Alchemy

The image of alchemists as defrocked wizards and full-time frauds is not quite accurate. Most of them were, in fact, highly spiritual men whose quest to transmute one substance into another was closer to mysticism than modern chemistry. The essence of alchemy lay in the belief that certain incantations and rituals could convince or command angelic beings to change base metals into precious ones.

According to ancient tradition, the mummy of Hermes Trismegistus, the master of alchemical philosophy, was found in an obscure chamber of the Great Pyramid of Giza, clutching an emerald tablet in its hands. The words contained on the tablet revealed the alchemical creed that "It is true and without falsehood and most real: that which is above is like that which is below, to perpetuate the miracles of one thing. And as all things have been derived from one, by the thought of one, so all things are born from this thing, by adoption." Within the secrets inscribed on the tablet was the "most powerful of all powers," the process by which the world was created and by which all "subtle things" might penetrate "every solid thing," and by which base material might be transformed into precious metals and gems.

For centuries, the writings of Hermes Trismegistus were considered a precious legacy from the master of alchemy. The Hermetics believed that the nature of the cosmos was sacramental: "that which is above is like that which is below." In other words, the nature of the spiritual world could be discovered through the study of the material substance of Earth; and earthly humans, created of the dust of the ground, comprised the prima materia of the heavenly beings they would become, just as the base elements of Earth comprised the raw materials for gold. The alchemical adepts believed that the most perfect thing on the planet was gold and that it was linked with the sun. The sun was considered to be the lowest manifestation of the spiritual world and therefore provided the intermediary between God and humankind.

The science of alchemy was introduced to the Western world at the beginning of the second century of the common era. It was, however, 200 years before the practice of the craft reached its zenith, concurrent with the persecutions of the pagans by the Christians. Zosimus of Panapolis, self-appointed apologist of alchemy, cited a passage in Genesis as the origin of the arcane art: "The sons of God saw that the daughters of men were fair." To this scriptural reference, Zosimus added the tradition that in reward for their favors, the "sons of God," who were believed to be fallen angels, endowed these women with the knowledge of how to make jewels, colorful garments, and perfumes with which to enhance their earthly charms.

The seven principal angels whose favor the alchemist sought to obtain for their transformation were Michael, who was believed to transmute base metals into gold and to dissolve any enmity directed toward the alchemist; Gabriel, who fashioned silver and foresaw the future; Samuel, who protected against physical harm; and Raphael, Sachiel, Ansel, and Cassiel, who could create various gems and guard the alchemist from attack by demons. However, members of the clergy were skeptical that the alchemists were truly calling upon angels, rather than demons in disguise, and they recalled the words of the Church Father Tertullian (c. 155 or 160–after 220), who confirmed earlier beliefs that the "sons of God" referred to in Genesis were evil perverts who bequeathed their wisdom to mortals with the sole intention of seducing them to mundane pleasures.

While the Hermetic was akin to the mystic, a great deal more came out of those smoky laboratories than candidates for the torture chambers of the Inquisition. In the intellectual half-light of the Middle Ages, the brotherhood of alchemy, perhaps by accident as much as design, did produce a number of valuable chemical discoveries. Albert le Grand produced potassium lye; Raymond Lully (1235–1315) prepared biocarbonate of potassium; Paracelsus (1493–1541) was the first to describe zinc and chemical compounds to medicine; Blaise Vigenere (1523–1596) discovered benzoic acid. Discoveries increased during the Renaissance when such men as Basil Valentine (c. 1450– 1492) discovered sulphuric acid, and Johann Friedrich Boetticher (1682–1719) became the first European to produce porcelain. Evidence has been disinterred from the musty alchemists' libraries in Europe that suggests that certain of the medieval and Renaissance alchemists conducted experiments with photography, radio transmission, phonography, and aerial flight, as well as the endless quest to transmute base metals into gold.

Delving Deeper

budge, e. a. wallis. egyptian magic. new york: dover books, 1971.

caron m. and s. hutin. the alchemists. trans. by helen r. lane. new york: grove press, 1961.

heer, friedrich. the medieval world: europe 1100 to 1350. translated by janet sondheimer. cleveland, ohio: world books, 1961.

meyer, marvin, and richard smith, eds. ancient christian magic. san francisco: harpersanfrancisco, 1994.

seligmann, kurt. the history of magic. new york: meridian books, 1960.

spence, lewis. an encyclopedia of occultism. new hyde park, n.y.: university books, 1960.

williams, charles. witchcraft. new york: meridian books, 1960.

Valentine Andreae (1586–1654)

Valentine Andreae (or Andreas) was a Lutheran pastor who held as his ideal not only Martin Luther (1483–1546), the powerful guiding force behind the Protestant Reformation, but also Christian Rosencreutz (1378–1484), legendary founder of the Rosicrucian mystical movement, and Paracelsus (1493–1541), the revered alchemist. Andreae was a brilliant scholar who

as a youth had traveled widely throughout Europe and had risen in the clerical ranks to become a chaplain at the Court of Wurtemberg, Germany. Embittered by the misery that had been brought to his fatherland as a result of the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), Andreae became an apologist for the Rosicrucians and wrote The Hermetic Romance or The Chemical Wedding (1616), an allegorical autobiography of Christian Rosencreutz the founder of the fraternity. Since the seal of the Rosicrucian Fraternity, the seal of Martin Luther, and the crest of the Andreae family all bear the image of the cross and the rose, understandable confusion has arisen from time to time regarding the "autobiography." Upon the book's initial publication, many scholars, aware that Rosencreutz had been dead for 130 years, speculated that his spirit had dictated the work. Later academic debates swirled around the question of whether or not Andreae and Rosencreutz were the same person and whether the Fraternity was actually founded in the seventeenth century, rather than the fifteenth.

Andreae admitted the work was his own and proclaimed it an allegorical novel written in tribute to Rosencreutz, as well as a symbolic depiction of the science of alchemy and Hermetic magic. Others identified the work as a comic romance, lightly depicting the most profound alchemical symbols in a fanciful manner. The royal wedding to which the hero Rosencreutz is invited is in reality the alchemical process itself in which the female and male principles are joined together. As the novel continues, the vast arcana of alchemical truths are represented by various animals, mythological beings, and human personalities.

In addition to being an advocate of alchemy and the process of contacting intermediary spirits to accomplish good for society, Andreae believed in becoming an active reformer of social ills, as well as supporting the reformation of the church. His treatises The Tower of Babel (1619) and The Christianopolitan Republic (1620) argue in favor of a general transformation of European society.

Delving Deeper

caron, m., and s. hutin. the alchemists. translated by helen r. lane. new york: grove press, 1961.

De Givry, Emile Grillot. Illustrated Anthology of Sorcery, Magic and Alchemy. Trans. by J. Courtenay Locke. New York: Causeway Books, 1973.

Seligmann, Kurt. The History of Magic. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.

Spence, Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Occultism. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960.

Roger Bacon (c. 1220–1292)

Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan friar, scientist, and philosopher, accepted what he termed the "natural magic" that occurred within mathematical and physical areas of experimentation, but he was resolutely against the use of incantations, the invocation of spirits, and the casting of spells. In his opinion, magicians were charlatans, reciting magical formulas even though they knew the effects they created were but the products of natural phenomena.

Bacon recognized that there were mysterious forces that appeared to be magical, such as those that moved the stars and the planets; but he argued that all knowledge that existed on Earth depended upon the power of mathematics. The friar also admitted the difficulties in discerning between the natural magic of science and the black arts. He was convinced, though, that natural magic was good and black magic was evil.

This thirteenth-century alchemist seemed to have powers of prediction when he told his contemporaries that physics, not magic, would produce huge vessels that would be able to navigate the oceans and rivers without sails or oars, cars without horses that would be able to move at tremendous speed, flying machines that would soar across the skies guided by a single man seated at centrally located controls, submarine machines that could dive to the bottom of the sea without danger to its crew, and great bridges without pillars that could span rivers. Bacon has been credited with dozens of inventions, such as the telescope, eye glasses, gunpowder—all derived through his science, rather than his magic.

In his medical practice, Bacon worked with certain alchemical formulas prized by specially gifted scientists since ancient times that could create a mysterious liquid known to prolong human life. He also employed the alchemical and homeopathic principles that "like produces like," that is, if one wishes to prolong one's life, he or she should eat the flesh of creatures that are long-lived, such as various reptiles.

Steadfastly arguing that all human knowledge depends upon a study of mathematics, Bacon insisted that the noblest expression of mathematics is astrology. At each person's birth the heavenly energies determine powerful physical, mental, and emotional factors that strongly affect that individual's destiny. The stars do not decide one's fate, Bacon conceded, for humans did have free will as a divine gift, but the celestial movements did most certainly dispose one toward one's fate. Therefore, he concluded, astrology should be utilized as a powerful tool in medicine, alchemy, and predicting the future of individuals and nations.

Friar Bacon was well aware that the church did not share his enthusiasm for astrology, but he argued that the Bible itself is the basic source of astrological knowledge and that a careful study of astrology would ultimately prove the claims of theology. Fellow clerics who opposed such a study, Bacon said, were merely ignorant.

In spite of such statements that seemed tinged with heresy, Bacon's religious views were essentially orthodox, and he sincerely believed that his studies would only serve to advance the power and the prestige of the church. He also drew upon scripture when he acknowledged the enormous power of the spoken word ("In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." John 1:1). Bacon stated that all miracles at the beginning of the world were the result of God's word. Therefore, when humans spoke with concentration and the proper intention and desire, their very words could accomplish powerful effects upon the self, upon others, and upon material things.

In his great determination to produce a work that would unify all learning, wisdom, and faith, Friar Bacon wrote Opus Majus (1268). Despite the fact that Bacon continued to attack superstition and reject the black arts, he remains widely known as a magician, rather than an early experimental scientist.

Delving Deeper

Caron, M., and S. Hutin. The Alchemists. Trans. by Helen R. Lane. New York: Grove Press, 1961.

De Givry, Emile Grillot. Illustrated Anthology of Sorcery, Magic and Alchemy. Trans. by J. Courtenay Locke. New York: Causeway Books, 1973.

Heer, Friedrich. The Medieval World: Europe 1100 to 1350. Trans. by Janet Sondheimer. Cleveland, Ohio: World Books, 1961.

Seligmann, Kurt. The History of Magic. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.

Spence, Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Occultism. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960.

Helvetius (1625–709)

While not a great deal is known about the life of John Fredrick Schweitzer, called Helvetius, his place in the history of alchemy is secure because, according to tradition, he witnessed a genuine transmutation of base metal into gold and later replicated the process in the presence of doubtful observers.

On December 27, 1666, when he was working in his study at the Hague, a stranger appeared and informed him that he would remove all Helvetius's doubts about the existence of the philosopher's stone that could serve as the catalyst to change base metals

into gold because he possessed such magic. The stranger immediately drew from his pocket a small ivory box, containing three pieces of metal of the color of brimstone and, for their size, extremely heavy. With those three bits of metal, the man told Helvetius, he could make as much as 20 tons of gold.

Helvetius examined the pieces of metal, taking the opportunity of a moment's distraction to scrape off a small portion with his thumbnail. Returning the metal to his mysterious visitor, he asked that he perform the process of transmutation before him.

The stranger answered firmly that he was not allowed to do so. It was enough that he had verified the existence of the metal to Helvetius. It was his purpose only to offer encouragement to alchemical experiments.

After the man's departure, Helvetius procured a crucible and a portion of lead into which, when the metal was in a molten state, he threw the stolen grain he had secretly scraped from the stranger's philosopher's stone. The alchemist was disappointed when the grain evaporated and left the lead in its original state. Thinking that he had been made the fool by some mad burgher's whimsey, Helvetius returned to his own experiments, forgetting about the dream of a magical philosopher's stone.

Some weeks later, when he had almost forgotten the incident, Helvetius received another visit from the stranger. He impatiently told the man to perform a transmutation before his eyes or to leave.

This time the stranger surprised him by agreeing to prove that what he and his brother alchemists most desired truly did exist. He admonished Helvetius that one grain was sufficient for the process to be accomplished, but it was necessary to wrap it in a ball of wax before throwing it on the molten metal, otherwise its extreme volatility would cause it to vaporize. To the alchemist's astonishment and his great delight, the stranger transmuted several ounces of lead into gold. Then he permitted Helvetius to repeat the process by himself, allowing the alchemist to convert six ounces of lead into pure gold.

Helvetius found it impossible to keep a secret of such immense value and importance. Soon the word of his remarkably successful experiments spread throughout Holland, and Helvetius demonstrated the power of the philosopher's stone in the presence of the Duke of Orange and many other prestigious witnesses. The duke's own goldsmith assayed the gold and declared it to be of highest quality. The famous philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) visited Helvetius in his laboratory and examined the crucible and gold for himself. He left the alchemist convinced that the transmutation had been authentic.

Soon, after repeated demands for such incredible demonstrations, Helvetius had exhausted the small supply of catalytic pieces that he had received from the mysterious stranger. Search as he might, Helvetius could not find the man in all of North Holland nor learn his name, and the stranger never again visited him.

Delving Deeper

Caron, M., and S. Hutin. The Alchemists. Translated by Helen R. Lane. New York: Grove Press, 1961.

De Givry, Emile Grillot. Illustrated Anthology of Sorcery, Magic and Alchemy. Translated by J. Courtenay Locke. New York: Causeway Books, 1973.

Seligmann, Kurt. The History of Magic. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.

Spence, Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Occultism. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960.

Hermes Trismegistus

In alchemical/magical tradition, powerful secrets of alchemy were found inscribed on an emerald tablet in the hands of the mummy of Hermes Trismegistus, the master magician and alchemist, who had been entombed in an obscure chamber of the Great Pyramid of Giza. The preamble to the key to transmuting base materials to precious metals and gems instructed the adept that "It is true, without falsehood, and most real: that which is above is like that which is below, to perpetrate the miracles of one thing." The writings of Hermes Trismegistus were considered by the alchemists as a legacy from the master of alchemy and were, therefore, precious to them.

As much as the thought of such a find may fire the imagination, the discovery of the Emerald Tablet at Giza is quite likely an allegory. The alchemists, who were concerned with the spiritual perfection of humankind as well as the transmutation of base metals into gold, commonly recorded their formulas and esoteric truths in allegorical form. Today it is known that there was no single personage named Hermes Trismegistus and that the Leyden Papyrus discovered in the tomb of the anonymous magician contains the oldest known copy of the inscription from the legendary Emerald Tablet, which is itself a description of the seven stages of gold-making.

Hermes, who is called Trismegistus, "three times the greatest," was a deity of a group of Greeks who once founded a colony in Egypt. This transplanted god drew his name from Hermes (Mercury to the Romans), the messenger of the Greek hierarchy of deities and the god who conducted the souls of the dead to the underworld kingdom of Hades. The Egyptians identified Hermes Trismegistus with Thoth, who, in their pantheon of gods, was the divine inventor of writing and the spoken word. These same Greek colonists developed an interest in the old Egyptian religion, then went on to combine elements of their hellenistic beliefs, add fragments of Judaism and other Eastern belief constructs, and set about creating a synthesis of the various theologies. A vast number of unknown authors worked at the great task of composing a series of esoteric writings, all of which were attributed to the mythical figure of Thoth-Hermes. Eventually, Thoth-Hermes became humanized into a legendary king, who supposedly wrote the amazing total of 36,525 volumes of metaphysical teachings. In the third century, Clement of Alexandria reduced the total to 42, which he said he saw in a vision being carried by adepts.

Delving Deeper

Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Magic. New York: Dover Books, 1971.

Caron, M., and S. Hutin. The Alchemists. Translated by Helen R. Lane. New York: Grove Press, 1961.

Seligmann, Kurt. The History of Magic. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.

Spence, Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Occultism. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960.

Albertus Magnus (c. 1193–1280?)

Albertus Magnus, Bishop of Ratisbon, became interested in alchemy and is credited with some extraordinary accomplishments, including the invention of the pistol and the cannon. Albertus is said to be one of those magi who actually achieved the transmutation of base metals into gold by means of the philosopher's stone. In addition, some said that he was able to exert control over atmospheric conditions, once even transforming a cold winter day into a pleasant summer afternoon so he and his guests could dine comfortably outside. A prolific writer, Albertus produced 21 volumes containing directions for the neophyte-practicing alchemist. Certain witnesses to his laboratory credited him with the creation of an automaton that performed menial tasks and was capable of intelligent speech. The term "Magnus" (great) usually ascribed to him was not awarded to him as a result of his many accomplishments, but is simply the Latin equivalent of his family name, de Groot.

Born at Larvingen on the Danube in circa 1193, Albertus was thought as a child to be quite stupid, capable, it seemed, of understanding only basic religious ideals, rather than any kind of complex study. Then one night the boy claimed to have received a visitation from the Blessed Virgin, and his intelligence quotient soared thereafter. Feeling obliged to devote his life to the clergy when he completed his studies, Albertus did so well in the clerical profession that he was made Bishop of Ratisbon. He held the position only a brief time before he resigned and announced that he would devote his intellect and his energy to science.

Albertus's scientific discoveries and his studies in alchemy and magic were always conducted with complete loyalty to the church. In his estimation, magic should be used only for good, and from the modern perspective, Albertus was not so much an alchemist as he was one of the most brilliant of the early experimental chemists. It remains a matter of conjecture whether or not Albertus really did accomplish the ultimate alchemical feat of transmuting base metals into gold, but tradition has it that he bequeathed his philosopher's stone to his distinguished pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274). Once it was in his possession, according to the old legend, Aquinas destroyed the stone, fearful that the accusations of communing with Satan that had been levied at his mentor might be true.

Ever since he left the clergy, Albertus had lived in pleasant seclusion in his estate near Cologne. As he grew older, it is said that the dullness of mind that had characterized his youth returned, and Albertus Magnus died in relative obscurity.

Delving Deeper

Caron, M., and S. Hutin. The Alchemists. Trans. by Helen R. Lane. New York: Grove Press, 1961.

Seligmann, Kurt. The History of Magic. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.

Spence, Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Occultism. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960.

Summers, Montague. The History of Witchcraft. New York: University Books, 1956.

Paracelsus (1493–1541)

The German physician Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim traveled throughout Europe, practicing medicine, occultism, and alchemy under the name of Paracelsus. As with so many of the true alchemists, Paracelsus believed that it was far more important to contemplate nature and the majesty of God's handiworks than to spend all one's time studying the knowledge that could be found in books. If one could acquire the kind of purity of belief, such as Jesus (c. 6 b.c.e.–c. 30 c.e.) affirmed existed in the heart of a child, one could literally transform base substances into precious metals and gems, for the primary ingredient necessary for alchemical success lay in obtaining the prima materia, the essence of all substances, the primeval building blocks of the universe. In the view of Paracelsus, this essential substance was both visible and invisible, and it was the soul of the world from which all elements had sprung, and its power was accessible to all who had the purity of heart and the faith to attain it. For Paracelsus, as for many of his alchemical brotherhood, the gospels of Jesus and the writings of Hermes Trismegistus had much in common.

Paracelsus also excited the medical community and lay people alike with his wonder medicine, the alkahest. There was the spirit alkahest that fortified the body against diseases, and there was the metal alkahest that matured and perfected base metals into gold. As a result of a series of chemical experiments, Paracelsus became the first to describe zinc, which had been unknown to science, and he introduced many practical curative compounds to the medical practitioners of his day. At the same time that he delivered these medicines into the hands of the doctors, he admonished them to remember always that the first doctor of humankind was God, the divine creator of all health.

Paracelsus believed firmly that the fully realized human was the one who lived a healthful life. In addition, those who sought divine harmony should study astrology in order to learn the harmony of the spheres, should become a theologian in order to comprehend the needs of the soul, and should practice alchemy in order to understand that there are universal substances to be found everywhere in the material world. Those many accomplishments should then be capped with the fully realized human becoming a mystic to perceive always that there exist things beyond logic.

Delving Deeper

Caron, M., and S. Hutin. The Alchemists. Trans. by Helen R. Lane. New York: Grove Press, 1961.

Seligmann, Kurt. The History of Magic. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.

Spence, Lewis. An Encyclopedia of Occultism. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960.

Summers, Montague. The History of Witchcraft. New York: University Books, 1956.

Alchemy

Alchemy was an early system of thinking about nature that contributed to the development of the modern science of chemistry. It was popular in ancient China, Persia, and western Europe throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages (400–1450). A combination of philosophy, metallurgical arts (the science of metals), and magic, alchemy was based on a distinctive world-view—that an essential correspondence exists between the microcosm and the macrocosm (the smallest and largest parts of the universe). Its objectives were: (1) to find ways of accelerating the rates at which metals were thought to "grow" within Earth in their development toward perfection (gold) and (2) to accomplish a similar perfection in humans by achieving eternal life.

Origins

Scholars do not know when or where alchemy originated. However, historians agree that alchemistic ideas and practices flourished in the ancient world within several cultural traditions. Even the term alchemy has remained mysterious; scholars have identified al as an Arabic article and proposed various possible meanings for the word chem, but a clear explanation of the term is still lacking.

Alchemy in China

The earliest alchemical practices are believed to have arisen in China in the fourth century b.c. The main emphasis in Chinese alchemy, it seems, was not on transmutation—the changing of one metal into another—but on the search for human immortality. In their search for an elixir (special liquid) of immortality, court alchemists experimented with mercury, sulfur, and arsenic. They sometimes created poisonous potions; several emperors died after drinking them. Such spectacular failures eventually led to the disappearance of alchemy in China.

Words to Know

Elixir: In alchemy, a substance that is supposed to have the power to change base metals into gold or to bring about human immortality.

Macrocosm: The whole extent of the universe.

Microcosm: A small part of the whole universe, as, for example, an individual human life.

Philosopher's stone: A material thought by alchemists to have the power to bring about the transmutation of metals.

Transmutation: The conversion of one substance into another, as in the conversion of lead or iron into gold.

Arabic alchemy

Alchemy flourished in parts of Islam in the eighth and ninth centuries. Court scientists, encouraged by their rulers, began studying and translating Greek philosophical and scientific works to aid them in their quest. The greatest practitioner of Arabic alchemy was ar-Razi (also known as Rhazes; c. 850–c. 925), who worked in Baghdad.

This dogged pursuit of a recipe for gold led Arabic alchemists to study and classify chemical elements and chemicals. Ar-Razi speculated about the possibility of using "strong waters," which were in reality corrosive salt solutions, as the critical ingredient for the creation of gold. Experimentation with salt solutions led to the discovery of mineral acids, but scholars are not sure if Arabic alchemy should be credited with this discovery.

Alchemy in the Western world

The history of Western alchemy probably begins in the Egyptian city of Alexandria. Among the most prominent Alexandrian alchemists was Zosimos of Panopolis, Egypt, who may have lived in the third or fourth century a.d. In accordance with older traditions, Zosimos believed that a magical ingredient was needed for the creation of gold. Greek alchemists called this ingredient xerion, which is Greek for "powder." This word came into Latin and modern European languages as elixir and later became known as the elusive philosopher's stone.

After the fall of the Western Roman empire in the fifth century, Greek science and philosophy—as well as alchemy—sank into oblivion. In was not until the eleventh century that scholars rediscovered Greek learning, translating Greek scientific and philosophical works into Latin. The pioneers of medieval science, such as Roger Bacon (c. 1219–c. 1292), viewed alchemy as a worthwhile intellectual pursuit, and alchemy continued to exert a powerful influence on intellectual life throughout the Middle Ages. However, as in ancient China, alchemists' continued failure to produce gold eventually provoked skepticism and led to its decline.

In the sixteenth century, alchemists turned to more practical matters, such as the use of alchemy to create medicines. The greatest practitioner of this type of alchemy was Swiss physician and alchemist Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (1493–1541), who successfully used chemical drugs to treat disease. Although a believer in magic, astrology, and alchemy, Paracelsus was also an empirical scientist (one who relies on observation and experimental methods); he contributed significantly to the development of medicine.

While alchemy is often considered to be unscientific, some great scientists, including Isaac Newton (1643–1727), took the subject seriously enough to conduct alchemical experiments. In addition, alchemy is credited with laying the foundation for the study of chemistry. Not only did alchemists systematize and classify the knowledge of elements and chemicals, they also made a number of important discoveries, including sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride, which is used in batteries), saltpeter (potassium nitrate, which is used in gunpowder and the manufacture of glass; or sodium nitrate, which is used in rocket propellants and explosives), alcohol, and mineral acids. In addition, they developed a number of laboratory techniques, including distillation (a method of purifying a liquid) and crystallization (solidifying substances into crystals).

[See also Chemistry ]

Alchemy

The alchemical period corresponds to the span of human history that preceded the era in which fundamental understanding in the chemical sciences began to be acquired by humankind. Most scholars believe that alchemy had its roots in ancient Egypt. China has also emerged as a possible source of alchemical thought. Thus, alchemy was the practice of chemistry such as it existed over the approximately twenty-five centuries before the time of Robert Boyle (1627–1697) and Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1784), when chemistry began to develop into the science we know today. Alchemy was an early precursor to science and included many of the chemistry-related processes that have become known as the chemical arts—the working of metals and alloys , glassmaking and glass coloring, and the preparation and use of pigments, dyes, and therapeutic agents.

In its broadest aspect, alchemy appears as a system of philosophy that strove to penetrate the mystery of life as well as to master the formation of inanimate substances. The main goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of base metals into gold and the attainment of the "Philosopher's Stone," a substance that would bring perfection to life. Other embodiments of the Philosopher's Stone were the Elixir Vitae, the Grand Magisterium, and the Red Tincture, all regarded as universal medicines. The alchemical fascination with gold emerged from the idea that gold was the perfect metal. If one could understand the essence of this perfect metal (the theory went), the essence of all substances less perfect than gold could then be understood, which, accordingly, could lead to the creation of all substances, including gold. The Philosopher's Stone incorporated the promise that the perfection of gold could somehow be transferred to life's processes. The Philosopher's Stone was the agent by which base metals could be changed to gold and, by extrapolation, could lead to greater longevity. The Chinese alchemists included these ideas in their approach to alchemistry. They sought the preparation of a liquid form of gold that would promote longevity; liquid gold would contain the essence of the Philosopher's Stone and the search for liquid gold was one route to the Philosopher's Stone. The Chinese alchemists were interested in the preparation of artificial cinnabar, which they believed to be the "life-giving" red pigment that could be used in goldmaking. They were also interested in the transmutation of base metals into gold. Thus, the focus of alchemical thought and process was the manipulation of matter in such a way as to, ultimately, increase longevity.

It is not surprising that in the early days of alchemy, much of the ancient Egyptian expertise in gold refining and goldworking as well as the Egyptian skill with respect to enamelware, the production of colored glass, and the preparation and use of pigments were highly valued by alchemists. In a sense, those Egyptian craftsmen were the first alchemists, even though

they may not have had the same ultimate focus as the practitioners of the alchemical arts.

In the course of the evolution of the alchemical arts, the fundamental properties of matter came under consideration. Aristotle taught that all matter consisted of four fundamental constituent factors or elements—air, water, earth, and fire. All matter was supposed to incorporate these four elements in different combinations and proportions. The changes that a substance could be made to undergo, for example, the burning of wood or the boiling of water, corresponded to a change or changes in the proportions of these four elements within that substance. Thus, alchemy ultimately gave rise to modern chemical thought and, gradually, the goals of alchemy were abandoned. In a broad sense, alchemy can be regarded as a prelude to the chemistry we know today.

see also Al-Razi, Abu-Bakr Muhammed ibn Zakariya; Boyle, Robert; Lavoisier, Antoine; Paracelsus.

J. J. Lagowski

Bibliography

Brock, W. H. (1993). The Norton History of Chemistry. New York: W. W. Norton.

Lindsay, Jack (1970). The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt. New York: Barnes and Noble.

ALCHEMY (ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY)

Alchemy is a philosophical and chemical "opus" with roots in ancient times and branches throughout the world's cultures. It is both an experimental and symbolic practice, a technical research into the nature of matter, and an imaginal exercise on the spirit of matter and its potential for change. It is also a mythopoeic meditation and a projective method, a moving Rorschach for the practitioner.

Using its experiments as metaphors, it has sought an enlivening elixir, a healing panacea, and the transformation of base metal into gold through release from crude impure ores. This occurs through producing a transmuting agent, itself a transformation from the prima materia of the common "philosopher's stone" into the precious "stone of the philosophers" or "lapis."

Alchemy posits an original unitary energy which separated in space-time into distinct physical elements, "falling apart" and differentiating in the four directions. Perceived as transmutable through shared qualities or correspondences, these elements could one day be reunited in a reconstituted wholeness. The dicta—"Return to chaos is essential to the work," "Volatize the fixed and fix the volatile," and "Dissolve and Coagulate"—express a dialectic process between complements and opposites in analysis and synthesis.

The alchemists might quicken this process through their outer intervention in matter and their interior practice of soul and spirit. The opus is the work of persons or couples, whose integration or dissociation are operative. While using common references, it values the individual and dynamic over the collective and dogmatic. Through the interior change of the adept and his soror mystica (mystical sister) and the chemical changes in the "well closed vessel" of the retort, the microcosm and macrocosm affect and reflect each other.

The Freudian psychoanalyst Herbert Silberer first observed the analogy to transference in the conjoinings and confrontations among sulphurs, mercuries, and salts, between the "masculine" and "feminine" matter, called king and queen, sun and moon, gold and silver, day and night, male and female.

Jung cited Silberer in his work on the "coniunctio " (conjunction) of transference and countertransference. In alchemy, Jung found a precursor of depth psychotherapy's dyadic and interactional model. He came to understand the psyche, the unconscious, and depth analysis as alchemical process, the "stone" as transformational consciousness, both a means and the goal of individuation. He also noted alchemical images in modern dreams.

Beverley D. Zabriskie

See also: Allendy, René Felix Eugène; Archetype (analytical psychology); Goethe and psychoanalysis; Jung, Carl Gustav; Silberer, Herbert; Transference/counter-transference (analytical psychology).

Bibliography

Jung, Carl Gustav. (1946). The psychology of the transference. Collected Works (Vol. XVI). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

——. (1953). Psychological reflections: An anthology of the writings of C. G. Jung (J. Jacobi, Ed.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

——. (1955-56). Mysterium Conjunctionis. An inquiry into the separation and synthesis of psychic opposites in alchemy. Collected Works (Vol. XIV). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

alchemy

Alchemy is the historic inquiry into the nature of matter, a research undertaken by many individuals in different cultures around the world. Alchemists were chemists, physicists, and philosophers, who had as their ultimate goal the transformation of ordinary matter into gold. They undertook experiments, speculated on the composition of matter, and wrote treatises that were notorious for their complexity and their obscure, often made-up language. During the Renaissance, the reputation of alchemy and alchemists declined. Some monarchs and church officials banned their work, and alchemists were subject to arrest and execution as magicians and heretics.

The ancient Greeks and Romans told of an ancient sage, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegitus, who was believed to have discovered many of the secrets of matter. Europe's medieval alchemists collected plants, minerals, soil, and other substances, combining them and altering them in a search of the “philosopher's stone,” which would allow them to create gold or silver from more common materials. In the quest for curing illness, they also undertook a search for a universal panacea that would relieve deadly maladies and bring the sick back to health.

The alchemists applied principles of astrology, religion, and metaphysics in their books of formulas, attempting to arrive at universal principles that would explain their observations. Although they failed in their efforts to find the philosopher's stone, they did uncover useful compounds. In their research into the nature of light and illumination, the alchemist Hennig Brandt discovered phosphorus in 1669. Alchemical knowledge also contributed to industries such as dyeing, tanning, metalworking, and glassmaking.

Alchemists of the Renaissance drew on the medieval scholastic tradition of logic and argument, the knowledge of Arab herbalists and chemists, and the application of scientific research in industry and manufacturing. During the Renaissance, many philosophers and scientists wrote alchemical works. Sir Isaac Newton devoted more than thirty years to the investigation of alchemy, setting down experimental notes, transcribing and editing the works of others, and making up catalogs of substances and their properties. The German scientist Andreas Libavius wrote Alchemia, considered by many to be the first chemistry textbook. In some cases, the principles of alchemy provided a framework for influential systems of philosophy and knowledge. Paracelsus (1493–1541), considered by many as the greatest alchemist of the Renaissance era, created an all-encompassing chemical trinity, in which all earthly substances were grounded in salt (the principle of fixedness), sulfur (the principle of inflammability), and mercury (the principle of combining).

See Also: Paracelsus

alchemy, an art of ancient but uncertain origins, can be interpreted as an enquiry into man's relationship with the cosmos and the will of the Creator, manifested as either a devotional philosophy transforming sinful man into perfect being (‘esoteric’), or attempted transmutation of base metals into gold or silver (‘exoteric’), or an inextricable mixture of both. The catalyst required was the elixir of life, tincture, or philosophers' stone, the preparation of which long obsessed men of all ranks, despite its futility.

Probably arising in Hellenistic Alexandria, alchemy (al-kimia) was transmitted to Europe through Islamic culture, via 12th-cent. translations into Latin by men like Robert of Chester, Adelard of Bath, and the encyclopedist Bartholomaeus Anglicus. Whilst earlier Taoist alchemists had aimed principally for longevity, if not immortality, medieval western alchemists' objectives were gold-making or creating superior medicines, drawing on Aristotelian theory of the four ‘elements’ (air, fire, earth, water), old ideas that the planets were connected to certain metals, animistic beliefs, and current technical knowledge. The medieval idea of unity of matter justified the approach that if lead and gold were both dense and soft, then merely changing greyness to yellowness should convert the common metal into the precious one. Obsession with chemical colour changes (series of black, white, iridescent, yellow, purple, red) was matched by symbolic and enigmatic language, as the basic procedures of calcination, sublimation, fusion, crystallization, and distillation absorbed much time and expense.

Since the gold-makers' skills rendered them vulnerable to avaricious magnates, caution and circumspection were advisable, but public credulity encouraged conjuring and dishonesty; Chaucer's bitterness in ‘The Canon's Yeoman's Tale’ suggests that he himself had been taken in. Practical alchemy, nevertheless, had much to offer medicine, giving rise to metallic rather than herbal remedies, much favoured by Paracelsus, and eventually to iatrochemistry.

Despite interest from John Dee, Kenelm Digby, the ‘Wizard’ 9th earl of Northumberland, Walter Ralegh, and even Charles II, alchemy received its death-warrant in the mid-17th cent. when Robert Boyle demolished the theory of the four ‘elements’. Although it had led to the discovery of alcohol and the mineral acids, historians of chemistry view alchemy in general as fraudulent. Yet growing dissatisfaction with the mechanistic objectives of modern science has renewed interest in the alchemists' wider goals and debate about man and Creator.

A. S. Hargreaves

alchemy , ancient art of obscure origin that sought to transform base metals (e.g., lead) into silver and gold; forerunner of the science of chemistry. Some scholars hold that it was first practiced in early Egypt and others that it arose in China (in the 5th or 3d cent. BC) and was carried westward. It consisted chiefly of experiments with metals and other chemical materials. Alchemical apparatus included the alembic (or ambix ) for distillation and the kerotakis for sublimation. In its beginnings alchemy was essentially a craft and embraced many kinds of metalwork, including the use of alloys resembling gold and silver. Alexandria is generally considered a center of early alchemy, and the art was influenced by the philosophy of the Hellenistic Greeks; the conversion of base metals into gold (considered the most perfect of metals) was part of a general striving of all things toward perfection. Since the early alchemists were mainly artisans, they tried to conceal the secrets of their work; thus, many of the materials they used were referred to by obscure or astrological names. It is believed that the concept of the philosopher's stone (called also by many other names, including the elixir and the grand magistery) may have originated in Alexandria; this was an imaginary substance thought to be capable of transmuting the less noble metals into gold and also of restoring youth to the aged. Alchemy, strongly tinged with magic, reached the Arabs (perhaps in the 8th cent.) and remained for several centuries under Muslim influence; in the 12th cent. it reached parts of Europe through translations of Arabic writings (the early Greek treatises were not known in Europe in the Middle Ages). Arab alchemy was preserved especially in the works of Jabir , and the earlier Greek alchemy in those of Zosimus and others. The alchemical writings of the Middle Ages continued to be couched in symbolic and cryptic language. The alchemists became obsessed with their quest for the secret of transmutation; some adopted deceptive methods of experimentation, and many gained a livelihood from hopeful patrons. As a result, alchemy fell into disrepute. However, in the searching experimental quests of the alchemists chemistry had its beginnings; indeed, the histories of alchemy and chemistry are closely linked. Transmutation of elements has been accomplished in modern chemistry.

Bibliography: See L. Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 vol., 1923–58); A. J. Hopkins, Alchemy: Child of Greek Philosophy (1943); C. A. Burland, The Arts of the Alchemists (1967); J. Lindsay, The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt (1970).

7. Alchemy

See also 252. MAGIC .

arcanum

the secret of life; a great elixir or remedy sought by the alchemists. See also 233. KNOWLEDGE .

elixir

1. the hypothetical substance sought by alchemists that was believed to transform base metals into gold and give eternal life. Also called philosopher’s stone, elixir of life.

2. Rare. the quintessence or underlying principle. See also 350. REMEDIES .

Hermeticism¹

1. the occult concepts, ideas, or philosophy set forth in the writings of the hermeticists of the late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance.

2. adherence to, belief in, or propagation of these concepts and ideas.

3. Literature. a symbolic and arcane style similar to that of the hermeticists, especially in the poetry of certain French symbolist poets. Cf. hermetics . —hermeticist, hermetist, n. —hermetic, hermetical, adj.

Hermeticism², hermeticism

1. the ideas or beliefs set forth in the writings of Hermes Trismegistus.

2. adherence to these ideas and beliefs.

hermetics

the occult sciences, especially alchemy. Cf. Hermeticism¹ . —hermetist, n. —hermetic, hermetical, adj.

iatrochemistry

1. originally, alchemy devoted to medicinal purposes, especially the alchemy of the period 1525-1660, influenced by the theories of Paracelsus.

2. currently, chemistry for healing purposes. —iatrochemist, n.

spagyrist

an alchemist.

transmutation

the process or act of change, especially from one thing to another, as the change from base metal to gold, pursued by the alchemists. —transmutationist, n. —transmutative, adj.

transmutationist

an alchemist who believed that, in one of several ways, it was possible to change less valuable elements into silver or gold.

Alchemy (Arab., perhaps from Gk. via Syriac, al-kīmiyā). The endeavour (minimally) to find the key to the transformation of chemical substances, especially of base metals into precious ones; and beyond that, to find ‘the elixir of immortality’. The word and practice of ‘alchemy’ thus underlie modern chemistry. In its earlier forms it pervades all religions, though moving increasingly to interior and spiritual transformations. Thus in Taoism, there were two different levels: practitioners of Wai-tan (external alchemy) sought a potion for immortality, based on a belief that a person's vital energy (yüan-chʾi) was a particular balance of yin-yang, which, if it is disturbed, produces illness and death; gold and cinnabar have the power to restore the balance. The practitioners of Nei-tan (internal alchemy) aimed to develop an immortal soul from ching, chʾi, and shen, by meditative exercises, especially breathing and control of bodily functions.

European alchemy seems to have begun in Hellenistic Egypt around the 1st cent. CE, and possibly even earlier. It enjoyed flourishing periods in 2nd- and 3rd-cent. Greece, and in various parts of the Arab world in the 7th and 8th cents., thus taking its name from the Arab. al-kīmiyā, the Syriac kīmīyā, and the Gk. chēmeia. In the 10th cent., alchemy re-entered Europe via Islamic Spain, where it also received influence from the Kabbalah. At its peak in Renaissance Europe, in addition to having produced a well-developed medical system under such as Paracelsus, alchemy came for some to rival the Church as the epitome of Hermetic philosophy.

alchemy, an art of ancient origins, can be interpreted as an enquiry into man's relationship with the cosmos and the will of the Creator, manifested as either a devotional philosophy transforming sinful man into perfect being (‘esoteric’), or attempted transmutation of base metals into gold or silver (‘exoteric’). The catalyst required was the elixir of life, tincture, or philosophers' stone, the search for which long obsessed men of all ranks.

Probably arising in Hellenistic Alexandria, alchemy (al‐kimia) was transmitted to Europe through Islamic culture. Whilst earlier Taoist alchemists had aimed principally for longevity, medieval western alchemists' objectives were gold‐making or creating superior medicines. Since the gold‐makers' skills rendered them vulnerable to avaricious magnates, circumspection was advisable, but public credulity encouraged conjuring and dishonesty. Practical alchemy, nevertheless, had much to offer medicine, giving rise to metallic rather than herbal remedies, much favoured by Paracelsus, and eventually to iatrochemistry.

Despite interest from John Dee, Kenelm Digby, the ‘Wizard’ 9th earl of Northumberland, Walter Ralegh, and even Charles II, alchemy received its death‐warrant in the mid‐17th cent. when Robert Boyle demolished the theory of the four ‘elements’.

alchemy A pseudo-science originating independently in China, Greece, and India in about the 3rd century BC, concerned with the possible transmutation of all matter, most famously the transmutation of base metals, such as lead, into gold. The transmutation was variously an end in itself, a means by which to make an elixir of life, and a route to the creation of a panacea, or universal medicine. Early alchemy degenerated into superstition and mysticism, but the art flourished once again in the 8th century AD in Arab countries. Translations of Arabic alchemical texts led in the 12th century to a second revival of alchemy in Europe, notably in Prague. It attracted such medieval scholars as Roger Bacon (c.1219–c.92) and St Albertus Magnus (c.1200–80), and was patronized by princes and emperors. The influential Swiss writer Paracelsus (16th century) was primarily concerned with its medical application to his search for a chemical therapy for disease; his followers developed specialized chemical medicines and sought a universal elixir, which they dreamed would prolong life and restore youth. During the Renaissance alchemy fell into disrepute, but the chemical experience accumulated by alchemists over many centuries became the basis upon which the modern science of chemistry was built.

al·che·my / ˈalkəmē/ • n. the medieval forerunner of chemistry, concerned particularly with attempts to convert base metals into gold or to find a universal elixir. ∎ fig. a process by which paradoxical results are achieved or incompatible elements combined with no obvious rational explanation: his conducting managed by some alchemy to give a sense of fire and ice. DERIVATIVES: al·chem·ic / alˈkemik/ adj. al·chem·i·cal / alˈkemikəl/ adj. al·che·mist / -mist/ n. al·che·mize / -ˌmīz/ v.

alchemy XIV. ME. alkamye, etc. — OF. alkemie, alkamie (mod. alchimie) — medL. alchimia, -chemia = Arab. al-kīmiyā', i.e. AL-2, kīmiyā' — Gr. khēm(e)íā art of transmuting metals. By assoc. with Gr. khūmeíā infusion arose the modL. alchymia, whence the frequent XVI–XVIII Eng. sp. alchymy (cf. chymistry, var. of CHEMISTRY).
Hence alchemical XVI. So alchemist XV (cf. †alchemister, etc. XIV). — OF. alkemiste or medL. alchemista.

alchemy the medieval forerunner of chemistry, concerned with the transmutation of matter, in particular with attempts to convert base metals into gold or find a universal elixir.

The term comes (in late Middle English) via Old French and medieval Latin from Arabic alkīmiyā', from al ‘the’ + kīmiyā' (from Greek khēmia, khēmeia ‘art of transmuting metals’).

alchemy Primitive form of chemistry practised in Western Europe from early Christian times until the 17th century, popularly supposed to involve a search for the philosopher's stone – capable of transmuting base metals into gold – and the elixir of life. It actually involved a combination of practical chemistry, astrology, philosophy, and mysticism.

ALCHEMY.

This entry includes two subentries:

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