modern architecture new architectural style that emerged in many Western countries in the decade after World War I. It was based on the "rational" use of modern materials, the principles of functionalist planning, and the rejection of historical precedent and ornament. This style has been generally designated as modern, although the labels International style, Neue Sachlichkeit, and functionalism have also been used.

Development of the Style

Since the mid-19th cent. there had been repeated attempts to assimilate modern technology in practice and theory and to formulate a modern style of architecture suitable to its age. A functionalist approach eventually replaced the formerly eclectic approach to design. Technical progress in the use of iron and glass made possible the construction of Sir Joseph Paxton's celebrated Crystal Palace in London (1851), in which a remarkable delicacy was achieved. In the ensuing years iron, steel, and glass enabled architects and engineers to enclose the vast interior spaces of train sheds, department stores, and market halls, but often the structural forms were clothed with irrelevant ornament.

As late as 1889 the exposed, iron skeleton of the newly erected Eiffel Tower in Paris was met with public outrage. In Chicago, William Le Baron Jenney pioneered the use of a complete steel skeleton for the urban skyscraper in his Home Insurance Building (1883-85). His contemporary, Louis Henry Sullivan, first articulated the theory of functionalism (see functionalism ), which he demonstrated in his numerous commercial designs. In addition, experiments in concrete construction were being carried out in France by François Hennebique and Auguste Perret, and in the United States by Ernest Ransome.

As a result of these advances, the formal conception of architecture was also undergoing a profound transformation. Frank Lloyd Wright, a pupil of Sullivan, experimented with the interpenetration of interior and exterior spaces in his residential designs. In Holland, where Wright's work was widely admired, the architects of de Stijl sought to organize building elements into new combinations of overlapping and hovering rectangular planes.

Form and Materials

By 1920 there was an increasingly wide understanding that building forms must be determined by their functions and materials if they were to achieve intrinsic significance or beauty in contemporary terms, without resorting to traditional ornament. Instead of viewing a building as a heavy mass made of ponderous materials, the leading innovators of modern architecture considered it as a volume of space enclosed by light, thin curtain walls and resting on slender piers. The visual aesthetic of modern architecture was largely inspired by the machine and by abstract painting and sculpture.

In giving form and coherence to modern architecture, Le Corbusier's book Vers une architecture (1923, tr. 1927) played an important role, as did the writings of the Dutch architect J. J. P. Oud and the German architect Walter Gropius, who also headed the Bauhaus in Dessau. Other early leaders of the modern movement included Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Marcel Breuer, and Ernst May in Germany and Raymond Hood, Albert Kahn, Richard J. Neutra, William Lescaze, and George Howe in the United States.

In 1932 the label "International style" was applied to modern architecture by the Museum of Modern Art, New York City, anticipating its growing acceptance around the world. The United States became a stronghold of modern architecture after the emigration of Gropius, Mies, and Breuer from Germany during the 1930s. By the mid-20th cent. modern architecture had become an effective instrument for dealing with the increasingly complex building needs of a global society. Large architectural firms such as Harrison and Abramovitz and Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill did much to popularize modern architecture around the world after World War II.

At the same time new technological developments continued to influence architects' designs, particularly in the realm of prefabricated construction, as seen in the works of R. Buckminster Fuller and Moshe Safdie. The development of sophisticated air conditioning and heating systems also allowed modern architecture to spread from the temperate climates of Europe and North America to countries with extremely varied weather conditions.

The Style Evolves

Increasingly, during the 1950s, modern architecture was criticized for its sterility, its "institutional" anonymity, and its disregard for regional building traditions. More varied and individual, as well as regionalist, modes of expression were sought by architects of the next generation, although the basic emphasis on structure and materials continued. This tendency was evident in the works of Louis Kahn, Edward Durell Stone, and Philip Cortelyou Johnson in the United States, and the architects of the so-called New Brutalism movement in England. A dynamic sculptural unity distinguished the buildings of Eero Saarinen and the late works of Le Corbusier. Other leading architects of this generation include Alvar Aalto of Finland, the Italians Pier Luigi Nervi and Paolo Soleri, and in Central and South America, Lúcio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, Juan O'Gorman, and Felix Candela.

Development of Postmodernism

After 1960, a less evolutionary and more revolutionary critical reaction to modern architecture, first articulated in the writings of Robert Venturi, began to form. Architects have become more concerned with context and tradition. Ornament, once banished by modernism, has returned, often in the form of overtly historical revivalism, although it has just as often been reinterpreted in high-tech materials. This has resulted in a stylistic eclecticism on the contemporary scene. Prominent architects working in the postmodern mode include Philip Johnson in his later projects, Michael Graves, Ricardo Bofill, and Aldo Rossi.

See also articles on individual architects, e.g., Walter Gropius .

Bibliography

See Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture (1923, tr. 1927); W. Gropius, The New Architecture and the Bauhaus (1937); V. Scully, Jr., Modern Architecture: The Architecture of Democracy (1961); L. Benevolo, History of Modern Architecture (2 vol., 1966; tr. 1972); H.-R. Hitchcock and P. Johnson, The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 (2d ed. 1966); R. Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966); S. Giedion, Space, Time, and Architecture (5th ed. 1967); D. Sharp, A Visual History of Twentieth-Century Architecture (1973); W. J. R. Curtis Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2d ed. 1987); and C. Jencks, Post-Modernism (1987).

STYLES OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE

The Modernist Influence

During the 1960s modernist architecture was still a widespread and powerful force. Buildings in the modernist style were part of the environment of virtually every urban area in America, and new ones were being erected every day. Although it was becoming increasingly evident that modernism had failed to meet its idealistic goals of raising the human spirit, it was still a basically good style and method in which to construct buildings. However, by the 1960s the modernist style began to be recognized as just one of many possible approaches. Throughout the decade architects began to branch out in various directions.

Brutalism

Some of the new stylistic options were not too far removed from the modernist style. Several architects, inspired by the late works of the French modernist Le Corbusier, created buildings that used many of the rational structural ideas of the modernist style. Instead of the sleek, buoyant steel-and-glass masterpieces of the International Style, however, these brutalist buildings were constructed using rough, blocklike materials, such as concrete and brick, fashioned into heavy and aggressive forms. An important brutalist work is Yale University's School of Art and Architecture building (constructed 1959-1963) designed by Paul Rudolph. Its rectangular forms made of large slabs of rough concrete are layered in a simplistic-looking crisscross pattern suggesting a structure made with children's building blocks. However, when one imagines the forms constructed out of light-weight steel and glass, the structure's early-modernist roots become recognizable. British architect James Stirling also created several brutalist works, notably a building for Cambridge University's history department in 1966. As Le Corbusier and other important architects suggested, the move to less perfect building materials paralleled a growing recognition of the unperfectible nature of the human condition.

New Forms of Expression

Despite many striking and original masterpieces modernism had not allowed for much overt individual expression. In fact, a modernist goal had been to subvert explicit content in favor of the beauty of pure, rational form. In the late 1950s and 1960s there was a resurgence of individual expressionism in architecture. The famous Sydney Opera House in Australia (1959) by Danish architect Jorn Utzon, with its huge, steeply arching shell forms, shows modernist engineering (but certainly not form) at its most fanciful. Finnish-born American architect Eero Saarinen designed the TWA terminal for International Airport in New York City (1962) in the shape of an eagle about to take off in flight; however, the building's "failure" in purity of form still allows for purity of rational function. Many other architects during the decade took advantage of the new freedom of form while still maintaining basic modernist concerns for function.

Historical Styles

One of the original intentions of modernist architecture had been to make a break from a tyranny to the history of architecture. At the beginning of the century many architects still used classical columns and arches as well as elements of form and ornament from various other historical styles to adorn their buildings. The modernists thought it looked ridiculous to have a skyscraper capped with a gilded dome; instead, they attempted to purge architecture of this type of outdated ornamentation and to develop a style that belonged to the twentieth century alone. With an increasing awareness of modernism's shortcomings, many architects saw no reason to exclude some of these impressive-looking older forms. By the mid 1960s a new historical trend began to emerge as a new generation of architects started to incorporate historical elements that had been deemed obsolete by the pure-form modernist architects. Roman arches, Corinthian columns, Brunelleschian loggias, flowing Baroque staircases, symmetrical facades, intricate wall ornamentation—all appeared in buildings that were still essentially modernist in both engineering and function. Louis I. Kahn's Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas (1966-1972), uses Renaissance cathedral ideas and forms of repeated, symmetrical nave bays and vaulted-arch ceilings but keeps the work in a modern context by using state-of-the-art engineering methods for lighting and air conditioning and other functional aspects. From afar Minoru Yamasaki's famous World Trade Center in Manhattan, conceived in the late 1960s and completed in 1974, looks like another example of the corporate modernist skyscraper. Up close, however, the Gothic ogivalarch decoration that repeats itself along the entire surfaces of the two towers becomes surprisingly apparent.

Complexity and Contradiction

These divergent trends in architectural style were addressed in an important book by architect Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, which was written in 1962 and published in 1966. He discusses the divergent styles of his contemporaries and argues that all of architectural history has been a continuous mixture of inconsistent styles. Venturi claims that when scholars and critics summarize a specific period or style in architecture, they pick and choose examples that fit into a neat category. These mainstream masterpieces, he explains, might include a chapel by Michelangelo, but only its altar and its sculptural forms, and then maybe a dome of one of Guarini's buildings and just the facade of the Louvre. But the elements of these same buildings that are not "stylistically correct" enough—such as an unexplained asymmetry or an unconventional ornament—to fit into the main-stream of the period are ignored. Venturi offers a revisionist way to look at the entire history of architecture, one that includes all of these so-called inconsistencies. He concludes that these inconsistent trends are actually the mainstream, while the examples that fit nicely into stylistic categories are really the exceptions. Venturi also takes modernist architects to task for ridding architecture of all content, turning Mies van der Rohe's dictum "less is more" on its head by arguing that "less is a bore." He felt that architecture should not be pure but hybrid, inconsistent, and "of messy vitality and richness of meaning."

Postmodernism

Venturis book was influential, and it helped codify the aesthetic and stylistic trend that by the end of the 1960s was already beginning to become popular with a new generation of architects. Buildings de-signed by Venturi, who was admired primarily for his theoretical writings, and even more successful architects incorporated various styles and influences, including but not limited to brutalism, expressionism, historical neoclassicism, and the burgeoning pop and automobile culture. The buildings of this new breed of architecture emphasized individual expression and were often full of witty content that sometimes parodied past styles or the human situation. Charles Moore's complex of residential units for Kresge College in Santa Cruz, California (1965-1974), is modeled on the meandering nature of an Italian village and includes repeated quasi-neoclassical balconies. Parodying the modernist preoccupation with function, the whiteness of the stuccoed buildings is interrupted by primary colors that highlight such amenities as the laundromat and the public telephone. In general there began to be a much greater tolerance of individuality and stylistic freedom during this period. In the 1970s writer Charles Jencks labeled the budding movement postmodernism. Important architects who began to work in this loosely defined postmodernist style, besides Venturi and Moore, included Michael Graves, Philip Johnson, Robert Stern, and Frank Gehry.

Sources:

Stephen Baxley, Phillipe Garner, and Deyan Sudjic, Twentieth-Century Style & Design (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986);

Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman, Architecture from Prehistory to Post-Modernism: The Western Tradition (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1986).

Modern Architecture: Design

Modernism, Postmodernism, Deconstructivism

No one architectural style defined the 1990s, as several themes played a role in building designs at the end of the century. Modernism, which came to prominence in the 1960s, featured rectilinear geometry, minimalism, and an ordering of space; its philosophy called for form to follow function. It gave way to postmodernism in the late 1970s and 1980s. Postmodernism linked present and past designs, as well as brought ornamentation and context back to architecture. Deconstructivism followed, although it waned quickly. Deconstructivist architecture was identified by its fragmented forms. A "Deconstructivist Architecture" exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in June 1988 provided a glimpse of what was ahead. The exhibition featured the works, most yet to be built, of Frank O. Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Rem Koolhaas, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Bernard Tschumi, and Coop Himmelblau. Mark Wigley, associate curator of the MOMA show, wrote: "What is being disturbed is a set of deeply entrenched cultural assumptions which underlie a certain view of architecture, assumptions about order, harmony, stability and unity." Each movement, though, had its share of criticism. Some critics accused modernism in its pure form of ignoring people's emotional needs; others saw postmodernism, particularly with its early reliance on facades, as superficial in its references to the past. Mean-while, some reviewers charged that deconstructivism was shocking and inappropriate. Despite the fact that each movement had perceived drawbacks, architects continued to build in all three styles. The combination of these prevailing aesthetic directions, however, prompted architects to scrutinize their designs. Stephen A. Kliment wrote, in the November 1990 issue of Architectural Record, "In this day and age, when any style goes (Modernism included) and any style is buildable, the architect is forced, every time he/she sits down at the drawing board or CAD terminal, to ask: what is good?"

Livable Spaces

One trend that emerged in 1990s architecture was the recognition of a need to create livable spaces. Whether designing private homes, corporate buildings, or public spaces, architects often focused on how the building would fit their clients. "Many people are calling for designs that respond to the individual needs of users and not the generic building formulas of developers or the stylistic prejudices of architects," Architectural Record declared in its July 1991 edition. Architects answered the call. Although styles ranged from innovative to traditional, private homes commissioned by architects reflected the occupants and their needs, whether it was for spacious living or smaller quarters. For example, they created great rooms, rather than separate living, dining, and family rooms, to provide the free-flowing space that clients wanted. Architects also considered how their buildings would impact the environment; they spoke about the need to design buildings that would consume less energy, create less pollution, and use fewer natural resources. Gregory Hodkinson told Architectural Record in 1991: "The environment is the key issue. The realization that resources are finite and that we are, in fact, permanently affecting the environment will be the overriding concern in the way we produce buildings, the way we organize our industries, and the way we structure our transportation system." William McDonough completed an office complex for Gap Inc. in 1997 in San Bruno, California, that paid careful attention to the environment. Native grasses and wildflowers were planted in six inches of soil on the roofs; the greenery, besides its environmental appeal, served as a thermal and acoustic insulator. Designs also called tor wood floors and veneer harvested from managed, sustainable forests. The ventilation system was designed to draw in cool air at night, almost eliminating the need for air conditioning. Mean-while, light filled the building from windows that allowed views of the outdoors from almost any spot in the building, helping to bring nature inside. Structures were also designed to fit their surroundings. "A building should feel like it belongs where it is—not like an import or something portable that could be taken to another place," Donald J. Canty wrote in the January 1990 issue of Architectural Record. Architects often drew their inspiration from the setting. A Connecticut home designed by New York architect Steve Harris, for example, was a twentieth century version of a traditional New England farmstead. Harris used white-cedar shingles and related the twenty-three-foot-high barrel-vaulted living room, pent-roofed kitchen wing, and thirty-two-foot-high tower to a traditional barn, shed, and silo, respectively.

A Drive to Preserve

Although new buildings made headlines most often, there were also several high-profile renovations. The drive to preserve what had already been built traced it roots to the 1960s, when Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act (1966, revised in 1980). The preservation movement gave architects new opportunities to restore, renovate, and redesign landmark buildings, including everything from theaters to libraries to city halls. The S156 million renovation of Ellis Island, through which millions of immigrants passed as they entered the United States, was a case in point. The firms of Beyer Blinder Belle and Notter Finegold & Alexander provided the designs for renovating the buildings, which reopened to the public in September 1990 after an eight-year restoration. The centerpiece of the project was the Main Building, originally designed in a French Renaissance style by Boring 6c Tilton at the turn of the nineteenth century. Before starting renovations, the modern architects stabilized the building by drying it out using large heaters outside and pressurized dry air inside. Exterior repairs, such as cleaning the facades and repairing bricks, followed. Rooms inside the building were then converted for use as a library, theaters, and exhibitions areas.

TRANSPORTATION BY DESIGN

Architectural innovations were evident in new transportation facilities, particularly airports, in the 1990s. The new International Terminal at Chicago O'Hare International Airport, which opened in 1994, is one example. Designed by Perkins & Will Architects, the monumental rooms are framed in lightweight exposed steel and receive plenty of daylight. The ticketing pavilion has a soaring roof that is low at the ends and high in the middle. The ramp-control tower anchors the pavilion at its highest point.

Denver's International Airport, under construction in the early part of the 1990s, also drew considerable attention. Although much scrutiny focused on its $1.9 billion cost, other critics assailed its visual drama. White caps top the 1.3-million-square-foot structure. The tented peak-and-valley profiles come from double layers of less than .28-inch-thick Teflon-coated fiber-glass. The roof is supported by two rows of steel masts and reinforced by steel cables to protect against wind and snow loads.

Cesar Pelli's new terminal at the Ronald Reagan Airport in Washington, D.C., also drew attention. The 1997 addition has a simple footprint in the shape of a capital E. The terminal forms the vertical line, while three piers form the horizontal strokes. At the bottom of the vertical stroke, a concourse connects the new terminal to the existing one. The terminal has structural vaults and a one-and-a-half acre glass curtain wall enclosing one side of the concourse. Pelli used these elements to help establish a sense of scale and to orient passengers.

Plans for a new Salt Lake City International Airport also proved to be innovative. The designs, by a joint Gensler/HNTB team, departed from typical airport layouts that called for fingers that extend from a central hub. The plan instead called for a linear spine that would run perpendicular to the terminal and roadways. It also called for the structure to reflect the landscape of Utah, with rust, purple, red, green, and gold used on the base, while a glass skin would allow airport visitors to see spectacular views of the surrounding mountains. The airport was scheduled to be built in two phases over fifteen years.

Sources:

Alice Y. Kimm, "Salt Lake City Airport Will Fly in a New Pattern,"Architectural Record, (December 1998): 38.

Charles Linn, "Cesar Pelli's New Passenger Terminal at National Airport in Washington, D.C., Eases the Life of the World-weary Traveler," Architectural Record, 185 (October 1997): 89-95.

Linn, "Form Follows Flight," Architectural Record, 182 (June 1994): 116-123.

Karen D. Stein, "'Snow-Capped' Symbol," Architectural Record, 181 (June 1993): 106-107.

Grand Central

John Belle of Beyer Blinder Belle also spent the decade renovating Grand Central Terminal in New York. The Beaux-Arts train station was designed by Whitney Warren and opened in 1913. Belle first renovated the Main Waiting Room, cleaning the Caen stone (a scored plasterlike material), repairing the Tennessee marble floor with the same stone, and refurbishing the nickel-and gold-plated chandeliers. Renovating the Main Concourse was another significant part of the project. Early drawings by the firm Warren and Wetmore showed twin staircases facing each other at either end, but the east staircase was never built. Beyer Blinder Belle designed a new staircase made of the same Bottocino marble to match the existing staircase. The famous Sky Ceiling mural in the Main Concourse was also restored. Other pieces of the restoration included removing the ticket offices, built in 1927, to improve flow, revitalizing the balconies that overlook the Main Concourse, and renovating the Lower Concourse for use as a food court. The project cost $200 million.

American Homes

Like most other aspects of style in the 1990s, Americans showed diverse tastes when it came to the homes they built. A survey for McCall's put this question to readers: "If you could have anything you wanted, what would it be?" For many, the answer was a dream house, the top pick being a cozy cottage. Readers also showed a great deal of diversity in their choices, However, with others dreaming of large Victorians or Tudor-style mansions or contemporary Mediterranean homes. Architects designed homes to fit the owners' owneeds, regional influences, and surrounding environments, further guaranteeing diversity in housing styles. "Houses reveal what clients value, how they live, where they live. In a successful project, the house expresses a resonance between a client and an architect's vision," Karen Stein wrote in Architectural Record (April 1997).

Housing Trends

Despite the wide selection of housing styles at the end of the century, some trends emerged. Homes featured open floor plans to accommodate a desire for greater living space and "master suites," instead of simple master bedrooms. These spacious suites frequently featured walk-in closets, sitting areas, and attached spa-style bathrooms. Modern dwellings often showcased natural materials such as stone, wood, and stucco, as well as large windows to let in plenty of natural light. Architects took inspiration from existing regional structures and also designed homes that fit into their natural surroundings. Architect Josh Schweitzer, for example, designed "The Monument" outside of Joshua Tree National Monument in California to blend into its environment; the geometric exterior is painted orange, olive-green, and purple-blue. Schweitzer said "the colors are the colors of the desert" and "the monolithic forms of the buildings echo the forms of the rocks."

Wright

One of most recognized American architects, Frank Lloyd Wright, received considerable attention in the 1990s—even though he had died in 1959. The news focused on two of his designs: the Guggenheim Museum in New York, which opened in 1959, and the Monona Terrace in Madison, Wisconsin. The first received an addition, designed by the firm of Gwathmey Siegel & Associates. The second finally came to fruition, built by Wright's successor firm, Taliesin Architects. Fans and critics alike weighed in with their opinions on modern modifications to an American architectural hero's designs.

The Guggenheim

Wright intended his ziggurat design for the Guggenheim Museum to clash with the city, his structure to be seen as a piece of art as well as a building. The museum became one of Wright's best-known creations; however, it did not provide enough space to display art. The museum trustees decided to expand and tapped Gwathmey Siegel & Associates in 1982 for the project. Charles Gwathmey and Robert Siegel designed the expansion on a thirty-five-foot sliver of land behind the museum. The result was a new $24 million tower behind Wright's masterpiece and a $22 million renovation to the interior of the existing structure. The addition was criticized as bland. Architecture critic Carter Wiseman wrote in Architectural Record (October 1992): "'Plain Vanilla' is too charitable a description for the blandified 10-story 'background' slab." The interior renovation, however, opened up some of Wright's original design. The upper end of the stunning spiral ramp, which had been sealed off for storage, was reopened. Skylights, which had been covered to prevent sunlight from damaging paintings, were retrofitted with protective glass. As a result, curators had use of the roomiest gallery in Wright's building and light again filled the space. The interior renovation seemed to win more fans than the outside addition. Kurt Anderson wrote in Time that "Gwathmey's intelligent, intricate, loving work inside is a revelation, making it a far, far better museum than it has ever been."

Wisconsin

A Wright design was also revived in Wisconsin. In 1938 Wright, a Wisconsin native, unveiled his plans for Monona Terrace as a way to tie together the capital area, downtown business district, and Lake Monona of Madison. He had revised his plans, but he died before the project was built. In the early 1990s, however, the city decided to turn Wright's vision into reality. Though not as large and encompassing as Wright had envisioned, Monona Terrace opened in July 1997. The structure as built was a semicircular 250,000-square-foot convention center with five levels of exhibition halls and meeting rooms. It retained Wright's curvilinear form, but the interior spaces are not of his design; its use as a convention center was not his intent either. Although Taliesin Architects was involved, some questioned the accuracy of promotional pamphlets that boasted "A Public Space by Frank Lloyd Wright" and suggested the correct title should say that the design was "inspired by" or "in the style of" Wright. Architect Anthony Puttnam, a Wright apprentice in the 1950s, spoke in support of the project in the 12 June 1995 issue of Time: "I don't think we've done anything that Wright wouldn't have done. He was very open to change. He knew the importance of accommodating the client."

Sources:

Sarah Amelar and others, "Record Houses 1999," Architectural Record, 187 (April 1999): 97-144.

Kurt Anderson, "Finally Doing Right by Wright," Time, 143 (6 July 1992): 64-65.

Andrea Bauman, "How to Get Your Dream House!" McCall's 122 (October 1994): 144-147.

Donald Canty, "An Agenda for the Nineties," Architectural Record, 178 (January 1990): 72-73.

David Dillon, "Is this Monona Terrace really Wright?" Architectural Record, 186 (March 1998): 94-97.

John Elson, "The Wrong Wright?" Time, 145 (12 June 1995): 70.

Nora Richter Greer, "Preserving Preservation," Architectural Record, 179 (March 1991): 88-89, 179.

Charles Gwathmey, "On Wright's Foundations," Architectural Record, 180 (October 1992); 104-105.

Philip Jodidio, New Forms: Architecture in the 1990s (Köln & New York: Taschen, 1997), pp. 163, 166.

Stephen A. Kliment, "Split Personality," Architectural Record, 179 (June 1991): 9.

Kliment, "What Is Good Design?" Architectural Record, 178 (November 1990): 11.

Leslie Lampert, "The New American Home: 1993," Ladies' Home Journal, 110 (March 1993): 152-163.

Nancy Levmson, "Renovation Scoreboard," Architectural Record, 181 (January 1993): 70-73.

"Madison Votes for Frank Lloyd Wright—50 Years Later," ArchitecturalRecord, 181 (January 1993): 28.

Clifford A. Pearson, "Future Talk," Architectural Record, 179 (July 1991):176-181.

Pearson, "Project Diary: Beyer Blinder Belle's Makeover of Grand Central Terminal Involved Careful Restoration and Critical Changes," Architectural Record, 187 (February 1999): 85-95.

Pearson, "Reopening America's Gates," Architectural Record, 178 (July 1990): 46-57.

"Record Houses 1991," Architectural Record, 179 (April 1991): 69-133.

"Record Houses 1993," Architectural Record, 181 (April 1993): 63-107.

"Record Houses 1997'," Architectural Record, 185 (April 1997): 61-117.

Roger Rosenblatt, "The Man Who Wants Buildings to Love Kids," Time, 153 (22 February 1999): 70-73.

Tamara Schneider, "The New American Home 1992," Ladies' Home Journal, 109 (February 1992): 144-149.

Carter Wiseman, "Guggenheim Go-Around," Architectural Record, 180 (October 1992): 102-103.