1978. Benin also has a share in Air Afrique. In 2003, a total of about 46,000 passengers flew on domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Benin (formerly Dahomey) has no geographical or historical unity and owes its frontiers to Anglo-French rivalry in the late-19th-century partition of Africa. This is especially marked in northern Benin, whose affinities are rather with the neighboring countries of West Africa than with the peoples of the south. Southern Benin has some historical unity, owing to the existence there of several kingdoms, all traditionally related and peopled by Fon and Adja (related to the Ewe of southern Togo and southeastern Ghana). Traditionally, the kingdoms of Allada, Abomey (or Dahomey), and Adjatché (later Porto-Novo) were founded when two brothers of the king of Allada created new states, respectively, north and southeast of Allada. Abomey conquered Allada in 1724, seized the port of Ouidah in 1727, and became a famous slave-trading kingdom. At this time, women soldiers ("Amazons") were recruited by Abomey for regular service.

The Portuguese—the first Europeans to establish trading posts on the West African coast—founded the trading post of Porto-Novo on what is now the Benin coast. They were followed by English, Dutch, Spanish, and French traders as the slave trade developed. The French established posts at Ouidah and Savé in the middle of the 17th century, and the English and Portuguese also built forts nearby in the early 18th century. The Portuguese fort at Ouidah, which remained Portuguese territory until 1961, was built in 1727. French, English, and Portuguese coastal trade continued, and as Yoruba power weakened, Abomey continually raided the Yoruba and westward toward the Ashanti. Prisoners seized in these campaigns were sacrificed or exported as slaves until the latter half of the 19th century. European traders were closely controlled by the yevogan of Ouidah, the Abomey functionary stationed there, and subjected to substantial levies. It was not until the mid-19th century, with the gradual replacement of the slave trade by trade in palm oil, that European activity brought forth new developments. In 1857, the French established themselves in Grand Popo. In 1868, the French made a treaty with the king of Abomey by which they were permitted to establish a trading post at Cotonou. The British meanwhile established themselves in Lagos, which they annexed in 1861 in order to eliminate the slave trade. Anglo-French rivalry in Porto-Novo, in which successive local kings took different sides, eventually ended with a French protectorate there (1882) and British posts at various points farther west, which were abandoned by the Anglo-French agreements of 1888–89. But Abomey remained outside French control, and its levies on European trade became increasingly irksome. War between Abomey and Porto-Novo broke out in 1889 over France's rights of sovereignty to Cotonou, and Béhanzin, who succeeded to the throne of Abomey in that year, attacked the French posts there. His forces included some 2,000 Amazons. Béhanzin next attacked Porto-Novo and Grand Popo in 1891. In 1893, a French expeditionary force commanded by Dodds took Abomey, and a French protectorate was declared. Renewed hostilities were followed by Béhanzin's surrender to the French in 1894. (He died in exile in Martinique in 1906). His successor, his brother Agoli Agbo, was exiled in 1899 for misadministration, and the kingdom of Abomey finally came to an end.

From 1892 to 1898, the territory took its modern shape with the exploration and extension of French control in the north. The construction of the railroad to the north was begun in 1900. Dahomey became a component colony of the federation of French West Africa in 1904. In 1946, under the new French constitution, it was given a deputy and two senators in the French parliament, and an elected Territorial Assembly with substantial control of the budget. Under the reforms of 1956–57, the powers of the Territorial Assembly were extended, and a Council of Government elected by the Assembly was given executive control of most territorial matters. Universal adult suffrage and a single electorate were established at the same time. In September 1958, the territory accepted the French constitution proposed by General de Gaulle's government and opted for the status of an autonomous republic within the French Community, as provided by the new constitution.

On 4 December 1958, the Territorial Assembly became a national constituent assembly and the Republic of Dahomey was proclaimed a member of the French Community. On 14 February 1959, a constitution was adopted; the first Legislative Assembly was elected on 3 April. Hubert Maga, chairman of the Dahomeyan Democratic Rally, was named prime minister on 18 May 1959. On 1 August 1960, Dahomey proclaimed its complete independence, and on 25 November a new constitution, calling for a strong unitary state, was adopted. Other constitutions were adopted in 1963, 1965, 1968, and 1990.

After independence, the country suffered from extreme political instability, with military coups in 1963, 1965 (twice), 1967, 1969, and 1972. The numerous and often ingenious efforts at constitutional government, including, from 1970–72, a three-man presidential council with a rotating chairman, failed for a number of reasons. The major ones were regionalism, especially the north–south differences, and the country's poor economy; unemployment was high for the relatively large number of educated Beninese, and economic growth minimal.

The coup on 26 October 1972 established Maj. Mathieu Kérékou as the leader of a military regime. It represented a clear break with all earlier Dahomeyan administrations, introducing revolutionary changes in the political and economic life of the country. In late 1974, President Kérékou said that the national revolution would follow a Marxist-Leninist course, and the state sector was rapidly expanded by nationalization. As of 1 December 1975, the country's name was changed to the People's Republic of Benin by presidential proclamation.

On 16 January 1977, about 100 persons, including 27 Africans and 62 European mercenaries, made a poorly organized assault on Cotonou. After directing small-arms fire on the presidential palace, they departed three hours later on the DC-8 jet on which they had arrived. The government blamed "international imperialism" in general and France, Morocco, and Gabon in particular. Until 1990, the government routinely dealt with political opponents by incarcerating them—often without trial.

In 1979, a National Revolutionary Assembly was elected from the single list of candidates offered by the Party of the People's Revolution of Benin, the only legal political organization. This body elected Kérékou to a new term as president in 1980. In that year, in the course of an official visit to Libya, he converted to the Islamic faith in the presence of the Libyan leader, Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi, and accordingly took the first name Ahmed. During the visit the two countries signed a major bilateral cooperation agreement.

In February 1990, after weeks of unrest and economic disorder, Kérékou convened a National Conference of Active Forces of the Nation to discuss Benin's future. The National Conference—the first of its kind in Africa—became a public critique of Kérékou's 17 years of rule. On 2 December 1990, a new constitution was adopted by popular referendum, and Kérékou was forced to turn over power to a transitional government. Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on 10 March 1991, and runoffs on 24 March resulting in a victory by Prime Minister Nicephore Soglo. The conferees also changed the name of the country to the Republic of Benin. Referred to popularly as a "civilian coup", Benin's National Conference spawned several similar conferences throughout the continent.

Following a period of considerable tension between the executive branch and the legislature, and in the wake of protests caused by the devaluation of the CFA currency, a second National Convention of Forces of Change was held, and calls were issued for new elections to be administered by a national electoral commission. After some delay, elections were held on 28 March 1995 and were considered to be generally free and fair, although the Constitutional Court heard complaints of irregularities in April and invalidated 13 seats. New elections for those seats were scheduled for May, amid opposition complaints that Soglo's dominance of the PRB would again lead to irregularities. After the squabbling, the PRB did in fact emerge with a plurality, holding 20 seats along with 13 held by parties aligned with Soglo and the PRB. In the presidential elections that followed in 1996, Soglo was defeated by his old rival Kérékou, who won the runoff garnering 52.49% of the vote to Soglo's 47.51%. In sum, the 1990s proved quite remarkable for Benin with two transfers of presidential and legislative power freely and fairly at the ballot box, one of which marked the first successful transfer of power in Africa from a dictator to a democratically elected leader.

In the new millennium, Benin held fresh rounds of elections for president and parliament. In presidential elections on 4 and 22 March 2001, Kérékou received 45.4% of the vote to Soglo's 27.1. Adrien Houngbedji, president of the National Assembly, won 12.6%, and Bruno Amoussou, who was minister of state to Kérékou, received 8.6% of the vote. Following the first round, Soglo and Houngbedji withdrew from the second round, charging electoral fraud. Nine members of the National Autonomous Electoral Commission (CENA) and the Constitutional Court resigned after severe criticism that the election results they authorized were false. In the second round of voting, Kérékou won a landslide victory, taking 84.1% of the vote to Amoussou's 15.9%.

In December 2002 the country launched its decentralization program as three million people went to the polls to elect mayors and municipal councilors, who were previously appointed by the government. They were the first municipal and communal elections since the end of one-party rule in 1990. Soglo was elected mayor of Cotonou by its council in February 2003, and Houngbedji was elected mayor of Porto Novo. On 30 March 2003, legislative elections were won by the Presidential Movement, which took 52 of the 83 seats in the National Assembly.

As March 2006 approached, Benin once again was caught up in the fever of an election campaign. Having confirmed that he would step down after his term, President Kérékou put an end to the national debate over a constitutional review that potentially would have removed the upper age limit of 70 and allowed him to run for a third consecutive term. However, the sharp divisions in the Parliament and indeed all over the country triggered by this prospect as well as the practical difficulties of budgeting for a national referendum, caused Kérékou, who was 72 to take a decision to stand down. Former president, Niéphore Soglo, also exceeding the 70-year age limit for candidates, was ineligible to run.

Leading candidates to replace Mr. Kérékou included Bruno Amoussou of the governing coalition, Union du Bénin (UBF); Adrien Houngbédji of the PRD, and Antoine Idji Kolawolé of MADEP, who was also president of the National Assembly. Daniel Wawéma of Fard-Alafia, the leading political party in the north was also considered a front-runner. Despite his decision to step down, President Kérékou failed to endorse any candidate by early 2006.

GOVERNMENT

Maj. Mathieu Kérékou assumed the presidency after the military coup of October 1972 and ruled essentially by decree. In 1973, the National Council of the Revolution, headed by President Kérékou, became the ruling authority. The country's name was changed to the People's Republic of Benin in December 1975. The council disbanded itself in 1979 in accordance with a fundamental law it issued in 1977. The supreme authority of the state became the 336-member National Revolutionary Assembly (NRA), elected from a single list in November 1979 and June 1984. In 1984, this body was reduced to 196 members. The NRA elected the incumbent president, Mathieu Kérékou, as president on 5 February 1980 and reelected him on 31 July 1984. On 29 July 1988, the cabinet was restructured. Cabinet ministers, as well as six prefects (provincial governors) made up the National Executive Council.

The 1990 constitution enshrined multiparty elections, a unitary republic, and changed the country's name to The Republic of Benin. The 1990 constitution stipulates that the president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, reelectable only once. A directly elected National Assembly of 83 seats elected by direct universal suffrage (at age 18) has a maximum term of four years.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The political evolution of Benin since the end of World War II (1939–45) was largely outside the main currents of French West African politics and determined mainly by local factors. The leading political figures in the 1950s and 1960s were Sourou Apithy and Justin Ahomadegbé in the south and Hubert Maga in the north.

As a result of the first Legislative Assembly elections in April 1959, Apithy's Dahomeyan Republican Party (Parti Républicain du Dahomey—PRD) obtained 28 seats; Maga's Dahomeyan Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Dahoméen—RDD), 22; and Ahomadegbé's Dahomey Democratic Union (Union Démocratique Dahoméenne—UDD), 20. A coalition of the three parties took office, with Maga as prime minister. In November 1960, after losing a vote of confidence, the UDD ministers resigned, and the PRD and RDD united first in the Dahomeyan Nationalist Party (Parti des Nationalistes de Dahomey) and then in the Dahomeyan Unity Party (Parti Dahoméen de l'Unité—PDU), again under Maga as prime minister. At the end of 1960, the PDU's single list of candidates won overwhelmingly over the UDD and thereby gained complete control of the executive and the legislature. In 1961, the UDD was banned, and Dahomey became a one-party state.

After the fall of the Maga government in October 1963, the PDU was disbanded and replaced by the Dahomeyan Democratic Party (Parti Démocratique Dahoméen), which was in turn dissolved following the 1965 military coup. The Union for Dahomeyan Renewal (Union pour le Renouveau du Dahomey) was later formed, but it was dissolved after the military coup of December 1969.

The Kérékou regime, which took power in 1972, appeared at first to be unwilling to return to party government, but following the adoption of a Marxist-Leninist policy in 1974, the government formed a political organization as the basis of a one-party state. This organization, which became known as the Party of the People's Revolution of Benin (Parti de la Révolution Populaire du Benin—PRPB), was the sole legal party until 1990. An illegal opposition group, the Front for the Liberation and Rehabilitation of Dahomey, was reportedly responsible for the 1977 coup attempt. The three major political and regional leaders—Maga, Apithy, and Ahomadegbé—remained under house arrest in Benin until 1981, when they were allowed to leave the country. In 1986, President Kérékou began to modify his Marxism-Leninism and, by December 1989, the ideology was officially abandoned.

The 1990 multiparty general elections produced a National Assembly in which the largest bloc of votes (12 of 64) were held by a Coalition of Democratic Forces (RFD), made up of The Forces of Progress (UDFP), the Movement for Democracy and Social Progress (MDPS), and the Union for Liberty and Development (ULD). This group was renamed the Union Pour le Triomphe du Renouveau Democratique (UTRD-Union for the Triumph of Democratic Renewal) in March 1992. At its peak, it could count on 34 deputy votes. It was replaced on 30 October 1993 by the African Assembly for Progress (RAP) and was composed of 11 parties and associations. The second-largest bloc, with nine seats, was the Alliance of the National Party for Democracy and Development (PNDD) and the Démocratic Renewal Party (PRD). Kérékou's PRPB was reduced to one of a number of opposition groups, although it was popular in the armed forces.

The National Convention for the Forces of Change, formed in February 1993, was an alliance of opposition groups. The Communist Party of Benin was registered in October 1993. In 1994 the Party for the Renaissance of Benin (PRB) was founded by then- President Soglo's wife. Soglo, who had previously aligned himself with no party, was quickly elected head of the party. In the 1995 legislative elections, the PRB emerged with the largest bloc of seats (20) in the newly expanded National Assembly—now made up of 84 seats. Parties closely allied with the PRB won an additional 13 seats. The remainder was split among 25 smaller parties, with the largest opposition bloc being the PRD, which won 19 seats. Kérékou's newly formed Action for Renewal and Development (FARDALAFIA) took 10 seats; PSD, 7; Our Common Cause, 3; Liberal Democrats, 3; Communist Party, 2; Alliance Chameleon, 1; RDP, 1; Alliance for Democracy and Progress, 1; and others, 16.

The March 1999 elections produced 70% turnover in the National Assembly where opposition party candidates held a slim majority. Overall, they took 42 of 83 seats, leaving 41 seats to be shared among pro-Kérékou parties. Adrien Houngbedji (PRD) became president of the National Assembly. In November 1999, the Ministry of the Interior registered Benin's 118th party, the PRD-Arc-en-ciel, which was led by Kamarou Fassassi, formerly campaign director for Houngbedji. Soglo made his comeback as the PRB presidential candidate in 2001. His party won 27 seats in the March 1999 elections. Also winning seats were the PRD, 11; FARD, 10; PSD, 9; African Movement for Democracy and Progress (MADEP), 6. Eleven other parties took the remaining seats.

In the 30 March 2003 legislative elections the Presidential Movement comprising the UBF, MADEP, FC, IDP, and four small parties won 52 of the 83 seats in the National Assembly. Opposition parties including the PRB, PRD, E'toile, and 5 other small parties took the remaining 31 seats. President Kérékou, as head of the Presidential Movement, declared that he would not run for reelection in March 2006. Legislative elections were due in March 2007.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The country is divided into 12 provinces for administrative purposes, and these in turn are divided into districts. There are elected provincial, district, commune, town, and village councils. Benin must place greater emphasis on local government capacity, including more collaboration among the local governments and civil society to formulate, implement, and enforce policy decisions, and to help education and health providers involve communities and their residents in decision-making.

Benin has been slow to decentralize. In December 2002, the country held its first municipal and communal elections since the end of one-party rule in 1990. However, central government has resisted devolution of budget authority to the communes and several mayors were removed by municipal councils allegedly for mismanagement.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system in Benin was formerly based on French and customary law. However, on 4 September 1981, Kérékou announced the creation of people's courts presided over by a Central People's Court that would control all judicial activities under the supervision of the executive and legislature. Each district has a court with the power to try cases, and each province has a court that acts as an appeals and assizes court. At the lowest level, each commune, village, and city ward has its own court.

The 1990 constitution provided for establishment of a new Constitutional Court responsible for judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation and for deciding disputes between the president and the National Assembly. This court began functioning in 1993. It also established a High Court of Justice to be responsible for hearing charges of crimes against the nation committed by the president or other government officials. However, the highest court for nonconstitutional judicial review under the new constitution was the Supreme Court. In general, the judiciary retains its independence from the government.

Human and civil rights are also enshrined in the constitution. Citizens have the right to a fair public trial, and criminal defendants enjoy the presumption of innocence, the right to counsel, and the rights to confront witnesses and have access to government-held evidence. The members of the military may be tried in case of minor offenses at military disciplinary councils. These councils have no power to try civilians.

The constitution also prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, and correspondence. Police need a judicial warrant before entering a private home. Although these basic procedural rights are respected, the judiciary in Benin is curtailed by executive powers, is inefficient, and susceptible to corruption at all levels.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Benin's armed forces had 4,550 active personnel. The Army of 4,300 members included 3 infantry battalions. Equipment included 18 light tanks and 16 artillery pieces. There were 150 personnel in the Air Force, whose major equipment included 13 transports, and one utility and two support helicopters. There were no combat aircraft. The Navy numbered an estimated 100 personnel with one patrol boat. A paramilitary gendarmerie totaled 2,500. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $70.8 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Benin was admitted to UN membership on 20 September 1960, and is a member of ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies. The country joined the WTO on 22 February 1996. It is a member of the African Development Bank, the ACP Group, the West African Economic and Monetary Union, ECOWAS, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), G-77, and the African Union. The nation is part of the Franc Zone and the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD).

Benin has joined with Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Togo in the Conseil d'Entente, a loose grouping of like-minded states with a common loan guarantee fund. Benin, as a member of the Niger Basin Authority, cooperates with other riparian states of the Niger River in planning the further use and development of the river for fishing, transportation, flood control, and hydroelectricity. The Organization Commune Bénin-Niger regulates common problems of transportation and communications. Benin became a member of the Association of African Petroleum Producers in 1987. The country is part of the Nonaligned Movement and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.

In environmental cooperation, Benin is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Benin's economy is recovering from the economic problems that led to the collapse of the socialist government in power between 1974 and 1989. However, as of 2005, the West African nation remained severely underdeveloped. Although the country's economic output grew by an average of 5% between 1999 and 2005, rapid increases in population offset those gains. The government was expected to continue efforts to privatize telecommunications, water, electricity, and agricultural companies that had been publicly owned through the former socialist economy.

Much of Benin's fate also is influenced by the much larger Nigerian economy, where trade barriers ban a growing list of imports from Benin and other nations. This effect has caused Benin's GDP to fluctuate between recovery and decline. Benin's debt situation has been eased due to measures undertaken by the Paris Club and other creditors, and the IMF agreed in late 2005 to provide 100% debt relief to Benin under its Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative.

Agriculture is the most important sector in the Benin economy, accounting for 33.9% of GDP in 2004. About 90% of this output is produced on family farms using low-technology inputs and focusing primarily on domestically consumed crops, such as cashews, corn, sorghum, millet, paddy rice, pineapples, cassava, yams, and beans. Typically, Benin is self-sufficient in food. Cotton, palm oil, and peanuts are grown and exchanged for cash. However, the reliance on agriculture has kept much of Benin's population in poverty; about one-third of the population lived below the poverty line, according to a US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) assessment in 2005.

Benin's livestock population increased an estimated 40% during the late 1980s and early 1990s, though it still does not satisfy local demand. Wood production for local fuel consumption also falls behind national demand. The fishing sector, made up of artisanal fishers, has overfished the stock and is in decline.

Benin's mineral resources are limited. Limestone, marble, and petroleum reserves are exploited commercially. Gold is produced at the artisanal level. Phosphates, chromium, rutile, and iron ore have been located in the north but remain undeveloped resources.

In January 1994 France devalued the CFA franc, causing its value to drop in half overnight. The devaluation was designed to encourage new investment, particularly in the export sectors of the economy, and discourage the use of hard currency reserves to buy products that could be grown domestically. In the short term, the move left the economy reeling and provoked anger and confusion among the population. Price-gouging by local merchants and a sharp rise in inflation to 55% led the government to impose temporary price controls on existing stocks of imports. By 2001, however, inflation was back down to 3% and was estimated at 3.2% in 2005. Real GDP growth was estimated at 4.2% in 2005.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Benin's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $8.7 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.2%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 3.2%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 33.9% of GDP, industry 13.6%, and services 52.5%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $84 million or about $12 per capita and accounted for approximately 2.4% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $294 million or about $44 per capita and accounted for approximately 8.5% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Benin totaled $2.80 billion or about $417 per capita based on a GDP of $3.6 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.1%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 52% of household consumption was spent on food, 15% on fuel, 5% on health care, and 3% on education. It was estimated that in 2001 about 33% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The total labor force was about two million in 1999 (the latest year for which data was available) of which 56% were primarily engaged in agriculture. Less than 2% of the labor force is salaried. There is a great disparity between the income of the wage earner and that of the uneducated traditional laborer, whose yearly income is less than the average monthly income of the salaried worker.

Trade union activity is concentrated in urban areas and particularly in the south, where most wage and salaried workers are employed. The constitution gives workers the right to organize, join unions, meet, and strike. As of 2005, around 75% of government workers were unionized, but the percentage is much smaller in the private sector.

The fundamental labor legislation provides for collective agreements between employers and workers, for the fixing of minimum wages by the government on the advice of advisory committees, and for a 40- to 46-hour basic workweek, with a 24 hour rest period per week. Domestic and agricultural workers generally work more than 70 hours per week. The legislation also provides for paid annual leave and for family allowances for children. These arrangements affect only the small proportion of the total labor force that is in wage-paid employment. Although health and safety standards have been established, enforcement has been ineffective. The minimum wage was about $50 per month in 2005, but was only enough to provide rudimentary food and shelter for a family. Most workers earn more than the minimum wage by engaging in subsistence farming or informal sector trade. Although the labor code prohibits employment for children under age 14, child labor remains a huge problem. A 2000 study shows that an estimated 75% of apprentices working as seamstresses, hairdressers, carpenters, and mechanics were under the legal employment age.

AGRICULTURE

Benin is predominantly an agricultural country. About 51% of the economically active population was engaged in the agricultural sector in 2003, which accounted for 36% of GDP that year. Small, independent farmers produce 90% of agricultural output, but only about 17% of the total area is cultivated, much of it in the form of collective farms since 1975. The agricultural sector is plagued by a lack of infrastructure, poor utilization of rural credit, and inefficient and insufficient use of fertilizer, insecticides, and seeds. Smuggling of crops for export or the domestic black market results in understating of crop figures. An estimated 20% of output is informally traded with Nigeria. The main food crops are manioc, yams, corn, sorghum, beans, rice, sweet potatoes, pawpaws, guavas, bananas, and coconuts. Production estimates for the main food crops for 2004 were yams, 2,500,000 tons; manioc, 4,000,000 tons; corn, 803,000 tons; sorghum, 190,000 tons; rice, 70,000 tons; dry beans, 105,000 tons; sweet potatoes, 75,000 tons; and millet, 40,000 tons. Benin is self-sufficient in food crops, given favorable weather conditions.

Palm products were long Benin's principal export crop, but cotton has increased in importance, with production increasing since 1981. Despite improved production, however, cotton storage and ginning capacity are still insufficient. Production of most cash crops fell between the 1970s and 1980s because of drought and state mismanagement. Cotton is grown on some 175,000 hectares (432,400 acres), and the crop is managed by the National Agricultural Society for Cotton. Cotton production was 150,000 tons in 2004, down from 175,000 tons in 1999. Peanut production has also recently become important; in 1999, 121,000 tons of shelled groundnuts were produced from 145,000 hectares (359,000 acres). These statistics are distorted by the smuggling of cash crops to and from Nigeria, depending on which country's prices are more attractive. Some 400,000 hectares (990,000 acres) of natural palms are exploited, and there are 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) of palm plantations, the largest of which is managed by SOBEPALH, a government enterprise producing palm oil and cottonseed oil. Palm oil production was 13,500 tons in 2004 and palm kernel output was 22,000 tons. Other crops with their 2004 production figures were cashews, 10,000 tons; bananas, 13,000 tons; mangoes, 12,000 tons; and coconuts, 20,000 tons.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

In 2004 there were an estimated 1,745,000 head of cattle; 700,000 sheep; 1,350,000 goats; 309,000 hogs; and 13 million chickens. Most of Benin's cattle are in the north beyond the main trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) zone inhabited by the tsetse fly, but there is also a small hardy type in the lagoon area. Horses are rare owing to the ravages of trypanosomiasis. Poultry are mainly confined to the south of the country.

Estimated output of livestock products in 2004 included 21,100 tons of beef and veal; 6,800 tons of sheep and goat meat; and 3,900 tons of pork. Although the livestock population had increased by 40% in the 1990s, Benin still imports substantial amounts of meat and poultry to meet local demand.

FISHING

Ocean fishing, which had been carried on largely by Ghanaian fishermen, is gaining importance at Cotonou (where a fishing port was opened in 1971) and other coastal centers. Under an agreement with the Senegal government, Senegalese fishermen introduced deep-sea-fishing methods to the Beninese, and a national fishing company was established as a joint venture with Libya. Exports of fish commodities amounted to nearly $1.9 million in 2003. Lagoon and river fishing remain of primary importance; of an estimated catch of 41,900 tons in 2003, 30,000 tons were from inland waters. The production of fish steadily declined during the 1980s due to over fishing and ecological degradation, but started increasing by the mid-1990s. In 2003, fishery products accounted for 2.8% of agricultural exports.

FORESTRY

There are about 3.4 million hectares (nearly 8.4 million acres) classified as forest and woodland, about 31% of the total land area. Most forests are in northern Benin, and exploitation is subject to public control. Timber production is small. Firewood, charcoal, and building wood for local use are the most important forest products. In 2003, 494,000 cu m (17.4 million cu ft) of roundwood were produced, down from 6.2 million cu m (218 million cu ft) in 2000. However, the value of forest product exports increased from $1.18 billion in 2000 to $8.59 billion in 2003. American Peace Corps volunteers have assisted with the development of the forestry sector, with special attention on the dilemma between ecological balance and fuelwood production.

MINING

With the exception of oil, Benin was relatively poor in mineral resources, all of which belonged to the government. Sedimentary phosphate deposits were located along the Mekrou River in the north. There was low-grade iron ore at Loumbou-Loumbou and Madekali, in the Borgou district, where surveys discovered resources of more than 500 million tons. Development of the hydroelectric power station was seen as a key factor in the future potential development of the iron ore and phosphate deposits. Limestone was quarried for use in cement plants. There was potential for small-scale gold mining in the Atacora gold zone, in the north-west. Other mineral resources included chromium, rutile, and diamonds; small quantities of industrial diamonds were exported. In 2004, the country produced 250,000 metric tons of hydraulic cement, 21,000 metric tons of clay, 20 kg of gold, and 29,000 cubic meters of gravel.

ENERGY AND POWER

Production from the Sémé offshore oil field began in October 1982 by Saga Petroleum, a Norwegian firm working under a service contract. The field yielded 1.35 million barrels of oil in 1991. In 1990, Benin exported an estimated 1.27 million barrels of crude oil. In 1986, the contract was transferred to Pan Ocean Oil (Panoco), a Swiss-based US firm, but loans to Benin from international development agencies were frozen because the company could not furnish satisfactory financial and capability statements; it withdrew, forcing Benin to take over oil production. Reserves, which were estimated at 44 million barrels, were considered sufficient to meet domestic needs, but there is currently no refinery in Benin; consequently, refined petroleum products have to be re-imported. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products amounted to 12,600 barrels per day.

Electrical generating capacity in 2002, totaled 0.122 million kW. Total domestic power output in that same year was 0.055 billion kWh, of which hydropower accounted for 0.002 billion kWh and fossil fuels for the rest. Electricity consumption in 2002 was 0.488 billion kWh. An agreement was signed with Togo and Ghana in 1967 under which Benin receives low-cost electric power from the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in Ghana. Total electricity imports for 2002 were estimated at 0.4370 billion kWh. Togo and Benin are constructing a dam on the Mono River, along the Togo border, that will feed a power station to supply the southern regions of both countries.

INDUSTRY

Benin's industrial sector accounted for 13.6% of GDP in 2005. Industrial activity centers primarily on construction materials, chemical production, textiles, and the processing of agricultural products. Enterprises such as the Onigbolo cement factory and the Savé sugar refinery have characterized Benin's industrial sector.

Production of crude steel ceased in 1993. Production of crude oil began in 1982 but ceased in the 1990s. The Sémé oil field near Cotonou was shut down in 1998, but there were plans to redevelop it. Exploration of oil is ongoing. Benin imports refined petroleum from Nigeria, and is involved in a planned $500 million West African natural gas pipeline that will run 385 miles between Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire. Gas delivery from the pipeline was expected to begin in 2005. Although work began at the pipeline's final terminus in late 2005, political questions about multinational oil companies' roles in the project have raised new concerns.

A textile factory at Parakout was revitalized with financing from the West African Development Bank. Benin's industrial electricity needs are met by hydroelectric power from Akosombo dam in Ghana and the Nangbeto dam on the Mono River in Togo. The Société Beninoise d'Electricité et d'Eau (SBEE) controls most electrical production within Benin (which is minimal), and the Communauté Electrique du Benin (CEB) imports the electricity from Ghana through Togo.

Together with other countries belonging to the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Benin adopted the common external tariff in 2000, which was designed to encourage domestic production. Revenues from the cotton sector are substantial, comprising 90% of Benin's foreign currency earnings.

Although the cotton industry remains state-owned, Benin has privatized its cement, textile, tobacco, and public transportation enterprises in recent years, in addition to breweries. Efforts to privatize SONAPRA, Benin's state-owned cotton enterprise, were scheduled to be completed in mid-2004. However, delays have prevented that from occurring.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Much of the scientific and technical research conducted in Benin is directed toward agriculture and is supported by France. The Benin Office of Mines, which is attached to the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Tourism, is located at Cotonou; the Institute of Applied Research, founded in 1942, is at Porto-Novo. The National University of Benin in Cotonou has faculties of scientific and technical studies, health sciences, and agriculture. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 18% of college and university enrollments.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Despite the economy's reliance on subsistence agriculture, Benin has developed into a West African trading center. Except in Cotonou and Porto-Novo, retailers deal in a wide variety of goods rather than specializing in a few products. In the two larger towns, some shops specialize in such lines as dry goods, foodstuffs, and hardware. In the smaller towns, bazaars and individual merchants and peddlers deal in locally grown products and a few imported items. Domestic trade is generally on a cash basis, but in the countryside barter is common. Advertising is not widely used.

Many small business are privately owned by Beninese residents, but a number of enterprises are held by foreigners, particularly French nationals. Since 2001, there has been a somewhat reluctant effort on behalf of the government for greater privatization of industries such as telecommunications, utilities, and agriculture.

Country	Exports	Imports	Balance
World	304.0	727.0	-423.0
Nigeria	67.6	27.8	39.8
India	43.3	14.1	29.2
Ghana	26.5	40.4	-13.9
Indonesia	24.1	5.2	18.9
China	16.9	46.7	-29.8
Italy-San Marino-Holy See	12.8	23.5	-10.7
Pakistan	12.8	0.8	12.0
Thailand	12.6	20.4	-7.8
France-Monaco	11.9	174.3	-162.4
Morocco	9.0	…	9.0
(…) data not available or not significant.

Business hours are from 9:30 am to 1 pm and from 4 to 7 pm Monday through Friday, from 3 to 7 pm on Saturday, and from 9 to 11 am on Sunday. Banks are open on weekdays from 8 to 11 am and 3 to 5 pm Monday through Friday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Benin consistently runs a trade deficit. The leading exports are cotton, uranium and thorium ores, cottonseeds, and cigarettes. Leading imports are foodstuffs, petroleum products, beverages, tobacco, capital goods, and light consumer products.

As of 2004, Benin's main trading partners for exports were: China (29.5%), India (18.8%), Ghana (6.4%), Niger (6%), Indonesia (4.3%) and Nigeria (4.3%). Benin imports products primarily

Current Account			-160.5
Balance on goods		-179.5
Imports	-553.0
Exports	373.5
Balance on services		-44.8
Balance on income		-13.5
Current transfers		77.3
Capital Account			70.0
Financial Account			40.5
Direct investment abroad		-2.3
Direct investment in Benin		43.9
Portfolio investment assets		3.1
Portfolio investment liabilities		-0.4
Financial derivatives		-0.2
Other investment assets		-34.4
Other investment liabilities		30.8
Net Errors and Omissions			3.6
Reserves and Related Items			46.4
(…) data not available or not significant.

from China (32.2%), France (13%), Thailand (6.7%), and Côte d'Ivoire (5.3%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Large annual transfers from the French government and other sources are necessary for Benin to offset its chronic trade deficit. As producer prices declined in the late 1980s, Benin's export revenues fell sharply. By 1989 and 1990, foreign aid matched export earnings. Benin's current account deteriorated sharply from the years of high prices for crude oil exports, and since oil production slowed down in the 1990s. A growing dependence on imports also increased the deficit, but official statistics do not include substantial amounts of informal trade flows to neighboring countries.

Benin accepted an IMF structural adjustment program in the early 1990s. The IMF formula called for modest real GDP growth, reducing public sector employment, improving tax collection and privatizing of public-sector enterprises. In addition, Benin's government initiated tariff reforms and lifted price controls. While debt cancellations by the United States and France helped bring the debt-service ratio down to 7.0%, Benin still has a serious debt problem that has only partially been resolved.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2005 the Benin's exports were $826.2 million while imports totaled $1.043 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $155.1 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

In 1959, the Central Bank of the West African States (Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest-BCEAO) succeeded the Currency Board of French West Africa and Togo as the bank of issue for the former French West African territories. In 1962, it was reorganized as the joint note-issue bank, and in 2000 included Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. BCEAO notes, known as CFA francs, are unreservedly guaranteed by France. Foreign exchange receipts of the member states go into the franc area's exchange pool, which in turn covers their foreign exchange requirements.

In December 1974, the government nationalized the banking sector, amalgamating the three main commercial banks into the Commercial Bank of Benin. There is also the Benin Development Bank. Other commercial banks include the Bank of Africa Benin, Banque Internationale du Benin, Ecobank-Benin, the Financial Bank, Equibail-Benin, Credit du Benin, Continental Bank Benin, and Credit Promotional Benin.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $548.1 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $734.7 million. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.95%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6.5%.

There is no securities market in Benin.

INSURANCE

Insurance companies were nationalized in 1974, and the National Society of Insurance and Reinsurance (SONAR) is the state agency.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Benin has both an ordinary and a development budget. High personnel costs have been a continuing problem in Benin, which has a surfeit of civil servants. Many government-backed enterprises are near bankruptcy and some are barely functioning. The fiscal year follows the calendar year. Most investment expenditure is financed by foreign loans and grants. During the 1980s, the external debt nearly tripled, and stood at $909 million by 1988. In 1989, the government rescheduled its arrears through the Paris Club. Since 1991 Benin has been implementing a structural adjustment program supported by the World Bank. The program calls for reduced fiscal expenditures, deregulation of trade, and the privatization of money losing state-owned enterprises. Economic aid amounted to $265 million in 2003, although Benin was eligible to receive debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Benin's central government took in revenues of approximately $766.8 million and had expenditures of $1 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$250.2 million. Total external debt was $1.6 billion.

TAXATION

Indirect taxes provide almost 60% of government revenues, and direct taxes, about 25%. The corporate tax rate had been reduced to 35% from 38% in 2003. The top marginal rate for personal income tax was reported to have increased to 60% in 2003, from 35%, although the marginal rate for the average taxpayer was 6%.

A value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 18% was introduced in 1991. In 2003, an estimated three-fourths of VAT collected was collected on imports, despite the fact that most imports, including those pursuant to all government contracts and most investments, are exempt from VAT. There is also a 1% community solidarity levy.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Benin enacted a common external tariff, which has eliminated most nontariff trade barriers. A fiscal import duty has rates of: 0%; 5%; 10%; 15%; and 20% according to tariff class. Port security is an issue of pressing concern, with theft as a major problem. Bonded warehouses are available, but difficult to come by. A port police was established in 1999 to combat the crime problems, but it has had little impact on the situation.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

With government privatization of the nationalized industrial sector well under way, the 1980s–90s were a period of considerable investment activity in Benin. In the financial sector, Rasmal Finance, a Swiss banking interest backed by American Express and Citicorp; Ecobank, based in Togo and correspondent for the Midland Bank; the Bank of Africa, a Malian financial interest; and the Banque Internationale de Bénin, a Nigerian consortium, have operated in Benin since 1989.

Rothmans-UK invested in the formerly state-run cigarette factory. An American private investor has entered the steel industry, manufacturing reinforcing bars and roofing materials. While current oil reserves are negligible, investments in further exploration possibilities offshore have been considerable. Formerly state-owned cement, auto parts, and stationery supply operations have also been privatized. La Beninoise (brewery) brought us$13.7 million; Sotraz (public transportation), brought us$73,752. In terms of legislation, Benin adopted an investment code in 1990 designed to attract private sector investment. The Beninese government requires that nationals partly own privatized companies.

Other arenas of interest to foreign investors are the potential for building apparel factors in Benin and investments in tourism. A Chinese-European joint venture was reportedly considering plans for an apparel factory in Seme. Tourism investment has been increasing, with plans to establish a tourism investment zone along the country's breathtakingly beautiful coastline. Bidders were sought in 2004 for the Benin Marina Hotel, which previously had been managed by Sheraton.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Benin has been steadily increasing since Benin's transition to a democratic government in the early 1990s. According to the UN Conference on Trade and Development, FDI averaged $39 million between 1985 and 1995. Since then, it has risen from $44 million in 2001 to $60 million in 2004. Benin reported holdings of $291 million in FDI stocks in 2004, accounting for about 7% of its GDP.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Benin's economic development goals rest on the government's ability to carry out privatization schemes mapped out initially in 2001. Although progress has been slow in some sectors, privatization efforts are ongoing in telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculture.

Economic development was conducted within the context of a 2000–2004 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), and the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative with the IMF and the World Bank. The devaluation of the CFA (Communauté Financière Africaine) franc, the local currency, in 1994, made imports more expensive and brought the CFA Fr closer in value to the Nigerian currency. This was meant to inhibit imports while stimulating local production and raw material exports, but little progress was made in these areas by 2003.

While privatization efforts were mixed, an IMF assessment completed in 2004 noted Benin's willingness to shift its macroeconomic policies to comply with market-oriented reforms. Foreign investment in the country remains relatively strong, and the receipt of a B+ rating by Standard & Poor's was expected to encourage more private sector interest.

The economy has grown steadily in the early 21st century and most social indicators of standard of living have shown improvement. Nevertheless, a high incidence of poverty, a continued reliance on agriculture and political resistance to structural reforms may continue to hinder growth for the long term.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system provides benefits to employed persons with a special system for public employees. The first law was established in 1970, and was updated in 2003. It is funded by contributions from employees and employers. It provides pensions for old age, disability, and survivorship. Maternity benefits, worker's compensation, and a family allowance program, financed entirely by employers, are also offered. The majority of the population, however, are self-employed or work in the agricultural sector and fall outside the scope of these programs.

Although the law provides for equality for women, they are victims of discrimination in most areas of society. Domestic violence and spousal abuse are common and the police generally hesitate to interfere.

Although outlawed in 2003, female circumcision, also known as female genital mutilation, is still widely practiced in Benin. This practice is both physically and psychologically harmful to girls and women, and in some cases may cause death. Some traditional practices inflict hardship and violence on children, and child labor remains a serious problem. In 2004, trafficking of women and children continued to be widespread.

Human rights are somewhat protected in Benin. Reports of killings and beatings by police, arbitrary arrests and detentions continue. Prison conditions continue to be harsh.

HEALTH

Most serious epidemic diseases have been brought under control by mobile health units and other facilities. Yaws has been almost totally eradicated in the northern part of the country. Sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) has also been greatly reduced in the north and yellow fever has all but disappeared. Meningitis, once endemic in the north, now appears only sporadically and measures against tuberculosis have been intensified. In 2002, 203 new cases of cholera were reported. Malnutrition was prevalent in an estimated 25% of children under five years old. Access to safe water had improved to 63% by 2000 (between 1990 and 1995, only 20% had access to safe water), but only 23% of the population had adequate sanitation. Estimated average life expectancy in 2005 was 53 years.

As of 2004, there were an estimated 6 physicians and 20 nurses per 100,000 people. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 3.3% of GDP.

About 16% of married women (age 15 to 49) used contraception in 2000. The maternal mortality rate was estimated at 500 per 100,000 live births. The infant mortality rate in 2005 was 81 per 1,000 live births. The total fertility rate was 6.4 per woman in 1999. Nearly half of the women in Benin undergo female genital mutilation.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 1.90 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 68,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 5,800 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

The government of Benin has set goals of expanding its health care system, upgrading the quality of first referral care, promoting private sector care, and improving public sector care.

HOUSING

Improvement in overall appearance and in sanitation facilities in towns and villages has been fostered by the government. Low-cost housing has been provided by a public corporation backed by French development funds.

Over the past decade, many residents have been looking to build more modern "western" style homes. However, most of the construction materials for such a structure need to be imported, making materials (and labor) too expensive for many residents to consider this an option. In the rural areas, the typical dwelling of northern Benin is a round hut of beaten mud with a conical roof of thatch. In southern Benin, rectangular huts with sloping roofs of palm or straw thatch are more usual. Along the coastal lagoons, houses are often built on stilts.

EDUCATION

During the French colonial period, Benin produced the educational elite of French West Africa. The percentage of primary-school attendance was higher than in any other French West African territory, largely because of intense missionary activity. The educational system is patterned on that of France, but changes have been introduced to modify the elitist system and to adapt the curriculum to local needs and traditions. The most significant change has been the takeover of mission schools following legislation in 1975, by which the state made all education free, public, secular, and compulsory from ages 6 to 12.

Primary school covers a six-year course of study. For secondary studies, students may choose between a seven-year general education program or a six-year technical program. At last estimates (1999) primary school enrollment was at about 55% of age-eligible students; 67% for boys and 44% for girls. In 2001, secondary school enrollment was estimated at about 19% of eligible children; 26% for boys and 12% for girls. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 54:1 in 2000; the ratio for secondary school was about 22:1. In 2003, it was estimated that about 51% of all students complete their primary education.

The National University of Benin at Cotonou, founded in 1970, offers courses in agriculture, medicine, liberal arts, science, law, economics, and politics. There are at least eight other institutes of higher learning in the country. In 2001, there were about 19,000 students enrolled in higher education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 33.6%, with 46.4% for males and 22.6% for females.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 3.3% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Archives and National Library, which has around 35,000 volumes, are in Porto-Novo. Also in the capital are the Institute of Applied Research, which maintains a research collection of 8,000 volumes and the library of the National University of Benin with 50,000 volumes. The French Cultural Center in Cotonou maintains a library of 30,000 volumes. The library of the National University of Benin in Cotonou serves as a depository library of the United Nations. There are historical museums in Abomey and Ouidah, an ethnological museums in Porto-Novo, and Cotonou, and a museum of natural history and ethnography in Parakou. There are monuments and historical sites maintained by the government and three zoos and botanical gardens.

MEDIA

Virtually all media in Benin are controlled by the government. The state provides telegraph and telephone service and government-owned radio and television services broadcast in French, English, and 18 indigenous languages. In 2003, there were an estimated nine mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 34 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

As of 2005, there was one state TV channel, a few commercial TV channels. and more than 30 state, commercial and local radio stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 445 radios and 12 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 3.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 10 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

In 2002, there was only one daily newspaper; Ehuzu (also known as La Nation ), is the primary government publication, with a daily circulation of about 12,000. There are about 50 other newspapers and periodicals. Weeklies included La Gazette du Golfe (circulation 18,000) and Le Forum de la Semaine. Other publications included L'Opinion and Tam-Tam Express (8,000 every other week). All were published in Cotonou. There are also several general interest and a few special interest periodicals

The Constitution of Benin ensures freedom of expression, including speech and the press, and the government is said to respect this freedom.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Benin is in Cotonou. There are professional organizations for teachers and doctors.

The Organization of Revolutionary Youth of Benin, founded in 1983, has about 150,000 members from all parts of Benin. The organization has direct relations with all youth-serving ministries of the Government and is affiliated with the Pan African Youth Movement and the World Federation of Democratic Youth. The Scoutisme Béninois is a scouting organization sponsoring both Boy Scouts and Girl Guides. There are also organizations of the Junior Chamber of Benin, YMCA/YWCA, and the Special Olympics.

There are active chapters of the Red Cross, Amnesty International, Africare, Caritas, and Friends of the Earth.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Benin has great potential for tourism, and the government is striving to develop this sector of the economy. The country has a rich cultural heritage, varied scenery, and impressive national parks. The tourist industry remains underdeveloped. For trips to the Pendjari game park, there is a small (21-room) hotel in Porga. In 2000, there were 2,733 hotel rooms, with 5,040 beds and an 11% occupancy rate. In 2002 there were 72,288 visitor arrivals.

Tourist attractions include the lake village of Ganvie, two game parks in the north, the ancient royal city of Abomey, several museums, and beaches. Hunting lodges have been built to foster safaris in the two national parks, where efforts have also been made to preserve wild game. In the south are picturesque villages built on stilts over the waters of the coastal lagoons. A visa is required for all visitors except those from Denmark, Germany, France, Sweden, and many of the African nations. Proof of vaccination against yellow fever is required in most of West Africa. In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Cotonou at $167 per day, depending on the choice of hotel. In other regions, the cost was as low as $87 per day.

FAMOUS BENINESE

Perhaps the most famous historical ruler in the area now known as Benin was Béhanzin (d.1906), who was king of Abomey from 1889 until he was defeated by the French in 1894. The best-known modern Beninese are the political leaders Hubert Maga (1916–2000); Sourou-Migan Apithy (1913–1989); Justin T. Ahomadegbé (1917–2002); and Brig. Gen. Ahmed Mathieu Kérékou (b.1933). Nicephore Soglo (b.1934), a former World Bank economist, was elected president in 1991 in Benin's first multiparty presidential election. In 1996, he lost his bid for reelection to Kérékou in a runoff.

DEPENDENCIES

Benin has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alpern, Stanley B. Amazons of Black Sparta: the Women's Warriors of Dahomey. New York: New York University Press, 1998.

Ben-Amos, Paula. Art, Innovation, and Politics in Eighteenth-century Benin. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999.

Caulfield, Annie. Show Me the Magic: Travels Round Benin by Taxi. London: Penguin, 2003.

Decalo, Samuel. Historical Dictionary of Benin. 3rd ed. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1995.

Duchateau, Armand. Benin: Royal Art of Africa. Houston: Houston Museum of Fine Arts, 1994.

Edgerton, Robert B. Women Warriors: The Amazons of Dahomey and the Nature of War. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000.

Houngnikpo, Mathurin C. Determinants of Democratization in Africa: A Comparative Study of Benin and Togo. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2001.

Law, Robin. The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550–1750: the Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on an African Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.