RUSSIA

Russian Federation

Rossiyskaya Federatsiya

CAPITAL: Moscow

FLAG: Equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red.

ANTHEM: Patriotic Song.

MONETARY UNIT: The ruble (r) is a paper currency of 100 kopecks. There are coins of 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 50 kopecks and 1 ruble, and notes of 100, 200, 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000 and 50,000 rubles. r1 = $0.03550 (or $1 = r28.17) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1–2 January; Christmas, 7 January; Women's Day, 8 March; Spring and Labor Day, 1–2 May; Victory Day, 9 May; State Sovereignty Day, 12 June; Socialist Revolution Day, 7 November.

TIME: 3 pm Moscow = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Russia is located in northeastern Europe and northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world—slightly less than 1.8 times the size of the United States—with a total area of 17,075,200 sq km (6,592,771 sq mi). Russia shares boundaries with the Arctic Ocean on the n; northern Pacific Ocean on the e; China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan, Georgia on the s; and the Black Sea, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Finland on the w with a total land boundary of 19,990 km (12,421 mi) and a coastline of 37,653 km (23,396 mi). Russia's capital city, Moscow, is located in the western part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

From west to east, the country can be roughly divided into five large geographic regions: the Great European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the West Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, and the mountains of the northeast and southeast. The Great European and West Siberian Plains contain a variety of terrain, including grasslands and farmlands as well as forests, swamps, and large regions of tundra. The Caucasus Mountains, located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea at the southwest of the Great European Plain, are divided into two chains separated by lowlands. The Caucasus Mountains form the border with Russia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia and mark the boundary between Asia to the south and Europe to the north. The highest peak in the Caucasus Mountains is the extinct volcano Mt. Elbrus (5,642 m/18,510 ft); this is also the highest peak in Russia and Europe. The lowest point in Russia is at the Caspian Sea, 28 m (92 ft) below sea level. The Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake.

The plains are divided by the Ural Mountains, which define the boundary between Asia on the east and Europe on the west. They extend about 2,100 km (1,300 mi) from the Arctic Ocean to the northern border of Kazakhstan; the highest point in the Urals is Mt. Narodnaya at 1,894 m (6,212 ft). The Central Siberian Plateau ranges in height from 500–700 m (1,600–2,300 ft). A number of rivers and deep canyons stretch across this area. The highest mountains of the eastern region are the Altay Shan, which reach a peak of 4,619 m (15,157 ft) at Mt. Pelukha. The other eastern mountain regions average less than 3,048 m (10,000 ft) in height.

The longest river in Russia is the Ob, which stretches through the West Siberian Plain to the Arctic Ocean for a length of 5,410 km (3,362 mi). The most important river commercially is the Volga, which stretches for 3,689 km (2,293 mi) through the Great European Plain to the Caspian Sea. The Volga is the longest river in Europe. The Dnieper is another important river in this region. The Amur River flows along the southeast border of the country into the Pacific. The largest lake in Russia is Lake Baikal (Ozero Baykal—30,510 sq km/11.870 sq mi), located in the southern plateau region.

Despite its size, only a small percentage of Russia's land is arable, with much of it too far north for cultivation.

Most of western Russia is located on the Eurasian Tectonic Plate, with seismic activity occurring frequently in the Caucasus Mountains. The eastern coast lies on the North American Plate near the boundary with the Pacific Plate. This eastern coast is part of the "Ring of Fire," a seismically active band surrounding the Pacific Ocean. While many of the resulting earthquakes are moderate (below 6.0 magnitude on the Richter scale), more severe quakes are not uncommon. In 2003, a 6.8 magnitude quake occurred near Primorye in July. In September of the same year, a 7.3 magnitude quake occurred along the Xinjiang border region; in October a 6.7 magnitude quake hit in southwestern Siberia; and in December another 6.7 quake hit at Komandorskiye Ostrova. On 10 June 2004, a 6.9 magnitude quake occurred at the Kamchatka Peninsula (Poluostrov Kamchatka).

CLIMATE

Most of the country has a continental climate, with long, cold winters and brief summers. There is a wide range of summer and winter temperatures and relatively low precipitation. January temperatures are in the range of 6°c (45°f) on the southeastern shore of the Black Sea. A record low temperature of -71°c (-96°f) was recorded in 1974 at the northeast Siberian village of Oymyakon, the lowest temperature ever recorded anywhere in the world for an inhabited region. In many areas of Siberia the soil never thaws for more than a foot.

Annual precipitation decreases from about 64–76 cm (25–30 in) in the European region to less than 5 cm (2 in) a year in parts of Central Asia. The tundra has long winters, with summers lasting one or two months, and receives 8–12 months of snow or rain. The far northern forest, like most of the country, has long severe winters, short summers, and extremely short springs and autumns. Precipitation is low but falls throughout the year, varying from 53 cm (21 in) at Moscow to 20–25 cm (8–10 in) in eastern Siberia. The steppes have very cold winters and hot, dry summers.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Russia has several soil and vegetation zones, each with its characteristic flora and fauna. Northernmost is the so-called arctic desert zone, which includes most of the islands of the Arctic Ocean and the seacoast of the Taymyr Peninsula. These areas are characterized by the almost complete absence of plant cover; only mosses and lichens are to be found. Birds and mammals associated with the sea (sea calf, seal, and walrus) are typical of this zone.

The tundra, which extends along the extreme northern part of Asia, is divided into arctic, moss-lichen, and shrubby tundra subzones. Only dwarf birches, willows, lichens, and mosses grow in the thin layer of acidic soil. Indigenous fauna include the arctic fox, reindeer, white hare, lemming, and common and willow ptarmigan.

South of the tundra is the vast forest zone, or taiga, covering half of the country; the soil here is podzolic. The northern areas of this zone are characterized by the alternation of tundra landscape with sparse growth of birches, other deciduous trees, and spruce. Farther south are spruce, pine, fir, cedar, and some deciduous trees. There are subzones of mixed and broadleaf forests on the Great Russian Plain in the southern half of the forest zone. Wildlife in the taiga include moose, Russian bear, reindeer, lynx, sable, squirrel, and among the birds, capercaillie, hazel-grouse, owl, and woodpecker. In the broadleaf woods are European wild boar, deer, roe deer, red deer, mink, and marten.

Farther south is the forest-steppe zone, a narrow band with the boundaries of the Great Russian plain and the West Siberian low country. Steppes with various grasses alternate with small tracts of oak, birch, and aspen. Still farther south, the forest-steppe changes to a region of varied grasses and small plants. The black and chestnut soils of this zone produce the best agricultural land in Russia. Typical mammals are various rodents (hamsters and jerboas); birds include skylarks, cranes, eagles, and the great bustard.

In the semidesert zone, plant cover includes xerophytic grasses and shrubs. Typical animals are the wildcat and saiga antelope; lizards, snakes, and tortoises are common. The semidesert areas and the deserts of Central Asia and Kazakhstan make up a separate subregion.

As of 2002, there were at least 269 species of mammals, 528 species of birds, and over 11,400 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Decades of Soviet mismanagement resulted in the catastrophic pollution of land, air, rivers, and seacoasts. Air pollution is especially a problem in the Urals and Kuznetsk (where vast populations are exposed to hazardous emissions from metal-processing plants) as well as in the Volga and Moscow regions. In 1992 Russia had the world's third-highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions, which totaled 2.1 billion metric tons, a per capita level of 14.11 metric tons. However, in 1996 the total dropped to 1.5 billion metric tons and in 2000 the total was about 1.4 billion metric tons.

The Volga River has been damaged through rash exploitation of hydroelectric power. Lake Baikal (Ozero Baykul) is the largest freshwater reservoir in the world, but has been heavily polluted through agricultural and industrial development.

About 7.8% of Russia's total land area was protected as of 2003, including 8 natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 35 Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 43 types of mammals, 47 species of birds, 6 types of reptiles, 18 species of fish, 1 type of mollusk, 29 species of other invertebrates, and 7 species of plants. Threatened species included Atlantic sturgeon, beluga, crested shelduck, Amur leopard, Siberian tiger, Mediterranean monk seal, Wrangel lemming, and the Oriental stork. The great auk, Palla's cormorant, and Steller's sea cow have become extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Russia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 143,025,000, which placed it at number 8 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 13% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 16% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 87 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be -0.6%, a rate the government viewed as too low. Russia's fertility rate is among the lowest in the world. The projected population for the year 2025 was 130,175,000. The overall population density was 8 per sq km (22 per sq mi), but the population is distributed unequally, with rural areas being very sparsely populated.

The UN estimated that 73% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of -0.49%. The capital city, Moscow, had a population of 10,469,000 in that year. Other large urban areas and their population estimates include St. Petersburg (formerly Leningrad), 5,315,000; Novosibirsk, 1,425,000; Nizhniy Novgorod (formerly Gorkiy), 1,288,000; Yekaterinburg (formerly Sverdlovsk), 1,420,000; Samara (formerly Kuybyshev), 1,140,000; Omsk, 1,132,000; Kazan', 1,108,000; Rostov-on-Don, 1,081,000; Chelyabinsk, 1,067,000; Ufa, 1,035,000; Volgograd, 1,016,000; Perm, 984,000; Krasnoyarsk, 912,000; Saratov, 868,000; and Voronezh, 842,000.

MIGRATION

During 1979–88, Russia gained 1,747,040 people through net migration from other Soviet republics. Germany took in 156,299 former Soviet Germans in 1991. As of May, 1996, there were still 75,000 internally displaced persons from the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Following the military conflicts in Chechnya of 1994, 220,000 people fled to the neighboring republics of Daghestan, Ingushetia, and North Ossetia. Between 1989–95, 169,000 Russians returned from Azerbaijan, and 296,000 returned from Kyrgyzstan. Between 1991–95, 50,000 Russians returned from Belarus; 614,000 returned from Kazakhstan; and 300,000 from Tajikistan. In 1991, 400,000 returned from Uzbekistan, and 100,000 returned from Turkmenistan from 1993–95. As reported in 2005 by the US Department of State, Russia is a major source of women trafficked globally for the purpose of sexual exploitation. It is also a significant destination and transit country for persons trafficked for sexual and labor exploitation from regional and neighboring countries into Russia, and on to the Gulf states, Europe, Asia, and North America. In addition, the International Labour Organization estimated that of the five million illegal immigrants in Russia, 20% are victims of forced labor. Trafficking of children and of child sex tourism is also reported. Internal trafficking from rural to urban areas remained a problem.

As of 1999, there were 400 refugees, 10,000 asylum seekers, 173,000 internally displaced people (mainly from Chechnya and Ingushetia), and an estimated 3.5–4 million forced migrants. By the end of 2004, there were 1,852 refugees, 315 asylum seekers, 54 returned refugees, mainly from the surrounding former Soviet states. In addition, there were 334,796 internally displaced persons, which included 100,000 Afghans in a refugee-like situation, 73,004 forced migrants, 10,755 Meskhetians, and 5,177 non-CIS asylum seekers.

In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated 1.03 migrants per 1,000 population. Remittances reported for 2003 were $300 million.

ETHNIC GROUPS

According to the 2002 census, about 79.8% of the population is Russian. Tatars constitute 3.8%, Ukrainians make up 2%, Bashkir account for 1.2%, and Chuvash form 1.1%. Belarussians and Moldovans each make up less than 1% of the population. The Romani population, according to the 2002 census, was reported at about 182,000 people; however, unofficial estimates place the number at about 1.2 million. Small communities of indigenous groups include the Buryats in Siberia and the Enver, Tafarli, and Chukchi in the North.

LANGUAGES

About 90% of the population speaks Russian, a member of the eastern group of Slavic languages. It is highly inflected, with nouns, pronouns, and adjectives declined in six cases. There are three grammatical genders. The language, which has been written since about ad 1000, uses the Cyrillic alphabet of 33 letters. In addition, a wide variety of other Slavic, Finno–Ugric, Turkic, Mongol, Tungus, and Paleo–Asiatic languages also are spoken. In the republic of Dagestan alone, two million people share 28 languages, 14 of which are unwritten.

The breakup of the Soviet Union has produced a surge in regional autonomy and a backlash against the Russian language and the Cyrillic alphabet in many of Russia's 21 republics. Tatarstan, for example, is considering a reintroduction of the Latin script for Tatar, while Buriatia may restore Old Mongol lettering for Buriat. Stalin imposed the Cyrillic alphabet on Russia's minority groups in an effort to make Russian the national language. Russian is the official language of the country and one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

RELIGIONS

The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) dates back to the "Kievan Rus" period (the first organized Russian state). In 988, Prince Vladimir, in order to gain an alliance with the powerful Byzantine Empire, declared Christianity as the religion of his realm and mandated the baptism of Kiev's population and the construction of cathedrals. During the Mongol occupation (1240–1480), the head of the ROC (Metropolitan) was moved to Moscow. Throughout the reign of the tsars, Orthodoxy was synonymous with autocracy and national identity. After the Communist revolution of 1917, the Soviet government, based on Marxism, imposed a dogma of militant atheism and subordinated the ROC through fear and persecution. Other Christians, Muslims, and Jews were also oppressed (anti-Semitism was widespread before and after the 1917 revolution). Since 1985 and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, thousands of churches have been reopened; freedom of religion was incorporated into the draft constitution of 1993.

According to a 2004 report from the Ministry of Justice, there were about 21,664 registered religious groups in the country. The Russian Orthodox Church had the largest number, at about 11,525 registered groups. It is estimated that about 50% of the population describe consider themselves to be Russian Orthodox, but a much smaller percentage are actually active church members. Other Orthodox denominations include the Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church, the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, the True Orthodox Church, the Russian Orthodox Free Church, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church.

Islam is the largest minority religion, with about 3,537 registered groups and, perhaps over 1,000 unregistered groups. Muslims are believed to make up about 14% of the population. Protestants make up the third-largest group of the country with a variety of denominations, including Pentecostals (1,467 groups), Baptists (979 groups), Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians, and the Church of Christ. There are also registered groups of Seventh-Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses (386 groups), the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Mennonites, and the Salvation Army. The Molokane (28 groups) and Dukhobor are Christian-based movements that originated in Russia. There are about 267 Jewish registered groups, with an estimated 600,000–1,000,000 Jews in the country. There are 80 groups of Hare Krishnas. Hindus, Scientologists, Taoists, Baha'is, Zoroastrians, Buddhists, Karaites, and shamanists are also represented. There are about 11 registered pagan groups.

The 1997 Law on Freedom of Conscience does not claim a state religion but recognizes Russian Orthodoxy, Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism as traditional religions. Theoretically, no special privileges are granted to these traditional religions; however, the ROC has made special agreements with the government that seem to place the church in a preferred status. Many citizens and government officials consider the acceptance or practice of Russian Orthodoxy to be a form of nationalism. Though registration is not required, many groups do so in order to enjoy certain tax and legal benefits. Some minority groups have reported incidents of discrimination and harassment on social and local political levels.

TRANSPORTATION

Russia's transportation system is extensive, but is in a state of general decay. Maintenance, modernization, and expansion are required for Russia's infrastructure, much of which operates beyond capacity.

Railroads have long been an important means of transportation in Russia. In the 1890s, a vast state-sponsored program of railway construction commenced, with the goal of nurturing private enterprise, exploiting natural resources, and expanding heavy industry (especially metallurgy and mineral fuels). The Trans-Siberian Railroad was the cornerstone of this development. From 1898–1901, more than 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of track were constructed per year. Railroad development also figured prominently during the Soviet era. Railways in 2004 extended some 87,157 km (54,160 mi), of which 86,200 km (53,616 mi) were primarily 1.52-m broad gauge track.

There were 537,289 km (334,194 mi) of highways in 2001 (the latest year for which data was available), of which 362,133 km (225,247 mi) were paved. As of 2003, there were 23,383,000 passenger cars and 5,400,000 commercial vehicles registered for use. Many imports from Europe are increasingly arriving in Russia. Russia's ratio of population per car is 6.2.

Marine access has been important to Russia ever since the construction of St. Petersburg was ordered by Peter the Great on the marshland adjoining the Gulf of Finland, in order to provide imperial Russia with a "window on the West." Other important maritime ports include Kaliningrad, on the Baltic Sea; Murmansk and Arkhangel'sk, both on the Barents Sea; Novorossiysk, on the Black Sea; Vladivostok and Nakhodka, both on the Sea of Japan; Tiksi on the Laptev Sea; and Magadan and Korsakov on the Sea of Okhotsk (the latter is on Sakhalin). As of 2004, Russia had 96,000 km (59,712 mi) of navigable inland waterways. Of that total, 72,000 km (44,784 mi) were in European Russia and linked the Black Sea, the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Azov. Major inland ports include Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan', Khabarovsk, Krasnoyarsk, Samara, Moscow, Rostov, and Volgograd. The merchant fleet consisted in 2005 of 1,194 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 4,521,472 GRT. Early in the 21st century, a new port is scheduled to be built in the Batareynaya Harbor of the Baltic Sea about 70 km (43 mi) southwest of St. Petersburg. The new facility will handle oil shipments.

In 2004, Russia had an estimated 2,586 airports and airfields. As of 2005, a total of 640 had paved runways, and there were also 42 heliports. Principal airports include Novy at Khabarovsk, Sheremetyevo and Vnukovo at Moskva, Tolmachevo at Novosibirsk, Rostov-Na-Donu, Pulkovo at St. Petersburg, Adler at Sochi, and Yekaterinburg at Coltsovo. In 2003, about 22.723 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

The history of Russia is usually dated from the 9th century ad when a loose federation of the eastern Slavic tribes was achieved under the legendary Rurik. At this time, Kiev was the political and cultural center. Vulnerable due to the flat land that surrounded them, the Kievan rulers sought security through expansion—a policy that subsequent Russian leaders frequently pursued.

By the 11th century, Kievan Rus had united all the eastern Slavs. However, over the next two centuries, Kievan dominance was eroded by other Slavic and non-Slavic centers of power. The Mongol conquest of Russia marked the eclipse of Kiev as a center of power. When Mongol power declined and collapsed in the 14th and 15th centuries, it was Moscow that emerged as the new Russian power center. The military victories of Grand Duke Ivan III (r. 1462–1505) in particular established Moscow's predominance over almost all other Russian principalities. In 1547, Grand Duke Ivan IV was crowned as the first "Tsar of All the Russians."

When the Rurik dynasty died out in 1598, Russia experienced internal political turmoil and territorial encroachment from the West. In 1618, the first of the Romanovs was crowned tsar, and Russia set about regaining the territory it had lost. In the 17th century, Russian power expanded across Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. During the reign of Peter I (r. 1682–1725), Russian power was extended to the Baltic Sea in the early 18th century. It was under Peter that the Russian capital was moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg, on the Baltic Sea.

Russian power expanded further into Europe and Asia during the 18th century. The French Emperor, Napoleon, attacked Russia in 1812. Despite the considerable advances that he made, he was forced to withdraw from Russia and back across Europe in 1814. By the end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815, Russia had acquired Bessarabia (Moldova), Finland, and eastern Poland.

Russia's European borders remained relatively stable in the 19th century. It was during this period, though, that Russia completed its conquest of the Caucasus, Central Asia, and what became its Maritime Province (Vladivostok).

From the rise of Moscow after the Mongols until the early 20th century, Russia was ruled as an autocracy. Peter I founded a senate, but this was an advisory and honorific body, not a legislative one.

Some reform was made. Alexander II (r. 1855–81) emancipated the serfs of Russia in 1861. Alexander II appeared to be embarking on a course of political reform involving elections when he was assassinated by revolutionaries in 1881. Alexander III (r. 1881–94), his son, ended political reform efforts and reverted to autocratic rule. Under him, however, economic development made considerable progress in Russia.

The autocratic nature of Tsarist rule generated growing opposition in Russia, beginning with the abortive "Decembrist" uprising of 1825. By the reign of the last tsar, Nicholas II (r. 1894–1917), many opposition groups had arisen. With the Tsarist regime's weakness evident as a result of its defeats in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War, a revolutionary movement grew up in Russia that same year. Under the leadership of the socialists, revolutionary "soviets" or councils seized power in parts of St. Petersburg and Moscow. The government was able to defuse the revolutionary impetus through promising an elected Duma (legislature). The First Duma (1906) met only briefly; its demands for land reform were unacceptable to the tsar, who dissolved it. The Second Duma (1907) was also dissolved shortly after it was convened. A Third Duma (1907–11) and Fourth Duma (1912–17) were elected on more restrictive franchises. While the Third Duma in particular made some progress in economic and social reform, the Tsar and his ministers retained firm control over the government.

It was Russia's disastrous involvement in World War I that led to the end of the monarchy. By early 1917, Russia had suffered a number of defeats in its struggle with superior German forces. The war and continued autocratic rule had grown increasingly unpopular. Riots broke out in the major cities in March 1917. The Tsar attempted to dissolve the Fourth Duma, but it refused to be dissolved. "Soviets" again rose up in Petrograd (St. Petersburg had been renamed in 1914) and Moscow. Nicholas II was forced to abdicate on 15 March 1917.

A provisional government, based on the old Fourth Duma, was declared. But its authority was challenged by the Soviets. In addition, the provisional government refused to end Russia's involvement in the war. This was seen as a major decision, which only a duly elected government could make. Over the course of 1917, the Mensheviks (socialists) increasingly gained control over the provisional government but lost control over the Soviets to the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin. On the night of 6 November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized control of St. Petersburg.

Elections for a Constituent Assembly organized by the provisional government took place on 25 November 1917—Russia's freest elections until the 1990s. Only 168 of the 703 deputies elected were Bolsheviks. The Constituent Assembly convened on 18 January 1918, but was prevented from meeting again by Bolshevik forces.

Lenin moved quickly to end Russia's involvement in World War I. In March 1918, he agreed to a peace treaty with Germany, which deprived Russia of considerable territory (it was at this time that the Bolsheviks moved the capital back to Moscow). From 1918 to 1921, the Bolsheviks fought a civil war against a large number of opponents, whom they defeated. After the German surrender to the Western powers in November 1918, Lenin's forces moved to take back the territory it had given up. Except for Finland, Poland, the Baltic states (temporarily), and Bessarabia (Moldova), Lenin's forces succeeded in regaining what they had given up.

The Bolshevik regime was based on Marxist-Leninist ideology. It sought to overthrow the rule of economic "oppressors" (the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie) and replace it with rule by the proletariat. There were two main concepts in Lenin's political theory: the dictatorship of the proletariat and democratic centralism. In Lenin's view, the working class had to impose dictatorial rule over its class enemies to prevent them from regaining power. But within the instrument of this class dictatorship—the Communist Party—there was to be freedom of debate. Once a policy question had been resolved, however, debate was to cease.

Theoretically, power in the Communist Party was vested in an elected party congress, which then elected a smaller Central Committee, which in turn elected an even smaller Politburo to run day-to-day affairs. In fact, it was the top party leadership—Lenin and his Politburo colleagues—who established and maintained dictatorial control.

After the civil war, Lenin relented on his ambitious plans for the state to control the entire economy. He ushered in the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed peasants to own land and sell their produce at market, and permitted private business to operate (though the state retained control of large enterprises). Lenin died on 21 January 1924. A power struggle among the top Communist leaders broke out. By 1928, Joseph Stalin had eliminated all his rivals and achieved full power. He then ended NEP and ushered in a brutal period of forced industrialization and collectivization of agriculture. Stalin's rule was especially harsh in the non-Russian republics of the USSR. Scholars estimate that as many as 20 million Soviet citizens died during the 1928–38 period either because of state terror or famine.

In August 1939, the infamous Nazi-Soviet pact was signed dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. Under this agreement, the USSR regained most of the territories that had belonged to the Russian Empire but had been lost during the Russian Revolution (Poland, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia [Moldova]). But on 22 June 1941, Hitler's forces invaded the USSR and Moscow quickly lost all the territory that it had recently gained. German forces reached the outskirts of Moscow. With the help of massive materiel shipments from the United States and other Western countries, Soviet forces were able to rally and drive the Germans back. By the end of the war in May 1945, the USSR had reconquered everything it lost. With the Red Army in Eastern Europe, Stalin was able to establish satellite Communist regimes in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and East Germany. (Communist regimes also came to power in Yugoslavia and Albania, but did not remain allied to Moscow.)

Stalin's rule was especially harsh during the last years of his life. He died in 1953 and the ensuing power struggle was eventually won by Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev ended the terror of the Stalin years, but the basic features of the Stalinist system (Communist Party monopoly on power, centralized economy allowing for little private initiative, limited opportunities for free expression) remained until Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in March 1985.

Realizing that the old Stalinist system had led to a stagnant economy, which would undermine the USSR's ability to remain a superpower, Gorbachev sought to reform the Communist system. But although greater freedom of expression led to an enhanced understanding of the serious economic and ethnic problems the USSR faced, Gorbachev was unwilling to implement the economic and other reforms necessary to create a free-market democracy. The intense division on how to solve the problems faced by the USSR led to the ultimate dissolution in 1991 of the country into its separate republics.

For the first time, relatively free multicandidate elections were held in Russia in March 1990. In May 1990, the new Russian Supreme Soviet selected Boris Yeltsin as its chairman. Yeltsin had been an ally of Gorbachev until they disagreed over the pace of reform and Yeltsin was pushed out of the Politburo and his other positions. On 12 June 1991, the first elections to the Russian presidency were held, and Yeltsin won. Yeltsin played the central role in foiling the August 1991 coup attempt by Soviet conservatives against Gorbachev.

On 8 December 1991, Yeltsin, together with the leaders of Ukraine and Belarus, formed the nucleus of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which spelled the end of the USSR later that month. Like the other former Soviet republics, Russia had become an independent sovereign state.

In early 1992, Yeltsin and his acting prime minister, Egor Gaidar, sought to introduce rapid economic reform. Price controls were lifted on all but a few items. Prices rose rapidly, and as time passed, public opposition to economic reform grew. The Yeltsin government's relations with the legislature grew increasingly acrimonious. Many of the deputies had close ties with the state-run economy and bureaucracy, which were threatened by economic reform.

Much of Russian politics in 1993 consisted of bitter squabbling between Yeltsin and the legislature. No progress was made on drafting a new constitution to replace the much-amended Sovietera constitution that still governed Russia.

On 21 September 1993, Yeltsin unilaterally dissolved the Supreme Soviet and introduced rule by presidential decree until new legislative elections and a referendum on his draft constitution could be held on 12 December. Many of the anti-Yeltsin legislators refused to accept Yeltsin's suspension, and barricaded themselves inside the legislature building. On 3 October, forces loyal to the legislature briefly occupied the office of the mayor of Moscow and attempted to seize the Ostankino television center. Forces loyal to Yeltsin, backed by the military, attacked and seized the legislature building. A state of emergency and press censorship were briefly introduced. Yeltsin banned several opposition parties, purged opponents from the government, and reaffirmed his intention to serve out his full term.

The constitutional referendum and legislative elections were held as planned in December 1993. The electorate approved Russia's first post-Communist constitution, which called for a strong presidency. In the legislative elections, though, the Communist and ultra nationalist forces did well. Analysts attribute the Communist's strong showing to popular dissatisfaction with the radical economic reforms that had depressed the economy and left the Russian people at subsistence levels. Only 50% of the electorate turned out to vote. After a hard-fought campaign, Yeltsin won reelection on 3 July 1996 with 54% of the vote. Some 67% of the voters turned out for the elections.

As Yeltsin struggled to stabilize the government and reform the economy, nationalistic fervor in the "ethnic" republics tore at the fabric of the Russian Federation. War broke out in Chechnya in December 1994 after the rebellious North Caucasus region claimed its independence. The inability of the Russian military to subdue the region led to a withdrawal of Russian forces in late 1996. The bloody and unpopular conflict ultimately led Yeltsin to sign a peace treaty with Chechen leader Aslan Maskhadov on 12 May 1997. The agreement deferred a decision on the region for five years. In the meantime, Russia claimed that the region remained a part of Russia, while Chechnya (called Ichkeria by the rebels) claimed it was already independent.

Russia's position in the world was further weakened in 1997 when three of its former satellites (Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic) were admitted to NATO effective in 1999. Romania and Slovenia were in line to join next. Russia, initially opposed to the new admissions, ultimately signed a pact for mutual cooperation with NATO on 27 May 1997. The pact established a new NATO-Russia council for consultation on security issues and NATO assured Russia that it had no plans to deploy nuclear weapons on the territories of any new members. For its part, Russia pledged its commitment to transforming itself into a democracy. Seeking also to improve relations with Ukraine, on 31 May 1997, Yeltsin signed a treaty of "friendship, cooperation, and partnership" with Ukraine's president Leonid Kuchma. The agreement affirmed that the Russian-populated Crimean peninsula was indeed part of Ukraine. At issue was ownership of the old Soviet Black Sea Fleet and use of the naval port at Sebastopol. Under the agreement, Russia took 80% of the fleet and a 20-year lease on Sevastopol's main bays. In addition to affirmation of its territorial boarders, Ukraine was to receive us$100 million a year in rent for the bays.

Yeltsin dismissed his entire cabinet in March 1998, causing the currency to take a one-day dip. In August 1998, the Russian currency collapsed, and the country experienced the worst harvest in 45 years. The government defaulted on us$40 billion in ruble bonds, and the banking system experienced a swift decline. Losses during 1999 were estimated at two billion dollars per month. In February 1999 Prime Minister Primakov met with IMF officials to reschedule debt payment aid. Accounts of large-scale money laundering were reported in both 1998 and 1999 by Russian mobsters and offshore money-laundering operations. The Russian Central Bank had used the ruble to prop up defunct parastatals, and the banks were lending money from state coffers that were empty to begin with. The lack of active currency prompted the downward spiral of the entire economy.

The conflict with Chechnya never really ended. On 23 September 1999, following a series of Chechen terrorist attacks (which might have been a provocation by Russian intelligence), Yeltsin signed the order to begin military action in Chechnya. When Vladimir Putin became prime minister and a head of FSB (former KGB), he ordered a withdrawal of most of the military troops from Chechnya. He employed instead the use of intelligence forces and local police to fight the separatists. Presidential elections were held and Kadirov was elected president. The conflict however was not resolved. The war with Chechnya raged on through the summer of 2000, climaxing with a bomb attack in a Moscow subway that killed 11 and wounded many others. It was estimated that about one dozen Russian fighters lost their lives daily on the Russian-Chechen border during 1999. This was not the only front on which Russia showed a military presence: Yeltsin called for the removal of NATO from Yugoslavia in early 1999, but his bark was stronger than his bite.

President Yeltsin resigned in December 1999, under allegations of financial crimes and from ailing health. Supported by the former president, Vladimir Putin was elected to the executive. Putin graduated from the Law School of the Leningrad State University and joined the KGB. In the 1980s, he was sent to East Germany where he handled issues of economic intelligence. He returned to Leningrad in 1989, and left the KGB to enter the St. Petersburg University administration. After about a year, he left the university to join the administration of the newly elected major of Leningrad: Sobchak. Putin transferred to Moscow in 1996 to work in presidential apparatus. In 1998, Putin was made a head of FSB. The Yeltsin Administration decided that Putin was the right person to deal with opposition and protect their best interests. In contrast with the gregarious and outgoing Yeltsin, Putin seemed cold and ascetic. Additionally, Putin's initial success in Chechnya brought him widespread public sympathy and support.

President Putin took office in 2000. After some time as president, Putin assembled a new team known as "The People of the St. Petersburg;" his closest confidante was Sergey Ivanov, a potential successor to Putin as president in 2008.

President Putin had certain concerns that he felt called for his immediate attention. Putin's first concern was to make Russia even more centralized, which he accomplished by limiting the power of regional leaders. Secondly, Putin was determined to bring monopolies under state control and cut the oligarch's access to the decision-making process. Finally, he was concerned about the state of the military.

Putin's policy to centralize the state was aimed at regional governors. Almost immediately upon taking the office he established seven super-regions and passed a law that enabled the president to appoint the heads of these regions himself, while governors were to be chosen by electorate. Moreover, Putin passed two other meaningful laws that transformed the legislative branch of the Russian Federation and the balance of power in the government. The first law altered the composition of the Federation Council (upper house of the parliament), to deprive governors of their seats. The second law granted the president the power to dismiss regional leaders and legislatures.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Putin turned Russian foreign policy towards the West. He came out in favor of Russia joining the counterterrorism campaign announced by US president George W. Bush, despite opposition from his own advisors and from the Russian political elite. This shift in policy coincided with a move for closer relations with Europe; Russia became a member of the Council of Europe, and began to strengthen its civil society and rule of law, designed to bring it into the good graces of the EU. Russia accepted the arrival of US and coalition troops in some Central Asian republics in the US-led war in Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime and the alQaeda network. Russia tacitly accepted the arrival of US Special Forces into Georgia in 2002: the United States wished to combat what it believed to be international terrorists linked to the al-Qaeda network in the Pankisi Gorge region of Georgia. However, on 11 September 2002, when Putin announced Russia would take unilateral action against Chechen fighters and international terrorists in the Pankisi Gorge; the United States stated its unequivocal opposition to any such unilateral military action.

In May 2002, Russia and the United States announced a new agreement on strategic nuclear weapons reduction: operationally deployed strategic nuclear warheads would be reduced by each side to a level of 1,700–2,200 over the next 10 years. This "Moscow Treaty" was followed by an agreement between Russia and NATO foreign ministers to establish a "NATO-Russia Council" in which Russia and the 19 NATO countries would have an equal role in decision-making on counterterrorism policy and policy on other security threats. The "Moscow Treaty" was counterbalanced by events in June, however, when the United States announced it formally withdrew from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and Russia subsequently pulled out of the START II Treaty.

Concerns about Russia's guarantee of freedom of speech were raised in January 2002, when the last major independent television network in Russia, TV-6, was forced by the government to stop broadcasting. The government claimed the sole reason for the shutdown was bankruptcy, but many were not convinced that Putin's decision was purely business-related. The Russian media are either state-owned or controlled by "oligarchs" such as Boris Berezovsky and Vladimir Gusinsky, and in bringing court cases against these men, the government effectively took control of their media outlets, curbing independent reporting and causing a setback to freedom of speech and press.

The conflict with Chechnya intensified in 2002. On 23 October, Chechen separatist rebels seized a theater in Moscow and held some 800 hostages for three days. The hostage-takers demanded that Putin withdraw Russian troops from Chechnya. On 26 October, the president ordered an early-morning raid on the theater, using the gas Fentanyl, a fast-acting opiate that was meant to incapacitate the rebels. As a result of the operation, 117 hostages died, all but one (who died of gunshot wounds) due to the effects of the gas. All 50 of the hostage-takers died. Putin claimed the operation was an unprecedented success, but many wondered about the effectiveness of the raid due to the number of hostages who died. That December, suicide bombers attacked the Grozny headquarters of the pro-Moscow Chechen administration led by Akhmed Kadyrov, and more than 50 people were killed. It was the first use of suicide bombers undertaken by Chechen separatist rebels against Russia, and Putin described the attack as "inhuman." In March 2003, a referendum on a new constitution for Chechnya was approved, stipulating that Chechnya would remain a part of the Russia; many were critical of Russia for holding the referendum before peace was established.

On 8 November 2002, the UN Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 1441, calling upon Iraq to disarm itself of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, to allow the immediate return of UN and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) arms inspectors (they had been expelled in 1998), and to comply with all previous UN resolutions regarding the country since the end of the Gulf War in 1991. Arms inspectors began work in Iraq, but the United States and the United Kingdom were dissatisfied with the slow pace of inspections and began to prepare for war. On 19 March 2003, the United States launched air strikes against Iraq, and war began. US-Russian relations were severely tested at the end of 2002 and into 2003, as Russia sided with France and Germany in their opposition to war. In mid-April, Putin, who had previously called the war "a big political mistake," was softening his tone toward the United States and the United Kingdom, and stressed the importance of Russia's role in a postwar Iraq. Analysts estimate that in 2003 Iraq had us$52 billion in contracts with Russia, primarily in energy and communications.

In September 2004, ongoing conflict with Chechnya took the form of a major terrorist attack on a public schools in Beslan, Northern Ossetia. The shocking actions of terrorism in Beslan gave President Putin the momentum to push through his radical administrative reforms. Investigations revealed that Beslan tragedy was a result of incompetence and corruption of regional leaders and the lack of coordination between the regional executives and police. The reorganization of the Federation Council (substituting appointed senators for elected governors) was followed by a number of actions. The system of direct vote for governors was abandoned in favor of a system whereby the president appointed the governors; State Duma elections were to be based solely on party ballots, therefore eliminating elections in one-mandate districts; and a Public Chamber—a public body on a federal level that was supposed to become an intermediary between society and the state—was created.

New constitutional amendments were not well received and caused controversy in the Duma. There was a negative reaction by the Communist Party, Liberal Democratic Party, Yabloko, and Union of Right Forces. Even Putin's own Unity Party survived a split in opinions, with some members opposing Putin's reforms. European powers and the United States do not always agree with Russia's policies toward Chechnya, considering them to violate human rights. In December 2004 President Putin met with German Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder to discuss the possibility of European involvement in the conflict. In essence, no one knew how to formulate a solution fo this conflict, since territorial disputes have existed in Chechnya for centuries.

Putin's presidency had a positive effect on Russia's long-struggling economy. In the period 1999–2004, the Russian economy experience annual growth of 7%. After inheriting a weak economy caused by financial crises of 1998, Putin passed legislature aimed at reforming the economy. As of 2006, it appeared that these reforms established solid, long-term institutional changes that were enabling high growth rates.

GOVERNMENT

Russia is a democratic federative state based on rule of law with a division of power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. It is a constitutional government, based on a post-Soviet constitution, which was approved in a referendum held 12 December 1993. The constitution establishes a bicameral legislature known as the Federal Assembly. The lower house (State Duma) consists of 450 elected deputies while the 178-member upper house (Council of the Federation) is composed of representatives of the provinces and autonomous republics that make up Russia.

The executive branch of the presidential administration consisted of three bodies: Administration of the President, generally responsible for domestic political issues, Government, usually in charge of economic development, and the Security Council of the Russian Federation, chiefly responsible for the foreign policy, security and defense of the country. The responsibilities of the three centers in the executive branch often overlap.

The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term; elections were held 14 March 2004 (next were scheduled to be held March 2008). As of 2005 the president of the Russian Federation was Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (acting president since 31 December 1999 and reelected president since 7 May 2000).

The president heads the Executive Branch—currently the president is the Head of State and the Supreme Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. According to the constitution of 1993, the president drafts and issues legal regulations, settles disputes, and ensures that the constitution is observed. The president is also responsible for ensuring the state's mechanisms for protecting and respecting citizen's rights and liberties.

The president appoints the cabinet and other top government posts, but the appointments must be confirmed by the legislature. Presidential appointments of prime minister, deputy prime ministers, and chairman of the central bank are subject to confirmation by the State Duma while appointments of high court judges and the prosecutor general are subject to confirmation by the Council of the Federation. The president can refuse to accept the State Duma's rejection of an appointment to the prime ministership. If the State Duma refuses three times to confirm a new prime minister, the president may dissolve the lower house and order new elections. If the State Duma votes a no-confidence motion against the prime minister and cabinet twice within three months, the president may respond either by dismissing the cabinet or dissolving the State Duma. The president, however, cannot dissolve the State Duma due to its passing a no-confidence motion during the first year of the State Duma's term of office.

The president protects the nation's independence, sovereignty, and integrity, and prevents aggression against Russia or its allies. The president may declare war or a state of emergency on his own authority. Finally, the president must ensure the peaceful and democratic development of the country.

Impeachment of the president is provided for in the constitution, but is very difficult. Two-thirds of the State Duma must vote to initiate the impeachment process. Both the Constitutional Court, established to arbitrate any disputes between the executive and legislative branches, and the Supreme Court must review the charges. The findings of all three organizations are then submitted to the Council of the Federation, which can impeach the president by a two-thirds majority vote. This process must be completed within three months from beginning to end.

The President's Administration or Presidential Executive Office is an important governmental body that prepares the president's bills for submission to the State Duma. It prepares drafts of decrees, orders, instructions, presidential speeches, and other documents. The Presidential Executive Office coordinates all of the president's interactions with various political parties and leaders, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), nonprofit organizations, unions, and foreign governments. Although the president oversees the work of the Executive Office, it is the Chief of Staff of the Presidential Executive Office who manages it. As of 2006, this position was held by Dmitry Medvedev (since October 2003).

The government is responsible for financial, credit, and monetary policies. It also develops uniform state policies regarding culture, science, education, health, social welfare, ecology, and all other areas of social life. The government is headed by the prime minister (Mikhail Fradkov since 5 March 2004). The president presides over government meetings and gives instructions to the government and other federal bodies.

The Security Council is responsible for national security, including but not limited to state security, public security, safety, socioeconomic security, and security in the spheres of defense, information, the military, and international affairs. The Security Council also advises the president on security issues. It interacts with the Scholarly Council made up of representatives of the Russian Academy of Science and the specialized academies of science and educational institutions and individual experts. The president is also chairman of the Security Council.

The State Council is an advisory body that deals with the issues, especially those related to economic and social reforms. The president also acts as chairman of the State Council, and the acting secretary is the Secretary of State (Alexander S. Abramov as of 2005). The State Council is composed of the leaders of the local governments.

During his presidency, Putin shifted the balance of power within the Executive Branch; during the Yeltsin era, power was distributed equally, but Putin shifted the center of power to the President's Administration.

The legislative branch, the Federal Assembly, consists of two chambers. The State Duma (Gosuderstvennaya Duma), the lower house, is made up of 450 seats; 225 seats elected by proportional representation from party lists winning at least 5% of the vote and 225 seats from single-member constituencies. Members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms. The upper house or Federation Council (Sovet Federalistov) is made up of 178 seats. Members Federation Council were appointed by the president and legislative officials in each of the 89 federal administrative units (Chechnya included).

The two chambers of the Federal Assembly have different powers and responsibilities. The State Duma is more powerful. The Federation Council has jurisdiction over issues affecting the provinces and autonomous republics, including border changes and the use of force within Russia. Its other responsibility is to confirm justices of the Constitutional court, Supreme Court, and Superior Court of Arbitration. It also handles the bills dealing with finance and treaty ratifications. The State Duma handles all other bills. Even those bills that are proposed by the Federation Council must first be considered by the Duma.

POLITICAL PARTIES

In the elections to the State Duma held 12 December 1993, 225 of the 450 seats were elected on the basis of proportional representation from party lists, which had to receive a minimum of 5% of the national vote to gain representation. The other 225 seats were elected from single-member districts.

The party to receive the largest number of seats (76) was the radical reformist Russia's Choice led by Boris Yeltsin's former acting prime minister, Egor Gaidar. The centrist New Regional Policy group (which was actually formed by nonaligned deputies from single member districts after the election) won 65. Vladimir Zhirinovsky's ultranationalist, antidemocratic Liberal Democratic Party won 63. The pro-Communist Agrarian Party won 55 seats, while the Communist Party of the Russian Federation won 45. Six other parties or blocs (some of which were also formed after the election) won between 12 and 30 seats each.

Deputies to the 178-seat Council of the Federation were elected in two-member districts, where they mostly ran as individuals. Of the 171 seats that were filled, only 27 identified themselves with a particular party. The ultranationalists, Communists, and their sympathizers predominated in the State Duma.

In the December 1995 elections, the Communists again dominated the Duma, taking 149 of the 450 seats. They were supported by two left-wing factions, Power to the People (37 seats) and the Agrarians (35); together they were only 5 votes shy of an outright majority. The center-right party, Our Home Is Russia, won 50 seats, as did Vladimir Zhirinovsky's far-right Liberal Democratic Party, and Yabloko, the moderate-reformist bloc led by Grigoriy Yavlinsky.

In the December 1999 Duma elections, six parties surmounted the 5% threshold on the party list vote, accounting for over 80% of the votes cast. Three of the six parties that received seats in the party list vote were created just prior to the election. (This did not include the newly formed ultranationalist Zhirinovskiy bloc, which was essentially a relabeling of his Liberal Democratic Party.) Unity ("The Bear") was created in late September 1999 by the Yeltsin government, and the Union of Right-Wing Forces and Fatherland-All Russia (OVR) in August 1999. In contrast to previous Duma races, many liberal groups (with the major exception of Yabloko) cooperated in forming the Union of Right-Wing Forces electoral bloc to enhance their chances for surmounting the 5% hurdle. The newly formed Unity and Union blocs received crucial publicity when Putin endorsed them. Results from the singlemember constituency races added some seats to those gained by the six successful parties and provided a few seats for minor parties. In all, the Communist Party won 120 seats, Unity 73, OVR 70, Union 29, Yabloko 20, and the Zhirinovskiy bloc 19. Unaffiliated candidates won 95 seats, and a few seats faced runoffs. A little over one-third of the deputies elected were incumbents from the previous Duma.

In general, the election represented a major loss for Our Home (headed by presidential aspirant and former prime minister Viktor Chernomyrdin), which no longer was a faction in the legislature. Zhirinovskiy's bloc lost more than half its seats, compared to 1995, as did Yabloko. The new Duma convened in January 2000, and in a bold move, Unity and the Communist Party temporarily joined forces to grab the largest number of leadership posts and committee chairmanships.

In the first round of the June 1996 presidential election, Aleksandr I. Lebed received 15% of the vote to Yeltsin's 35% and Communist party candidate Gennadiy A. Zyuganov's 32%. Lebed, a retired general viewed by voters as a tough law-and-order strong man, dropped out of the race when Yeltsin named him national security advisor. Lebed gave his support to Yeltsin, which helped Yeltsin win 54% of the vote in the 3 July 1996 election. Two months later, however, Yeltsin forced Lebed out of the government. Yeltsin was barred from running for a third term.

Toward the end of his second term Yeltsin confronted growing unpopularity and instability in his administration. Opposition forces (including Communist party, Moscow-oriented Yuri Luzhkov and groups of local governors) did not take any drastic measures to bring Yeltsin down.

The Communist Party tried unsuccessfully to reconcile a range of leftist groups to back a common candidate, Genadiy Zuganov, against Vladimir Putin. Another candidate, Yurii Luzhkov, won the support of Muscovites and attempted to appeal for support to the governors. Meanwhile the governors were forming coalitions that later resulted in the formation of the Fatherland-All Russia (OVR) party affiliated with Yevgeni Primakov. Primakov was a popular politician who was credited with bringing Russia out of the 1998 financial crises. As a result, OVR became a threat to Yeltsin. In response, Yeltsin organized a media campaign to discredit the OVR party and Primakov in particular, and to promote Vladimir Putin.

In 1999, six months before the end of his term, President Yeltsin resigned from power, appointing Putin as an acting president. Putin then issued a decree granting Yeltsin and his family complete immunity from persecution. Yeltsin's resignation moved the term of election to March, leaving the opponents with less time to prepare. In little time, Putin managed to organize strong support for Unity and forged cooperation between Unity and OVR. In the first round of presidential elections held on 26 March 2000, among the 11 candidates, Putin won 53% of 75.2 million votes, trumping his nearest rival by 23.7%. The runner-up, Gennadiy Zyuganov, received 29%, down from the 32% he received in the first round of the 1996 race. Putin was formally inaugurated as president on 7 May 2000.

National elections were held again 7 December 2003, with Putin's Unity party winning 37.1% of the vote. The Communist Party came in second with 12.7% of the vote, and Vladimir Zhirinovsky's ultranationalist party (the Liberal Democratic Party) took 11.6%. The pro-Western liberal parties—Union of Right Forces (SPS) and Yabloko—faired poorly. Another leftist-nationalist party, Rodina, was formed. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) said the government used resources and control of the media to dominate the election.

In March 2004, Putin ran for a second term. He was reelected with more than 70% of the vote. His closest opponent, Communist Party candidate Nikolai Kharitonov, got 13.7%. The next presidential election was scheduled for March 2008.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Russia has a complicated patchwork of regional and local governments, including 89 federal subjects of constituencies. Those 89 units are not of equal status. Russia is divided into 6 krais, 49 oblasts, 1 autonomous oblast, 10 autonomous okrugs, and two independent cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg). There are also 21 autonomous republics where non-Russian minorities predominate (or once predominated). The Chechen republic of Ichkeria, is, de facto, a separate state, although not recognized as such by the federal authorities.

For all but the 21 autonomous republics, President Yeltsin issued decrees reorganizing the system of local government in October 1993. Each unit has an elected legislature. Most of these are unicameral, though two (Magadan Oblast and Altai Krai) opted for bicameral ones. In late 1996 and early 1997, regional popular elections of governors took place, replacing the system of appointments by the president. By contrast, the Russian president never appointed the heads of the 21 autonomous republics. These (usually called presidents) were selected in whatever manner is prescribed by their individual constitutions. The regional and republic executive and legislative heads were ex officio members of the Russian Federal Assembly's upper chamber, the Federation Council, where they endeavor to guard local power against encroachment from Moscow.

When Putin came to power, he felt it necessary to bring the regional leaders under a more central control, reversing bottom-to-top relations from the Yeltsin-era. In 2000, Putin set out to correct regional relations by grouping the administrative units of Russia into seven regional administrative districts: Northwest, Central, Volga, North Caucasus, Ural, Siberia, and Far East. A presidential representative is appointed to each. Putin appointed seven presidential representatives to coordinate the activities of federal organs. In February 2001, the law went into effect that allowed the president to dismiss governors. Furthermore, after the September 2004 Beslan School tragedy, Putin passed a bill to abolish popular elections for Russia's regional governors and to elect all State Duma deputies according to a proportional party system, abolishing single-mandate districts.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The judicial system is divided into three branches. There are courts of general jurisdiction (including military courts), which are subordinated to the Supreme Court; the arbitration (commercial) court system, which is under the High Court of Arbitration; and the Constitutional Court, which arbitrates any disputes between the executive and legislative branches and determines questions pertaining to constitutional issues. Civil and criminal cases are tried in courts of primary jurisdiction (municipal and regional), courts of appeals, and higher courts.

Procurators are also organized at the district, regional, and federal levels. The head of the procurators, the Procurator General, is nominated by the president and confirmed by the Federation Council. The trials are inquisitorial, not adversarial, and procurators are quite influential in nonjury trial.

ARMED FORCES

With the collapse of the original Soviet Union in 1992, Russia established a separate Ministry of Defense and military establishment upon the wreckage of the Soviet armed forces. Still formidable in terms of weapons and equipment, the Russian armed forces reached a low state of morale and effectiveness in 1993, "hollowed" by low-manning, the failure of draft calls, diversion to survival tasks rather than training, and lack of discipline. In the following years, military reforms were undertaken. The first phase, completed by the end of 1998, involved reorganization of the military command structure, redistricting, and troop reductions. The second phase focused on equipment modernization and operational readiness. Readiness was also improved in response to the NATO bombing of Serbia following hostilities in Kosovo.

In 2005, active Russian armed forces personnel numbered 1,037,000, with the number of reservists totaling 20,000,000. The Russian Army in 2005 had an estimated 395,000 active members, which were backed by a formidable weapons inventory of over 22,800 main battle tanks, 150 light tanks, more than 2,000 reconnaissance vehicles, over 15,090 armored infantry fighting vehicles, more than 9,900 armored personnel carriers, over 30,045 artillery pieces (towed and self-propelled), and over 628 attack helicopters. Russia has assumed the responsibility of the Soviet Union to reduce by treaty its strategic arsenal and conventional forces in Europe, but remains the world's second most formidable nuclear nation. Russia's nuclear arsenal is estimated at 12,000–19,000 strategic and nonstrategic nuclear weapons.

The Russian Navy has surrendered little of its strength to the break-away republics. The Navy numbers 142,000 personnel. It controls 46 tactical submarines, including 8 nuclear-powered nonballistic missile submarines (SSGNs), and 18 nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSNs). Major surface combat units include 1 aircraft carrier, 6 cruisers, 15 destroyers, 19 frigates, 25 corvettes, 72 patrol and coastal vessels, 41 mine warfare ships, and 436 logistics/support vessels. The naval air arm has an estimated 35,000 personnel backed by 226 combat capable aircraft including 58 bombers, 49 fighters, 68 fighter ground attack aircraft, 11 attack helicopters, and 120 antisubmarine warfare helicopters. Naval infantry and coastal defense forces (designed for naval base defense) deploy 9,500 troops with ground combat artillery and missile weapons.

Russia's Air Force consists of a long-range aviation command, a tactical aviation command, military transport aviation command, training schools, and operational combat units. As of 2005, active personnel numbered an estimated 170,000. The principal tactical weapons systems remain MiG and Su fighters and fighter-attack aircraft and armed helicopters. In 2005, the Air Force had 1,852 combat capable aircraft that included 1,094 fighters and 757 fighter ground attack aircraft.

Russia's joint service Strategic Deterrent Forces had an estimated 129,000 active personnel in 2005. Of that total, the Navy accounted for 11,000 personnel and was responsible for the nation's fleet of 15 SSBNs and its submarine launched ballistic missile force. The Air Force accounted for another 38,000 personnel through its Long-Range Aviation Command, which was responsible for the country's strategic bomber force of 80 aircraft. Another estimated 40,000 personnel were assigned to three Rocket Armies and were known as Strategic Missile Force Troops. This element of the Strategic Defense Forces was responsible for the operation of the nation's land-based ICBMs, of which there were around 570 launchers carrying 2,035 nuclear warheads. In addition to the Strategic Defense Forces, another 40,000 personnel were assigned to the Space Forces, whose mission was to detect a possible missile attack on the Russian Federation and its allies, as well as to implement the nation's Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) and the launch and control of military/dual-use spacecraft.

There are also 415,100 paramilitary forces assigned to specialized security functions for border protection, river patrols, customs duties, installation and plant protection, transportation security, riot duty, and internal security. The number of border guards are estimated at 160,000, while interior troops number 170,000.

Although Russia has scaled back the Soviet Union's defense forces, the Russian armed forces still maintain a global presence. In addition to troops remaining in Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, and Tajikistan, Russia maintains military missions or units in the Ukraine, Syria, and Africa. Russian units have also participated in peacekeeping operations in the region and supported the UN in other separate missions. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $18.8 billion.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Russia has essentially assumed and expanded upon the foreign relations ties established by the former Soviet Union. In one form or another, it has held a seat in the United Nations since 24 October 1945; it is a part of several nonregional specialized agencies, such as IAEA, ICAO, ILO, UNHCR, UNIDO, and the WHO. Russia is a permanent member of the UN Security Council. The nation is also member of APEC, the Commonwealth of Independent Nations, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the Council of Europe, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, G-8, the Paris Club (G-10), and the OSCE. In June 2001, leaders of Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan met in China to launch the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and sign an agreement to fight terrorism and ethnic and religious militancy while promoting trade. The country holds observer status in the OAS, the WTO, and the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA). Russia is a dialogue partner in ASEAN and part of the ASEAN Regional Forum.

The Russian government has supported UN operations and missions in Kosovo (est. 1999), Western Sahara (est. 1991), Ethiopia and Eritrea (est. 2000), Liberia (est. 2003), Sierra Leone (est. 1999), East Timor (est. 2002), Georgia (est. 1993), and Burundi (est. 2004), among others. Russia is a partner in the Middle East Peace Process "Quartet." The country is a guest in the Nonaligned Movement.

Russia is part of the Zangger Committee, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group). It is an observer in the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). In environmental cooperation, Russia is part of the Antarctic Treaty; the Basel Convention; Conventions on Biological Diversity, Whaling, and Air Pollution; Ramsar; CITES; the London Convention; International Tropical Timber Agreements; the Kyoto Protocol; the Montréal Protocol; MARPOL; the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty; and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea and Climate Change.

ECONOMY

Russia's economy, $1.5 trillion in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms (as of 2005), is the largest within the former Soviet bloc. It was undergoing a painful transformation from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one with limited public ownership. Per capita income in 2005 was only $5,165 in nominal terms, although $10,758 in PPP terms. By 2004, services comprised the largest sector of the economy (61.2%), while industrial production accounted for 33.9% of GDP. The manufacturing centers around Moscow and St. Petersburg are the most important, as they were for the entire former USSR. Russia has rich energy and mineral resources, including large deposits of iron ore, coal, phosphates, and nonferrous metals, as well as one-fifth of the world's gold deposits and substantial oil and gas reserves. There are also vast forest resources. Agricultural production accounted for 4.9% of GDP in 2004. Although the share of agriculture in total output fell from 14% in 1991 to 4.9% in 2004, the collapse has led to underemployment rather than unemployment among rural workers, and therefore agriculture still accounted for more than 12% of official employment in 2002. There is an acute excess demand for goods, especially consumer goods.

Russia's economic situation deteriorated rapidly after the breakup of the Soviet Union, which destroyed major economic links. President Yeltsin's 1992 economic reform program slashed defense spending, eliminated the old centralized distribution system, established private financial institutions, decentralized foreign trade, and began a program of privatizing state owned enterprises. Success was not immediate, however, as the GDP declined by over 12% in 1994 and 4% in 1995. By then, 25% of the population was living in poverty, corruption was rampart, and segments of the economy had gone "underground" to escape backbreaking taxes and bureaucratic regulation. However, government policies kept unemployment at the relatively low rate of 8%, even though there was no money to pay salaries and pensions. A stabilization program enacted in 1995 tightened the budget, liberalized trade, and lowered inflation through noninflationary financing of the budget deficit. Although the economy declined by 3.6% in 1996, segments of the economy were showing signs of recovery. In 1997, overall GDP registered its first positive growth, albeit only 0.9%. Inflation moderated to 11.3% from 21.8% in 1996, and unemployment fell from 9.3% to 9%. In a major privatization program, the government turned over to the growing private sector thousands of enterprises.

However, in 1998, the effects of the 1997 Asian financial crisis swept the economy, propelling a massive outflow of foreign investment. In August 1998 it became the Russian financial crisis as the government defaulted on payments due on $40 billion in ruble bonds and allowed the ruble to depreciate. Real GDP fell 4.9% in 1998 as inflation shot up to 84.5%. However, Russia weathered the crisis well: in 1999, one year after the crisis, real GDP increased by the highest percentage since the fall of the Soviet Union, the ruble stabilized, inflation was modest, and investment began to increase again. In 1999, real GDP increased 5.4%, and in 2000, a strong 8.3% while inflation fell to 36.5% in 1999 and then to 20.2% in 2000. The global economic slowdown after 2001 served to decelerate but not reverse economic recovery as GDP growth fell to 4.9% in 2001 and then to 3.5% in 2002. Inflation fell to 18.6% in 2001, and 16.5% in 2002, above predictions of 11–13% mainly because of increased fuel costs. Official unemployment, which peaked at 11.8% and 11.7% in 1998 and 1999, moderated to an estimated 8% in 2002, down from 8.9% in 2001.

From 2001–05, real GDP growth averaged 6.1%, and inflation averaged 14.9%. From 2000 to 2005, Russia ran trade and budget surpluses. GDP growth was forecast at 5.8% in 2005; inflation hit 11.7% in 2004, and was predicted to near 13% in 2005, well above a revised target of 10%. Although real GDP growth had slowed by 2005, high oil prices were expected to limit the extent of the deceleration, especially in 2006. Even though proceeds from the sale of oil strengthen the ruble, damaging competitiveness, high oil prices have not compensated for a lack of effective governmental economic policy. Oil production began to stagnate in late 2004; oil companies must look beyond the easy-to-tap oil reserves of western Siberia for new fields. Also, a string of investigations launched against Yukos, a major oil company, culminating in the arrest of its CEO, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, in the fall of 2003, raised concerns that President Vladimir Putin was granting more influence to forces within his government that desire to reassert state control over the economy. Companies looking to invest in Russia discover a plethora of rules that are often changed and capriciously applied; the large, unwieldy, corrupt bureaucracy is impossible to avoid. The gas, electricity, and railway industries are dominated by inefficient monopolies, particularly Gazprom, the state gas monopoly. Ownership structures are opaque, not transparent, but according to some estimates, 20 large conglomerates account for up to 70% of Russian GDP. Capital flight was a net $33 billion in 2004. These problems must be addressed if full economic reform is to be achieved.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 the Russian Federation's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $1.5 trillion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $10,700. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.9%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 12.9%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 5% of GDP, industry 35%, and services 60%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $1.453 billion or about $10 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $1,255 million or about $9 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.3% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Russia totaled $219.03 billion or about $1,532 per capita based on a GDP of $430.1 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 0.9%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 28% of household consumption was spent on food, 16% on fuel, 7% on health care, and 15% on education. It was estimated that in 2004 about 17.8% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, Russia's labor force was estimated at 74.22 million. As of 2004, it was estimated that agriculture accounted for 10.3% of the country's workforce, with 68.3% in the services sector, and 21.4% in industry. Although Russia's unemployment rate in 2005 was estimated at 7.6%, a considerable number of workers were underemployed.

A legacy from the Soviet era, the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia (FNPR) still dominates organized labor and claims to represent 80% of all workers. The mining and air transport industries (along with the state sector) are highly unionized. Overall, about 46% of the workforce is at least nominally organized, with around 90% of them members of the FNPR. The legal right to strike is hindered by complex requirements. Court rulings have determined that nonpayment of wages, the most prevalent labor complaint, is an individual issue and cannot be addressed by the union. The right to bargain collectively is not regularly protected.

The monthly minimum wage was $28 as of September 2005, which was not sufficient to provide a family with a decent standard of living. Most workers earn more than this amount, however it was estimated that 18% of the workforce earned less. Although the labor code provides a maximum regular workweek of 40 hours with a 24-hour rest period, many laborers put in 10to 12-hour days. Children under the age of 16 are banned from most employment, but 14 year old minors can work under certain conditions with the approval of a parent or guardian. In such cases, the health and the welfare of the child must not be threatened. While these provisions are generally enforced through government action, prevailing social norms and a large pool of low-wage adult workers, child labor remains a problem, especially in the informal economy. The law establishes minimum standards of workplace safety and worker health, but these are not effectively enforced.

AGRICULTURE

In 2003, Russia had 124.4 million hectares (307.4 million acres) of arable land (8.5% of the world's total), covering 7.6% of the country's land area. In 2003, the share of agriculture in the GDP was 5%. Agricultural production dropped by an average of 6% annually during 1990–2000. However, during 2002–04, crop production was 13.1% higher than during 1999–2001. A surge in imports of food products during that period is the direct result of difficulties faced by domestic farmers and processors, and has brought with it a desire for protection from foreign competition in the name of national security. In 2004, Russia's agricultural trade deficit was over $10.1 billion, fifth highest in the world.

The 2004 harvest included (in millions of tons): wheat, 45.4; potatoes, 35.9; sugar beets, 21.8; barley, 17.2; vegetables, 15.5; oats, 5; sunflower seeds, 4.8; corn, 3.5; rye, 2.9; buckwheat, 0.6; soybeans, 0.6; and rice, 0.5. The government is promoting the expansion of small-plot farming; about 150,000 new farms have begun operating since 1991, primarily in the south.

Agricultural policy has changed several times since market reforms began. Low interest loans were initially offered to the old state farms, but the government's budget soon could not afford all the demands made by farmers. The low interest loans were replaced by in-kind loans to suppliers, which were then modified to in-kind loans from the federal government to local governments. The general agricultural policy trend is now an ongoing devolution of power from the federal government to local governments.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Some 91.9 million hectares (227 million acres) are pastureland, representing 5.6% of the total area. In 2005, the livestock population included: cattle, 22,987,700; sheep, 15,499,700; and pigs, 13,412,800. Russia also had 1.5 million horses, 328.9 million chickens, 2.7 million geese, and 2.5 million turkeys in 2005.

The 2005 meat production amounts included (in thousands of tons): beef, 1,915; pork, 1,610; mutton, 123; and poultry, 1,130. In 1999, Russia's livestock production was only 50% of what it had been in 1990. During 2002–04, livestock production was 7.8% higher than during 1999–2001. Milk production in 2005 was estimated at 30.9 million tons (down from 55.7 million tons in 1991), and egg production amounted to 2 billion tons in 2005. Infrastructural and distributional problems have exacerbated declining production. Many Russian dairy farms have been unprofitable due to low-quality dairy cows, limited supplies of quality feed, and lack of support services. Continued decline in livestock production, especially poultry, as well as the rapid growth of imports have been a source of trade friction. In 2004, Russia imported over $2 billion in meat and meat products.

FISHING

Russia's fish production ranks eighth in the world, following China, Peru, USA, Indonesia, Japan, India, and Chile. In 2003, 91% of the catch was marine, while 9% came from inland waters. The total catch in 2003 was 3,429,121 tons. The main species of the commercial catch in 2003 included (in thousands of tons): whiting, 360; herring, 335; cod, 277; and salmon, 188. Russia is a leading producer of crabmeat, fish roe, whole groundfish, and salmon products. More than half of Russian fish product exports consist of frozen products. Exports of frozen fish fillets in 2003 were valued at $141.9 million; and roe, $145.6 million.

Russia is known for its sturgeon and caviar. About 70% of the world's sturgeon stocks are in the Caspian Sea. Illegal trade of sturgeon and caviar have resulted in all 11 of Russia's commercial sturgeon species to be in decline. The Russian share of the world caviar market is estimated at 23–30%.

Overfishing and pollution of territorial waters have forced fishermen farther away from traditional fishing waters. For example, pollutants like mercury have partly caused the decline of the sturgeon and pike perch catches, which fell by 50% and 90%, respectively, from 1974 to 1987 in the Caspian Sea. Similar ecological problems also have affected fishing in the Azov Sea. Russia's enormous fishing fleet has many old vessels, and fuel shortages are common. Since 1991, more than 70 vessels have been leased from Spanish, Norwegian, and German shipbuilding yards. In 2003 alone, 36 Russian fishing vessels of 100 gross tons or more were added to the fishing fleet. Russian fishing vessels account for about 24% of the world's fishing fleet capacity.

Despite problems with pollution, the Russian catch expanded during the 1980s (the marine catch by 24%, the freshwater catch by 26%) due to intensified fishing in dam reservoirs, consumption substitution toward nontraditional fish stocks, and acceptance of higher levels of contaminants. Since 1990, the production of fish and fish products has declined without interruption. Direct subsidies from the federal government ceased in 1994. As a result, the proportion of unprocessed fish products has steadily risen since 1990. Badly worn ships and equipment continue to limit production. Russia is eligible to catch up to five million tons of fish outside its territorial waters, but typically only reaches one million tons.

FORESTRY

Russia's forested areas are vast. In 2000 an estimated 851.4 million hectares (2,104 million acres) were classified as forested—an area larger than the total land area of Australia. Only half of this area is commercially accessible and only 7–10% is currently exploited. Russia contains 25% of the world's forested area; 20% of the world's forests are in Siberia. The forest stock in Russia is 80% coniferous, consisting mainly of spruce, fir, larch, and pine in subarctic areas; these stands account for 52% of the world's coniferous areas. Deciduous trees (birch, oak, beech, ash, maple, elm) grow further south and account for 13% of the world's deciduous forests.

In 2004, the timber cut yielded 182 million cu m (6.4 billion cu ft) of roundwood. Production that year included (in cubic meters): sawn timber, 21,500,000; plywood and particleboard, 7,159,000. Paper and paperboard production totaled 6,789,000 tons. In 2004, Russian exports of forest products were valued at over $5.4 billion. China, Finland, and Japan are the major export markets.

In 1992, a year after the dissolution of the USSR, the forest products industry underwent massive changes. Hundreds of inexperienced new businessmen were attracted to the business of buying logs from newly unregulated leskhozes (forest villages legally entitled to harvest and manage forests). Widespread privatization in the forest products industry began in 1993. Rocleskhoz, the federal forest service, is responsible for overseeing management of forests. The forestry industry is a multi-layered bureaucracy where wood processing companies must pay about 40 different taxes, which has prompted some to act outside the official system. During the 1990s, about 50% of all forestry firms went out of business, and about 60% of the firms remaining are believed to be on the verge of bankruptcy. The failing firms are often pressured to cut trees and sell logs for quick cash to pay off debts so they will be allowed to stay in business. Poaching, unsustainable logging, and fire damage are growing problems. Much of the forestry equipment is too old or expensive to operate, with the result that output per worker is at 1960s levels. Although the allowable forest cut is 559 million cu m (1.97 billion cu ft), an estimated 52% of logging enterprises were operating at a loss in 2005. Though the government is trying to encourage exports of higher value products, lack of investment has hindered plans to decrease the 40% export share of softwood and hardwood logs. Russia's forestry sector only contributes 3% to GDP.

MINING

With bountiful and diverse minerals, Russia, the world's largest country in land area, occupying 75% of the former Soviet Union, had a significant percentage of the world's mineral resources and mineral production. Russia is one of the largest producers of palladium and nickel, as well as of aluminum and platinum-group metals (PGMs), potash, gold, and mined copper. Russia also produced a large percentage of the Commonwealth of Independent States' (CIS) bauxite, coal, cobalt, diamond, lead, mica, natural gas, oil, tin, zinc, and many other metals, industrial minerals, and mineral fuels. Exports under the "Mineral Products" category accounted for around 75% or $80 billion of Russia's exports by value in 2002. Of that total, natural gas exports by value totaled over $15 billion, while crude oil and petroleum products accounted for nearly another $40 billion in 2002.

More than half of Russia's mineral resources were east of the Urals. The most significant regions for mining were Siberia, particularly East Siberia, for cobalt, columbium (niobium), copper (70% of Russia's reserves), gold, iron ore, lead (76% of the country's reserves), molybdenum, nickel (becoming depleted), PGMs, tin, tungsten, zinc, asbestos, diamond, fluorspar, mica, and talc; the Kola Peninsula, for cobalt, columbium, copper, nickel, rare-earth metals, phosphate (the majority, in the form of apatite), and tantalum; North Caucasus (copper, lead, molybdenum, tungsten, and zinc); the Russian Far East (gold, lead, silver, tin, tungsten, and zinc); the Urals, with bauxite, beryllium, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lead, magnesite, nickel, titanium, vanadium, zinc, asbestos, bismuth, potash (96% of the country's reserves), soda ash, talc, and vermiculite; and the region near the Arctic Circle (cobalt, gold, mercury, nickel, tin, phosphate, and uranium). The Kaliningrad region contained 95% of the world's amber deposits, and Russia possessed 10% of the world's copper reserves. Metallurgical enterprises in Kola, North Caucasus, and the Urals were operating on rapidly depleting resource bases, and were experiencing raw material shortages.

A large percentage of Russian reserves were in remote northern and eastern regions that lack transport, were distant from major population and industrial centers, and experience severe climates, and enterprises built there in the Soviet era had curtailed operations sharply. Efforts to develop new large deposits of nonferrous metals near the eastern Baikal-Amur railroad were not progressing. One researcher proposed the creation of small mining enterprises to develop the rich small deposits of eastern Russia. Reserves of iron ore were sufficient to last 15–20 years; those of nonferrous metals, 10–30 years. Reserves of major minerals included potash, 1.8 billion tons; magnesite, 585 million tons; bauxite, 250 million tons; phosphate rock, 240 million tons; asbestos, 100 million tons; fluorspar, 60 million tons; manganese, 15 million tons; nickel, 6.3 million tons; vanadium, 5 million tons; zinc, 4 million tons; antimony, 3 million tons; and lead, 3 million tons.

Output of iron ore (gross weight) was 84.236 million tons in 2002, up from an estimated 82.5 million metric tons in 2001. The largest producer was Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, at Zheleznogorsk and Gubkin, with a 50 million ton per year capacity.

Output of copper was 695,000 metric tons in 2002. The Noril'sk complex, in East Siberia, produced 70% of the country's copper, and planned to increase output of cuprous ore from its Oktyabr'skiy underground mine, from 100,000 tons per year to 1.6 million tons, because the cuprous ores were 40% higher in copper content than the nickel-rich ores. The Oktyabr'skiy mine supplied 70% of Noril'sk's copper output, and was planning to decrease production of the nickel-rich ores.

PGM production included 69,000 kg of palladium, and 34,000 kg of platinum. Sixty percent of PGM output came from the Oktyabr'skiy mine, Noril'sk, and a plan to expand output at the mine of cuprous ores by a factor of 16 was projected to yield more PGMs, as would two new nickel-rich mines, the Glubokiy and the Skalisty, that had a high PGM content.

The output of other metals in 2002 was: bauxite, 3.8 million metric tons (estimated); mined nickel, 310,000 metric tons (estimated); mined zinc, 130,000 metric tons; mined lead, 13,500 metric tons (estimated); magnesite, one million metric tons (estimated); mined tin, 2,900 metric tons (estimated); titanium sponge, from the Perm' region in the Urals, 23,000 metric tons (estimated); molybdenum, 2,900 metric tons (estimated); and mined cobalt, 4,600 metric tons (estimated). Gold mine output was 158,000 kg (estimated). Russia also produced the metal minerals alumina, nepheline concentrate, antimony, white arsenic, bismuth, chromium, manganese, mercury, silver, tungsten, and baddeleyite zirconium. Russia, which had the capacity to mine vanadium, stopped mining beryllium in the mid-1990s, and continued producing cobbed beryl.

Industrial mineral production in 2002 included: phosphate rock (apatite concentrate and sedimentary rock), 4.4 million metric tons (estimated); marketable potash, 4.4 million metric tons (estimated); mica, 100,000 metric tons (estimated); fluorspar concentrate, 200,000 metric tons (estimated); and gem and industrial diamonds, 11.5 million carats each. Russia also produced the industrial minerals amber, asbestos, barite, boron, hydraulic cement, kaolin clay, feldspar, graphite, gypsum, iodine, lime, lithium minerals, nitrogen, salt, sodium compounds, sulfur (including native and pyrites), sulfuric acid, talc, and vermiculite. Russia's only producer of amber, Kaliningrad Amber Works, was the world's largest producer, yielding 441.8 tons in 2000, 364.5 in 1999, and 512.2 in 1998.

Despite decreased metal output compared with the Soviet period (e.g., 20% as much tin), Russia was producing more aluminum, lead, and zinc in 2000 than during the Soviet era. Ten percent of the technology employed in the nonferrous mining and metallurgy sector was rated as world class, labor productivity was one-third below that of advanced industrialized countries, and energy expenditures were 20–30% higher. Another problem was that the resource base for metallurgical enterprises was not competitive in terms of quality, with the exception of antimony, copper, nickel, and molybdenum. More than one-half of industrial mineral output was exported, depriving the domestic sector of needed supplies, especially barite, bentonite, crystalline graphite, and kaolin. Russia has not been successful in attracting foreign investment for developing its mineral deposits, because of high and unpredictable taxes, an unreliable legal system, insecure licensing, unequal treatment between domestic and foreign partners, a weak banking system, and the inability to directly export commodities.

ENERGY AND POWER

Russia possesses enormous reserves of oil, natural gas, and coal. It is the largest exporter of natural gas in the world, the world's second-largest exporter of petroleum, and the third-largest consumer of energy in the world.

As of 1 January 2005, Russia's proven reserves of oil were estimated at 60 billion barrels, according to the Oil and Gas Journal. Most of that oil is located between the Central Siberian Plateau and the Ural Mountains, in Western Siberia. Of that amount, about 14 billion barrels are located just north of Japan on Sakhalin Island. Although Russian production fell from 7,819,000 barrels per day in 1992 to 6,070,000 barrels per day in 1998, output since 1999 has risen steadily to an estimated 9,300,000 barrels per day in 2004. Russia has 41 oil refineries with a combined crude oil processing capacity estimated at 5.44 million barrels per day, as of December 2004. However, many are inefficient, old and in need of being modernized. Exports are handled by pipeline, rail and barge transport. For the period January through September 2004, pipelines carried 60% or 4 million barrels of oil per day. Exports by rail accounted for 33% of oil exports, or 2.2 million barrels per day. Barges and other traffic accounted for 7% or two million barrels per day. In 2004, net oil exports were estimated at 6.7 million barrels per day.

As of 1 January 2005, Russia had the world's largest reserves of natural gas, estimated at 1,680 trillion cubic ft, more than two times those of Iran, the next largest county. Russia in 2004 was also the world's largest producer and exporter of natural gas. In that year, natural gas output totaled an estimated 22.4 trillion cu ft, with exports at an estimated 6.5 trillion cu ft. However, in spite of its vast reserves of natural gas, Russia's natural gas production and consumption have remained relatively flat since 1992. In that year natural gas production totaled 22.62 trillion cu ft, with domestic demand at 16.46 trillion cu ft. In 2004, production and consumption were estimated at 21.80 trillion cubic ft and 15.29 cu ft, respectively. The main causes for this are: aging fields; insufficient export pipeline capacity; government regulation; and Russia's state-run natural gas monopoly, Gazprom, which operates the country's network of natural gas pipelines, and produces almost 90% of the country's natural gas. In addition, three major gas fields in Western Siberia, the Urengoi, Yamburg, and Medvezh'ye Fields, which provide Gazprom with more than 70% of its production, are in decline.

Russia's proven coal reserves, estimated at 173 billion short tons as of 1 January 2004, were also the second-largest in the world. Coal production in 2003, according to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), was estimated at 294.1 million short tons, while output in 2004, was estimated by the Russian Energy Ministry at 308.6 million short tons, less than one-third of US production. Domestic demand for coal in 2003 was estimated at 254.8 million short tons.

Although electric power generation fell following the breakup of the Soviet Union, output has begun to recover since 1999. In 2003 and 2004, Russian electric power output was estimated at 850.6 billion kWh, and at 915.0 billion kWh, respectively. Consumption of electricity in 2003 and 2004 was estimated at 780.0 billion kWh and 860.0 billion kWh, respectively. Total installed capacity in 2004 was estimated at 208 million kW, of which thermal generation accounted for 68% of electrical capacity, hydro accounted for 22% of capacity, and nuclear 10% of capacity. As of February 2005, Russia had more than 440 thermal and hydroelectric generating stations and 31 nuclear reactors. In 2001, a 1,000 MW reactor began operating at the Rostov facility.

INDUSTRY

Major manufacturing industries include crude steel, cars and trucks, aircraft, machine equipment, chemicals (including fertilizers), plastics, cement and other building materials, medical and scientific instruments, textiles, handicrafts, paper, television sets, appliances, and foodstuffs.

Steel production remains a key industry. Once the world leader in the production of steel, that Russian industry fell on hard times in the 1980s as Soviet-made products could not keep up with the quality or output of competitors. Nonetheless, plants continue to operate although less than half use updated equipment.

Aluminum and nickel production continue, particularly in mineral-rich Siberia. The largest companies are the Noril'sk Nickel Joint-Stock Company, Bratsk Aluminum, Krasnoyarsk Aluminum, and Sayan Aluminum. European Russia and the Ural region continue to serve as the center for the production of textiles and machine industry. Chemical production is scattered throughout the country, while the center of the oil and gas industry remains the region of the Caucasus Mountains and Caspian Sea. Russia holds the world's largest natural gas reserves, the second-largest coal reserves, and the eighth-largest oil reserves. It is also the world's largest exporter of natural gas, the second-largest oil exporter, and the third-largest energy consumer. The oil industry is dominated by 11 large companies which account for around 90% of production and close to 80% of refining. Russia had 41 oil refineries in 2005, with a total capacity of 5.44 million barrels per day. Russia's energy riches bring it political power. As of 2006, a proposed 1,200 km, $5 billion gas pipeline along the Baltic seabed was due to be completed in 2010; it would offer Russia's gas export monopoly, Gazprom, a direct link with its main Western European markets, bypassing Poland and the Baltic states, which had hoped for an alternate route bringing them extra transit fees.

Industrial expansion is mainly in consumer goods and food processing, often embraced by enterprises converting from military production, which dominated industry output in the former Soviet Union.

Russia's industrial base is outmoded and must be restructured or replaced in order for the country to maintain strong economic growth. Nonetheless, Russia emerged from its 1998 economic crisis with an industrial growth rate of 5.2% in 2001. That year, industry accounted for 39% of GDP and employed 28% of the work force. In 2004, the industrial production growth rate was 6.4%; industry accounted for 33.9% of GDP and some 22% of the labor force. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber made up 80% of Russia's exports in 2004, followed by iron and steel, aluminum, and machinery and equipment. Russia's wealth of, and export of, natural resources leave it vulnerable to swings in world prices. Other industrial areas of growth in the mid-2000s included construction, automotive equipment, aircraft, and food processing.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Russian Academy of Sciences, founded in 1725, is the chief coordinating body for scientific research in Russia through its science councils and commissions. It has sections of physical, technical, and mathematical sciences; chemical, technological, and biological sciences, and earth sciences, and controls a network of nearly 300 research institutes. The Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, founded in 1929, has departments of plant breeding and genetics; arable farming and the use of agricultural chemicals; feed and fodder crops production; plant protection; livestock production; veterinary science; mechanization, electrification, and automation in farming; forestry; the economics and management of agricultural production; land reform and the organization of land use; land reclamation and water resources; and the storage and processing of agricultural products. It controls a network of nearly 100 research institutes. It supervises a number of research institutes, experimental and breeding stations, dendraria and arboreta. The Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, founded in 1944, has departments of preventive medicine, clinical medicine, and medical and biological sciences, and controls a network of nearly 100 research institutes.

The Russian Federation in 2002 had 3,415 scientists and engineers, and 579 technicians engaged in research and development (R&D) per million people. In the same period, R&D expenditures totaled $14,733.916 million, or 1.24% of GDP. Of that amount, the largest portion, 58.4%, came from government sources, while business accounted for 30.8%. Higher education, private nonprofit organizations and foreign sources accounted for 0.3%, 0.1% and 8%, respectively. High technology exports in 2002 totaled $2.897 billion, or 13% of the country's manufactured exports.

Russia has nearly 250 universities and institutes offering courses in basic and applied sciences. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 50% of university enrollment.

DOMESTIC TRADE

A central marketplace is a common feature of urban areas in Russia. Outside of Moscow and St. Petersburg, small open markets and kiosks are the primary retail establishments. Nationwide distribution channels are still largely undefined.

Many consumer goods, which were often traded via the black market during the Soviet era, are now openly available. However, inflation and slow economic recovery severely constrain domestic purchasing power. Since the underground economy was so well-developed during the Soviet period, distribution and trade through informal channels is still common. The appearance and rapid development of organized crime in post-Soviet Russia may also be seen as a result of Russia's affinity for informal domestic economic activity; local businesses are often forced to pay protection money to organized crime. Commercial advertisement, virtually unknown during the Soviet era, is now commonly used.

As of 2006, a value-added tax of 18% (VAT) applies to most goods and services. The VAT is reduced to 10% for certain foods and children's clothing. Pharmaceuticals and certain financial services are exempt. In 2004, a regional 5% sales tax was abolished. Credit cards are being accepted at major hotels and restaurants in Moscow and St. Petersburg, but many other retail establishments still operate on a cash-only basis.

Business hours are generally 9 am to 5 pm, Monday to Friday, but the most common times to find workers working is from 10 am to 6 pm. In the provinces, work finishes earlier.

FOREIGN TRADE

Principal exports have traditionally been oil, natural gas, minerals, military equipment and weapons, gold, shipping, and transport services. Principal imports include machinery and equipment, consumer goods, medicines, meat, grain, sugar, and semifinished metal products. Mainly because of high international oil prices, export revenue soared after 2000. Import growth picked up over the same period as a result of rising real incomes and real ruble appreciation. The trade surplus increased to $87 billion in 2004.

The primary exports in 2004 were: oil, fuel, and gas (54.6% of all exports); precious metals (15.8%); machinery and transportation equipment (6.8%); and chemicals (6%). The main imports were: machinery and transportation equipment (27.6% of total imports); food, beverages, and agricultural products (12.3%); chemicals (11%); and metals (4.9%). Russia's major markets in 2004 were Germany (7.9% of all exports), the Netherlands (6.1%), China (6.1%), and the United States (5.7%). Russia's main suppliers in 2004 were Germany (13% of all imports), Ukraine (5.8%), China (5.8%), and Italy (5.1%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Foreign trade was largely deregulated in early 1992, and the trade balance contracted throughout the year; exports declined by 35% to $15.4 billion, while imports fell by 24% to $14.9 billion during the first half of 1992 compared with the same period of 1991. The current account deficit was estimated at $4 billion in 1992, due to the significant decrease in imports. As of the beginning of 1993, there was a dire shortage of hard currency reserves, which severely limited importation possibilities of consumer and capital goods. Since 1993, however, Russia has run a surplus on the current account.

In 2004, Russia's total exports were $182 billion and imports were $94.8 billion for a trade surplus of roughly $87 billion. The current-account surplus had been sizeable as of 2004, reaching $60.6 billion that year. The current-account balance averaged 10% of GDP over the 2001–05 period.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of the Russian Federation was created in January 1992 from the old Soviet banking system headed by Gosbank (The Soviet State Bank). The bank heads a two-tier banking system, and implements a monetary policy and regulates the commercial

banking sector by setting the reserve requirements and the discount rate. The currency unit of Russia is the ruble, a currency that is in the process of becoming fully convertible with world currency. Russia, along with a few other countries of the former Soviet Union, decided to keep the ruble as its currency. The other important state bank is the Rosevneshtorgbank (Bank for Foreign Trade of the Russian Federation).

Around 2,000 commercial banks operate in Russia, a third of which are former specialized state banks. The rest are new institutions. Commercial banks include the Commercial Bank Industriaservis, the Commercial Credit Bank, the Commercial Conservation Bank, the Commercial Innovation Bank, the International Moscow Bank, St. Petersburg's Investment Bank, and the Construction Bank. The International Bank is a bank whose shares are owned by western banks, such as Citibank (US) and the Barclays Groups (UK), interested in doing business in the country.

Sberbank held around 86% of the population's savings in 1994. Having around 2,000 branches, it is by far the largest banking institution in the country. Sberbank became a joint-stock company in 1991, with the Central Bank taking a 20% shareholding. In addition to Sberbank (the Savings Bank), there were four other specialized banks: the Foreign Trade Bank (Vneshtorgbank), which is now more concerned with retail and corporate banking; the Bank for Construction and Industry (Promstroibank); the Agriculture Bank (Agroprombank); and the Social Sector Bank (Zhilotsbank). Formerly these were joint-stock banks but they relied on cheap credit from Gosbank.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $40.9 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $72.8 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 10.1%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 25%.

Russia had a small stock market in 1992. The market is considered an emerging market by Western investors with the potential for significant growth in coming years. Although the first stock market opened in Moscow in 1991, over 100 were in operation by 1996. The range, as well as the volume, of securities traded has been rapidly expanding. Inadequate regulation and custody registration systems have been the main bottlenecks in development. A Commission for Securities and Stock Market was established in late 1994. The second half of 1996 witnessed a huge rally in the value of Russian equity as it became clear that economic reforms would continue following the reelection of Boris Yeltsin as president.

Nevertheless, Russia's financial woes continued. In August 1998 the government defaulted on its debt. This action, in turn, led to the collapse of Russia's financial markets as the government abandoned support for the ruble and ceased bond payments. As a result, many banks became insolvent; only Central Bank intervention allowed many depositors to rescue a portion of their funds. Since Sberbank was originally a savings bank for the Soviet people, after the financial crisis of 1998 it received individual accounts from banks liquidated by the government. As a result, it has an unmatched network of 50 branches and over 2,000 outlets handling millions of accounts, both private and commercial. Also following the 1998 crisis, a group of new banks actually grew larger because of their avoidance of speculation in the short term loans on which the government had to default, and their dedication to professional services. These banks, which have prospered despite the weak economy (or perhaps because of it), include the Bank of Moscow, Alfa-Bank, Rosbank, Mezhprombank, Mosbusinessbank, MDM Bank, Sobinbank, National Reserve Bank, and Gazprom Bank.

The subsequent adoption of a tight monetary policy prevented the onset of hyperinflation and has contributed to the ongoing recovery. In fact, 2001 saw a considerable amount of economic firming. Market capitalization in combined Russian stock markets was, at $76 billion, nearly double the 2000 level, and the RSF Russia 100 Index, at 8602.7, was up 91% from the previous year. As of January 2002, the RSF Russia 100 Index was replaced by the S&P/RUX Composite Index. As of end 2004, that index stood at 760.9, up 15% from the previous year. In 2004, there were 215 companies listed on Russia's stock exchanges, which as of that year had a combined market capitalization of $267.957 billion.

INSURANCE

In 1993, a total of 1,524 Russian companies were licensed to sell insurance and another 750 companies had applied for licenses. However, fewer than 2% of the operating firms had assets over r100 million ($80,000), and premium volume for the first nine months of 1993 amounted to only 1.3% of the GDP (as compared with volume of 2.9% for the former Soviet Union in 1990).

Property insurance is the largest segment of the market with 880 companies. There are 775 cargo insurance firms, and 600 that sell life insurance. The various companies are gradually consolidating into groups.

Regulation of the industry is low. For example, in 1994, to open a business, the minimum capital requirement was two million rubles for an insurance company and 15 million rubles for reinsurance. Rosgosstrakh held a virtual monopoly on the domestic insurance market with 90% of policies, while Ingosstrakh held about 50% of the market in export and import insurance. One of the largest newcomers is Ask, a commercial company. Foreign ownership in insurance companies in 2002 was limited to 49% in order to protect private insurers. The industry is regulated by the Russian Insurance Inspectorate. Compulsory insurance includes third-party automobile liability, medical insurance, pension, social insurance, and fire and accident insurance. Starting in January of 1996, companies were able to deduct their insurance premiums as a business expense for tax purposes.

In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $14.088 billion, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $9.220 billion. For that same year, Russia's top nonlife insurer was Ingosstrakh, with gross written nonlife premiums (excluding compulsory insurance) of $416 million, while the country's leading life insurers that year, was Stolichnoe, with gross domestic life insurance premiums of $1,319.8 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Since the breakup of the COMECON and the Soviet Union, trade disruptions and friction between Russia and the governments of the former Soviet republics had led to an enormous expansion of

the fiscal deficit. The deficit was financed largely through sales of domestic government securities and borrowing from international financial institutions.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 the Russian Federation's central government took in revenues of approximately $176.7 billion and had expenditures of $125.6 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately $51.1 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 15.6% of GDP. Total external debt was $230.3 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2003, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were r3,644.5 billion and expenditures were r3,348.6 billion. The value of revenues was us$119 million and expenditures us$109 million, based on an exchange rate for 2003 of us$1 = r30.6920 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 35.2%; defense, 11.4%; public order and safety, 8.2%; economic affairs, 4.9%; environmental protection, 0.3%; health, 1.1%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.9%; education, 3.0%; and social protection, 35.1%.

TAXATION

Russia's tax system has historically been confusing, inefficient, unwieldy, and overbearing. Businesses and individuals routinely fail to pay their taxes on time, if at all. The government's need for money to pay pensions and salaries fueled a proliferation of taxes, including a tax on people crossing Russia's borders, additional levies on freight, new transit fees, and a tax on yields from government securities. In 1996, 26 tax collectors were killed, six were kidnapped, and 41 had their homes burned down. In the first half of 1997, the government only collected 57% of its targeted tax revenues.

Since 1999, the tax system has been the focus of a major reform effort aimed at reducing tax loads, improving collection rates, and bringing the system in line with those of advanced, market economies. The new Tax Code cut the number of official taxes from over 200 to about 40, and sought to end many loopholes. Part One of the new Tax Code, effective 1 January 1999, set out the administrative framework for the new system. There are three levels of taxation, federal, regional, and local. The principal taxes collected at the federal level are the profit tax on organizations (with payments divided among all three levels of government), a capital gains tax, a personal income tax (13% flat tax), the Unified Social Tax (replacing payroll contributions to four separate social benefit funds), a value-added tax (VAT—with the standard rate of 18% as of 2005), excise taxes, a securities tax (0.8% on nominal value with exemptions for initial issues), customs duties and customs fees, and federal license fees. At the regional level the principal taxes are an assets tax (2.2%), a real estate tax, a transport tax, sales taxes (maximum 5% in 2003), a tax on gambling, and regional license fees. Two turnover taxes at the state level, a social infrastructure maintenance tax (Housing Fund Tax) and a road users' tax, considered to be among the most onerous under the previous tax system, have been abolished; the Housing Fund Tax in 2001, and the roads tax in 2003. At the local level there are land taxes, individual property taxes, taxes on advertising expenses (beyond allowable limits as a proportion of sales), inheritance and gift taxes, and local license fees.

As of 2005, the corporate income tax was 24%, with payments split 5% to the federal budget, 13–17% payable to the regional governments, and 2% to the local level. Because regional governments are allowed to reduce their corporate rate to as low as 13%, the total minimum rate is 20%. Foreign companies pay withholding of 20%, and dividends paid to nonresidents are charged a 15% withholding rate (down from 18%).

The most striking provision in Russia's 1999 tax reforms is the replacement of its progressive income tax schedule (set out in the tax law of December 1991 with rates from 12–30%) with a flat tax of 13% applied to almost all income categories. The rationale is that the lower, simpler tax will generate more revenue by reducing Russia's pervasive tax-evasion. Exceptions to the 13% rate include a 15% rate on dividend income and on the income of nonresidents from Russian sources. There are also taxes on gambling income, lottery prizes, deemed income from low-interest or interest-free loans, some insurance payments, and excessive bank interest. The Unified Social Tax is a regressive schedule of payroll taxes ranging from 35.6–2% and is based on the gross income received by the employee. All voluntary insurance payments are tax deductible.

Russia's VAT, its main indirect tax, had a standard rate of 18% as of January 2005 that was scheduled to 16% as of January 2006. Exemptions from VAT for pharmaceuticals and license fees have been narrowed or removed. There are also excise taxes on items such as gasoline and other oil products, natural gas, alcohol, tobacco, and cars, motorcycles, and jewelry.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

In 1992, Russia eliminated many of the import restrictions imposed by the former Soviet Union. At the beginning of 2001, Russia put into effect a new and simpler tariff structure, consisting of four basic rates: 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. This effectively lowered the tariff ceiling from 30% to 20%. There is also an 18% value-added tax (VAT) on most imported goods, except for food products, which carry a VAT of only 10%. There are excise taxes on luxury goods, alcohol, tobacco, and autos. In total, these duties make imported goods essentially noncompetitive in the troubled Russian economy.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

In September 1991, a foreign investment law promoting the transfer of capital, technology, and know-how went into effect. Nonresidents may acquire partial shareholdings or form wholly owned subsidiaries in Russia. Foreign firms may obtain licenses to exploit natural resources. Foreign investors can be exempted from import duties and export taxes, and there is limited relief from profits tax, varying by sector and region. However, foreign investors remain concerned with the overall business climate in Russia. Vague business laws, an incoherent tax system, crime and corruption in commercial transactions, and a weak commitment to reform continue to erode investor confidence.

In 1997, the annual inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) to Russia peaked at $4.87 billion, but then fell to $2.76 billion in 1998 in the context of the Russian financial crisis. FDI recovered to $3.3 billion in 1999, and for the three years 2000, 2001, and 2002 averaged about $2.6 billion a year. Cumulative FDI in Russia from 1991 to April 2003 was $19.6 billion. Russia's share of world FDI flows has persistently been only about 30% of its share of world GDP, an indication of its lack of success in attracting foreign investment.

As of 2005, roughly three-quarters of the economy had been privatized, although many privatized enterprises continue to have significant state-held blocks of shares. Tax reforms since 2000 have aimed to rationalize the tax system, reducing the number of taxes and the corporate tax burden. The corporate tax rate was lowered from 35% to 24% at the start of 2002. FDI inflows averaged 1.6% of GDP over the 2001–05 period. Investment inflows for the first nine months of 2004 amounted to just over $29 billion (this figure includes direct investment, portfolio investment, and "other" investment—largely trade credits). The top foreign investors in Russia are Germany, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United States, France, and Switzerland.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In 1991, Russia's parliament enacted legislation aimed at fully privatizing the commercial and service sector by 1994 and placing about half the medium and large companies in private hands by 1995. By the end of 1992, about 6,000 firms had applied to become joint-stock companies, and 1,560 had completed the process; almost one-third of Russia's approximately 250,000 small businesses had been privatized. Housing privatization began late in 1992, and over 2.6 million apartments—about 8% of the total—had been privatized by the end of 1993. In 1996, the government claimed that the nonstate sector produced approximately 70% of gross domestic product (GDP), up from 62% in 1995. Russia's Communist-dominated parliament, however, was quick to criticize the government's privatization efforts which they thought were responsible for the economic decline. In March 1997, over two million people took part in a national strike protesting the economic hardships of privatization and over 100,000 attended rallies in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The government, however, was committed to privatization and largely ignored the parliament and the protests.

During the financial crisis of 1998, Russia became the first modern country to default on its debt. The subsequent collapse of the ruble and investor flight left analysts concerned that Russia would face famine and even governmental collapse. Instead, a period of fiscal restraint restored growth to the Russian economy although it remains vulnerable to sudden fluctuations in the world market. Russia in the early 2000s remained current on its foreign debt; service of the foreign debt amounted to around $14 billion in 2002.

Russia's GDP increased by 4.3% in 2002 over 2001. Lowered inflation and high oil prices fueled that growth. Unemployment and underemployment remain problems, however. In 1998 the government passed an improved bankruptcy code, and in 2001, the Duma passed a deregulation package to improve the business and investment sector. A new corporate tax code went into effect in 2002, lowering the corporate tax rate to 24% from 35%. Cumulative foreign investment increased by 20% in 2002, but was mostly due to increases in loans and trade credits. The banking system is poorly developed, which inhibits economic development. In 2002, the US Department of Commerce designated Russia a "market economy," and the country was invited by the G-7 nations to take part in negotiations, causing the group to be named the G-8.

As of 2006, Russia's reforms had made considerable progress since Vladimir Putin became president in 2000. Progress in such sensitive areas as utilities restructuring and housing reform is slower than in those areas that were targeted by the 2000–02 reform agenda, namely tax reform and deregulation. As of 2006, roughly three-quarters of the Russian economy had been privatized, although the state still held significant blocks of shares in privatized businesses. The large, unwieldy and corrupt bureaucracy remains a problem for reform. Russia ended 2005 with its seventh straight year of economic growth, which averaged about 6.5% annually since the 1998 financial crisis. Russia also improved its international financial position over this period, with foreign debt declining from 90% of GDP in 1998 to approximately 28% of GDP in 2004. Strong oil export earnings allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12 billion to some $120 billion by yearend 2004. These achievements raised business and investor confidence in Russia's economy, but, in addition to problems already mentioned, the manufacturing base is in serious need of modernization, the banking system is weak, there is a widespread lack of trust in institutions, and underemployment is a severe problem. President Putin by 2006 had taken a number of steps to shore up presidential power, and concerns have been raised that certain forces within the government are looking to reassert further state control over the economy.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system provides pensions for old-age, survivorship, and disability. The program is funded by employer payrolls, and self-employed persons and independent farmers contribute a fixed amount monthly. The government provides subsidies when needed. The first laws governing sickness benefits were implemented in 1912. All citizens and refugees are entitled to medical care; employed persons receive cash benefits for sickness. There is also a benefit provided to those caring for a sick child. Work injury is funded by the employer. Maternity benefits cover 100% of earnings from between 10 and 12 weeks before the expected date of childbirth and 10 to 16 weeks after childbirth. A universal system of family allowances provides a birth grant, a funeral grant, and a monthly benefit for each child under the age of 16.

The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, religion, language, social status or other circumstances. Despite these constitutional provisions, employment discrimination against women and minorities occurs. On average women earn significantly less than men and cluster in the lower-paid jobs and professions. The high cost of maternity care benefits leads some employers to hire men rather than women. Women suffer disproportionately in situations of worker layoffs. There is no law against sexual harassment and abuses in the workplace are common. Spousal abuse is a widespread problem and is treated as a domestic matter rather than a criminal offense. It was estimated in 2004 that 70% of wives were victims of some kind of domestic abuse. Sexual violence and other crimes against women are underreported and the government provides no support services to victims.

In general human rights are respected, but serious violations occur concerning the struggle against rebels in Chechnya. Also, ethnic minorities are subjected to harassment, searches, and arrest by police, and are sometimes denied local authority permission to reside in Moscow. Anti-Semitic rhetoric is increasing and several instances of intimidation and violence have been reported. Muslims continue to face discrimination. Prisoners are subject to mistreatment, unhealthy living conditions, and lack of medical care.

HEALTH

As of the mid-1990s, the overall organization of the health care system has largely been carried over from the Soviet era. Primary care has been delivered through basic units called uchastoks. In rural areas, these districts are served by health posts staffed by midwives or physicians' assistants, while health centers and urban polyclinics are available in larger population centers. The secondary-care network has also been retained from the Soviet era and consisted of uchastok hospitals and health centers, district hospitals and polyclinics, and regional hospitals and polyclinics. Medical facilities throughout the country are generally inadequate, with equipment that is both outdated and in poor condition. A survey conducted in the mid-1990s found a high level of dissatisfaction with the health care system on the part of both the general public and health care personnel, as well as widespread support for privatization. As of 2004, there were an estimated 417 physicians, 787 nurses, and 32 dentists per 100,000 people. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.6% of GDP.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 9.7 and 13.9 per 1,000 people. Infant mortality was 15.39 per 1,000 live births in 2005 and average life expectancy was 67.10 years. The total fertility rate was 1.3 children per woman during her childbearing years. Children up to one year of age were immunized against tuberculosis, 97%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 87%; polio, 97%; and measles, 95%.

The heart disease mortality rates for Russian men and women were higher than the average for countries of high human development. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 1.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 860,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 9,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

After the breakup of the Soviet Union diphtheria spread from Russia to its former republics in epidemic numbers. The incidence of tuberculosis was 123 per 100,000 people. The Russian Federation and countries of Central and Eastern Europe lag behind the West in injury prevention. The accidental death rate for children 5–14 in was 39.6 per 100,000 for boys and 16.4 per 100,000 for girls. Deaths by suicide are also very high in the Russian Federation at 41.7 per 100,000 people for men and 7.9 per 100,000 for women (aged 15–24).

HOUSING

The right to housing is guaranteed to all citizens by the constitution, but providing for adequate housing for all has become a problem in a time of major economic reforms. In the Soviet-era, most housing (state-owned) was provided free or at very low costs for many citizens. Since 2002, economic reform has called for many residents to begin paying more of the costs for rent, maintenance, and utilities. The government still allows somewhat generous subsidies for low-income families. But the main housing problem seems to be in maintenance and renovation of buildings that are in urgent need of both structural repairs and upgrades in utility systems. In 2004 it was estimated that at least two million people lived in housing that was officially classified as dilapidated. About 11% of all homes were in urgent need of repair and about 9% of all homes needed to be demolished and rebuilt. The annual need for renovation of the existing housing stock was estimated at about 4.5%. In 2004, about 70% of all housing was privately owned.

EDUCATION

Education, mostly free and state funded, is also compulsory for 10 years. Primary school covers four years, followed by another five years of basic school. Senior secondary schools offer two-year programs. Vocational secondary schools offer a four-year course of studies. Although Russian is the most common medium of instruction, other languages are also taught, especially at the secondary level. In the early 1990s, many privately owned institutions were opened, and the education system was modified with the introduction of a revised curriculum. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 92% of children between the ages of four and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 90% of age-eligible students. In 2001, secondary school enrollment was estimated at about 90% of all age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 93.5% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 17:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 11:1.

The St. Petersburg State University, which was founded in 1724, is well known for its education. In 2004, there were 685 state and 367 accredited nonstate higher education institutions in Russia. In 2003, about 69% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program, 59% for men and 79% for women. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 99.4%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 3.8% of GDP, or 10.7% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Russian State Library in Moscow serves as the national library as well as a public, with the largest collection in the country (about 45 million items). It should not be confused with Russian National Library in St. Petersburg, which is one of the oldest public libraries in eastern Europe; it holds over 34 million volumes. There are over 50,000 public libraries throughout the country. Some of the larger collections include the Gorky Moscow Institute of Literature library in Moscow (13.2 million volumes), the State University of Technology library in St. Petersburg (2.9 million volumes), the Bauman Moscow State Engineering University library (three million volumes), the Moscow M. V. Lomonosov State University (7.27 million volumes), the State University at Petersburg (6.4 million volumes), and dozens of other massive collections throughout the country. The Russian Library Association was established in 1994.

Russia has over 1,000 museums. Russian museums house some of the finest collections of European art in the world, the best known of which is the Hermitage in St. Petersburg. Also in St. Petersburg are Dostoevsky Memorial House-Museum, the Literary Museum of the Institute of Russian Literature, the State Russian Museum, and the State Museum of Sculpture, housing the country's largest collection of sculpture. Among the dozens of important museums in Moscow are the State Historical Museum, the State Literature Museum, the Tolstoy House Museum, the Pushkin Museum, the Chekhov House Museum, the Paleontological Museum of the Academy of Sciences, and the Cathedral of the Assumption, a religious arts museum housed in a 15th-century cathedral. The St. Petersburg Erotica Museum opened in 2004.

MEDIA

As of 1999, over 1,000 companies were licensed to offer telecommunications services. In 2003, there were an estimated 242 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; over 5 million people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 249 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

In 2004, there were about 2,500 television stations in the country, with about 66% completely or partially owned by the government. The government also maintained ownership of the largest radio stations, Radio Mayak and Radio Rossiya, and the news agencies ITAR TASS and RIA Novosti. In 2000, there were 418 radios and 421 television sets for every 1,000 people. In 2003, there were about 88.7 personal computers in use for every 1,000 people. There were 6 million Internet subscribers in 2002.

In 2005, there were more than 400 daily newspapers in circulation. In 2005, Russia's major daily newspapers, all published in Moscow, were: Moskovski Komsomolets (Moscow Communist Youth, 800,000 est. circulation in 2005); Komsomolskaya Pravda (686,000 in 2005); Trud (Labor, 613,000 in 2005); Rossiiskaya Gazeta (374,000 in 2005); Izvestia (209,000 in 2004); Kommersant (94,000 in 2005); and Nezarisimaya Gazeta (27,000 in 2004). Argumenty I Fakty is a popular weekly with an estimated 2005 circulation of 2.9 million. Novaya Gazeta, published twice a week, has a 2004 estimated circulation of 106,000. Vedomost i is a business daily owned as a joint venture of the Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and the Independent Media group (a Dutch organization); it has an estimated circulation of 42,000. In 2004, there were an estimated 45,000 registered local periodicals and newspapers.

The constitution provides for freedom of the press and mass information, and the government is said at present to respect these provisions. However, the law contains provisions which give broad interpretive authority to government at all levels for the enforcement of secrecy of sensitive information. Russians are enjoying a freer media than at any time in recent history.

ORGANIZATIONS

A chamber of commerce that promotes the economic and business activities of the country to the rest of the world operates in Moscow. The Russian Academy of Entrepreneurship assists business owners. There are several professional associations representing a wide variety fields, such as the Health Workers Union of the Russian Federation and the Association of Russian Automobile Dealers. Some professional associations also promote public education and research in specific technical or scientific fields, such as the Russian Medical Society.

National youth organizations include the Girl Guides and Girl Scouts of Russia, The All-Russia Scout Organizations, the Youth Agrarian Union of Russia, the Siberian Youth Initiative, and YMCA/YWCA. Sports associations are popular and represent a wide variety of pastimes. There are active chapters of the Paralympic Committee and the Special Olympics. The Gaia International Women's Center promotes the advancement of women in business and politics. Several women's groups are organized under the umbrella of the Women's Union of Russia.

Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs and Kiwanis International, are also present. The All-Russian Society for Disabled represents the concerns of over 2.5 million people. The International Red Cross and the Red Crescent operate branches throughout the federation. There are also branches of Amnesty International, Greenpeace, United Way, UNICEF, and Habitat for Humanity.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

In September 1992, Russia lifted its travel restrictions on foreigners, opening the entire country to visitors and tourists. Moscow is a major tourist destination with many attractions including Red Square, the Kremlin, St. Basil's Cathedral, and many other monasteries, churches, museums and other cultural attractions. The most famous of Moscow's parks and gardens is Gorky Park. St. Petersburg is a beautifully preserved neoclassical city with palacelined waterways. Attractions include the State Hermitage Museum, Peter and Paul Fortress, and the Nevsky Prospekt. Football (soccer), ice hockey, and tennis are popular sports in Russia. Maria Sharapova won the Wimbledon women's title in 2004.

There were 22,521,059 visitors who arrived in Russia in 2003, about 90% of the tourists came from Europe. Tourism receipts totaled $5.8 billion that year. Hotel rooms numbered 177,200 with 364,000 beds and an occupancy rate of 34%.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily expenses of staying in Moscow at $378. Other areas were less expensive averaging $279 per day.

FAMOUS RUSSIANS

Notable among the rulers of prerevolutionary Russia were Ivan III (the Great, 1440–1505), who established Moscow as a sovereign state; Peter I (the Great, 1672–1725), a key figure in the modernization of Russia; Alexander I (1777–1825), prominent both in the war against Napoleon and the political reaction that followed the war; and Alexander II (1818–81), a social reformer who freed the serfs. Mikhail Gorbachev (b.1931) came to power in 1985, initiated reforms of the old Communist system and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990.

Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–65), poet and grammarian, also was a founder of natural science in Russia. The poet Gavrila Derzhavin (1743–1816) combined elements of topical satire with intimate, lyrical themes. Aleksandar Radishchev (1749–1802) criticized both religion and government absolutism. Nikolay Karamzin (1766–1826), an early translator of Shakespeare, was the founder of Russian Sentimentalism. The fables of Ivan Krylov (1768/69?–1844) exposed human foibles and the shortcomings of court society. Russia's greatest poet, Aleksandr Pushkin (1799–1837), was also a brilliant writer of prose. Other outstanding poets were Fyodor Tyutchev (1803–73), Mikhail Lermontov (1814–41), and Afanasy Fet (Shen-shing 1820–92). Nikolay Gogol (1809–52), best known for his novel Dead Souls and his short stories, founded the realistic trend in Russian literature. Vissarion Belinsky (1811–48) was an influential critic. Noted radical philosophers were Aleksandr Hertzen (1812–70). Nikolay Chernyshevshy (1828–89), and Nikolay Dobrolyubov (1812–91), satirized the weakness of Russian society. Ivan Turgenev (1818–83) is noted for his sketches, short stories, and the novel Fathers and Sons. Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–81) wrote outstanding psychological novels (Crime and Punishment, The Brothers Karamazov). Leo (Lev) Tolstoy (1828–1910), perhaps the greatest Russian novelist (War and Peace, Anna Karenina ), also wrote plays, essays and short stories. Aleksandr Ostrovsky (1823–86) was a prolific dramatist. The consummate playwright and short-story writer Anton Chekhov (1860–1904) was the greatest Russian writer of the late 19th century. Leonid Nikolayevich Aandreyev (1871–1919) wrote plays and short stories. The novels, stories, and playas of Maksim Gorky (Aleksey Peshkov, 1868–1936) bridged the tsarist and Soviet periods. Ivan Bunin (1870–1953) received the Nobel Prize in 1933 for his novels and short stories. Georgy Plekhanov (1856–1918), a Marxist philosopher and propagandist, also was a literary critic and art theorist, as was Anatoly Lunacharsky (1875–1933).

Russian composers of note include Mikhail Glinka (1804–57), Aleksandar Borodin (1833–87), also a distinguished chemist, Mily Balakirev (1837–1910), Modest Mussorgsky (1839–81), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–93), Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908), Aleksandr Skryabin (1871–1915), Sergey Rakhmaninov (1873–1943), Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971), Sergey Prokofyev (1891–1953), Aram Ilyich Khachaturian (1903–78), Dmitry Kabalevsky (1904–87), and Dmitry Shostakovich (1906–75). Two of the greatest bassos of modern times are the Russian-born Fyodor Chaliapin (1873–1938) and Alexander Kipnis (1891–1978). Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951), noted conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, was important in Russian musical life before the Revolution.

Outstanding figures in the ballet are the impresario Sergey Diaghilev (1872–1929); the choreographers Marius Petipa (1819–1910), Lev Ivanov (1834–1901), and Mikhail Fokine (1880–1942); the ballet dancers Vaslav Nijinsky (1890–1950), Anna Pavlova (1881–1931), Tamaara Karsavina (1885–1978), Galina Ulanova (1909–1998), and Maya Plisetskaya (b.1925); and the ballet teacher Agrippina Vaganova (1879–1951).

Outstanding figures in the theater include Kostantin Stanislavsky (Alekseyev, 1863–1938), director, actor and theorectician; Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko (1858–1943), director, playwright, and founder, with Stanislavsky, of the Moscow Art Theater; and Vsevolod Meyerhold (1873–1942), noted for innovations in stagecraft. Important film directors were Vsevolod Pudovkin (1893–1953), Aleksandr Dovzhenko (1864–1956), Sergey Eisenstein (1898–1948), Vasily Shiksin (1929–74), and Andrei Tarkovsky (1932–87).

Varfolomey (Bartolomeo Francesco) Rastrelli (1700–1771) designed many of the most beautiful buildings in St. Petersburg. Other important Russian architects include Vasily Bazhenov (1737–99), Matvey Kazakov (1733–1812), Andreyan Zakharov (1761–1811), Ivan Starov (1806–58), Vasily Perov (1833/34–82), Vasily Vereshchagin (1842–1904), Ilya Repin (1844–1930), Mikhail Vrubel (1856–1910), Leon (Lev) Bakst (Rosenberg, 1866–1924), and Aleksansr Benois (1870–1960). Modern Russian artists whose work is internationally important include the Suprematist painters Kasimir Malevich (1878–1935) and El (Lazar) Lissitzky (1890–1941), the "Rayonist" painters Natalya Goncharova (1881–1962) and Mikhail Larionov (1881–1964), the Constructivist artist Vladimir Tatlin (1885–1953), and the Spatial sculptor Aleksandar Rodchenko (1891–1956). Famous Russian-born artists who left their native country to work abroad include the painters Alexei von Jawlensky (1864–1941), Vasily Kandinsky (1866–1944), Marc Chagall (1897–1985), and Chaim Soutine (1894–1943) and the sculptors Antoine Pevsner (1886–1962), his brother Naum Gabo (1890–1977), Alexander Archipenko (1887–1964), and Ossip Zadkine (1890–1967).

Prominent Russian scientists of the 19th and 20th centuries include the chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev (1834–1907), inventor of the periodic table; Aleksandr Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828–86), a creator of the theory of chemical structure; Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky (1847–1921), a founder of modern hydrodynamics and aerodynamics; Pyotr Nikolayevich Lebedev (1866–1912), who discovered the existence of the pressure of light; Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792–1856), pioneer in non-Euclidean geometry; Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936), creator of the theory on the higher nervous systems of animals and man, who received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work on digestive glands; Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (Elie Metchnikoff, 1845–1916), who received the Nobel Prize in 1908 for his Phagocyte theory; Kliment Arkadyevich Timiryazev (1843–1920), biologist and founder of the Russian school of plant physiology; and Aleksandr Stepanovich Popov (1859–1906), pioneer in radio transmission. Among later scientists and inventors are Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin (1855–1935), biologist and plant breeder; Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935), scientist and the inventor in the field of the theory and technology of rocket engines, interplanetary travel and aerodynamics; Vladimir Petrovich Filatov (1875–1956), ophthalmologist; Ivan Pavlovich Bardin (1883–1960), metallurgist; Yevgeny Nikanorovich Pavlovsky (1884–1965), parasitologist; Nikolay Ivanovich Vavilov (1887–1943), geneticist; and Leon Theremin (Lev Termen, 1896–1993), pioneer of electronic music. Cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (1934–68) was the first person to ever venture into space.

DEPENDENCIES

The Russian Federation has no territories or dependencies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Appel, Hilary. A New Capitalist Order: Privatization and Ideology in Russia and Eastern Europe. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004.

Aslund, Anders. How Russia Became a Market Economy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1995.

Blasi, Joseph R. Kremlin Capitalism: The Privatization of the Russian Economy. Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1997.

Gooding, John. Rulers and Subjects: Government and People in Russia, 1801–1991. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996.

Howe, Sonia E. (ed.). A Thousand Years of Russian History. New York: Nova Science, 2005.

Hunter, Robert Edwards. Engaging Russia as Partner and Participant: The Next Stage of NATO-Russia Relations. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2004.

International Smoking Statistics: A Collection of Historical Data from 30 Economically Developed Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Mandel, David. Labour after Communism: Auto Workers and Their Unions in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. New York: Black Rose Books, 2004.

Mastyugina, Tatiana. An Ethnic History of Russia: Pre-Revolutionary Times to the Present. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996.

McCann, Leo (ed.). Russian Transformations: Challenging the Global Narrative. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.

Miller, Steven E. and Dmitri Trenin (eds.). The Russian Military: Power and Policy. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2004.

Peterson, D. J. Russia and the Information Revolution. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2005.

Pushkareva, N. L. Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997.

Raymond, Boris, and Paul Duffy. Historical Dictionary of Russia. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 1998.

Shleifer, Andrei. A Normal Country: Russia after Communism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005.

Shoemaker, Merle Wesley. Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 2005. 36th ed. Harpers Ferry, W.V.: Stryker-Post Publications, 2005.

Summers, Randal W., and Allan M. Hoffman (ed.). Domestic Violence: A Global View. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Terterov, Marat (ed.). Doing Business with Russia: A Guide to Investment Opportunities and Business Practice. 4th ed. Sterling, Va.: Kogan Page, 2005.

Thurston, Robert W. Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Tuller, David. Cracks in the Iron Closet: Travels in Gay and Lesbian Russia. Boston: Faber and Faber, 1996.

Urban, Michael E. The Rebirth of Politics in Russia. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Wyman, Matthew. Public Opinion in Postcommunist Russia. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.

Yeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich. The Struggle for Russia. New York: Times Books, 1994.

RUSSIA

Russian Federation

Major Cities:
Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhniy Novgorod, Novosibirsk

Other Cities:
Samara, Vladivostok, Volgograd, Yekaterinburg

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 2000 for Russia. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

Russia sprawls across nearly one-sixth of the Earth's land mass (about 17 million square kilometers). It embraces a varied topography and has every type of climate except tropical.

The Ural Mountains mark the traditional division between European and Asiatic Russia. To the west, Russian territory stretches over a broad plain, broken only by occasional low hills. To the east are the vast Siberian lowlands and the deserts of central Asia. Beyond are the barren Siberian highlands and the mountain ranges of the Russian Far East. Great pine forests cover half the country; south of these are the steppes (prairies), where the soil is rich and dark. A small subtropical zone lies south of the steppes, along the shores of the Black and Caspian Seas.

Climate is varied. Winters are long and cold and summers brief. In parts of the eastern Siberian tundra, temperatures of-68°C (-90°F) have been recorded.

The Russian Federation is a multi-ethnic state that comprises more than 100 ethnic groups. The majority of the population is Eastern Slavic, but it is made up of peoples belonging to less numerous ethnic groups, including Eskimos. Although most groups are distinguished by their own language and culture, Russian language and traditions are well established, with Russian the common language in government and education.

Religion, long suppressed under the Soviet regime, now flourishes, and examples of all major and many less widely practiced religions can be found. Once an underdeveloped, peasant society, Russia made considerable economic progress under Communist rule, mainly by the force of a centralized command economy and basic industrialization. Soviet communism, already stagnant by the 1980s and ill-equipped to meet the demands of Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika, collapsed by 1991, forcing Russia into a difficult transition toward a democratic state and market-based economy.

The Russian Federation continues to seek to redefine its relationships with its new independent neighbors, as well as its role in the world.

MAJOR CITIES

Moscow

Moscow's official population is approximately 9 million. It is the center of government and plays an important role in the country's political, economical, cultural, scientific, and military activity. Moscow is first mentioned in history in 1147 A.D. as Prince Yuriy Dolgorukiy's hunting camp. Due to its strategic position on a north-south trade route from Rostov to Ryazan, Moscow was the center of trade and government in what eventually became the Russian Empire.

As the Russian Empire expanded, so grew Moscow's influence and importance, until the early 18th century when Peter the Great moved the nation's capital to St. Petersburg. As Russia's second city, Moscow retained its primacy only in trade, until the leaders of Soviet Russia transferred the capital back to Moscow early in 1918. Subsequently, Moscow more than quadrupled in population and territory (878 square kilometers). In the past 20 years, the city's difficulties in housing and in supplying its large and growing population have led to calls for limits on growth and crack-downs on the huge "unregistered" population.

After a decade-long lapse, the U.S. entered into diplomatic relations with the U.S.S.R. in 1933. In 1991, the U.S.S.R. was formally dissolved. The Russian Federation emerged as the largest of the new independent states of the former Soviet Union. Russia has diplomatic relations with most of the world's countries, and more than 100 of these maintain missions in Moscow. News correspondents, business representatives, and students from throughout the world live in the Russian capital. There is a heavy, year-round flow of foreign tourists and official delegations. Moscow's resident American community numbers about 5,000 (including dependents), consisting of Embassy personnel, business representatives, correspondents, clergy, exchange students, and professors.

American tourists number about 100-200,000 annually. Moscow contains many attractions of interest for visitors. Those open to the public include the Kremlin; monasteries and churches in and around Moscow, as well as museums, parks, permanent exhibition centers, and a variety of musical, dramatic, and dance attractions. Many small towns of interest lie within a day's drive of Moscow, including the old monastery town of Sergiyev Posad (formerly Zagorsk), Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy's home, and the Borodino battlefield, site of the greatest battle of Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia.

Moscow offers a rich cultural environment, and warrants the enormous local pride in its treasures and traditions. Myriad museums are devoted to the various arts, literature, music, politics, history, and sciences. Hundreds of small churches and large cathedrals throughout the city are open to visitors. In addition to the famous Bolshoi Theater, with its large repertoire of Russian and internationally famous opera and ballet, other theaters and concert halls feature popular and classical plays, concerts, recitals, and all of the performing arts. Children's theater, a puppet theater, a planetarium, and other performances geared especially to younger people are also available. The Russian circuses with their rich history are overwhelmingly popular with children and adults alike.

On the negative side, life in Moscow can be difficult and stressful. Air pollution, severe winter conditions, language barriers, chaotic rush hour traffic, and long hours at work take their toll on even the most well-adjusted residents. Street crime is still a problem and African and Asian Americans have been victims of racially motivated attacks.

Moscow is 3 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time, and 8 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time.

Utilities

Electric clocks and other electrical items with motors designed for 60 cycles may not work correctly; 220v 50hz items can be purchased locally, if needed.

Food

For the Western consumer, the availability of food and household products is improving. Most food and household products used by a typical American family can now be purchased.

When American brands are not available locally, a European equivalent can usually be purchased. Vendors other than Russian stores and markets include Western outlets such as Stockmann.

Some visitors do a lot of shopping at local "rynoks" These are open-air farmers' markets located in different parts of the city, typically near metro stations. Rynoks carry a large selection of fresh bread and seasonal as well as imported fresh produce. Meat is also available for purchase, but buying fresh, unrefrigerated meat is risky. Rynoks often have stalls that stock non-food items, such as cleaning products, soft drinks and liquor, health care products, pet food and paper goods at prices that are cheaper than in the other stores. In many instances the quality of the products tends to be lower. Larger rynoks also sell flowers, plants, clothing items, and leather goods. Be aware, however, that shopping in rynoks can pose challenges, including the need to maneuver through crowded spaces and language problems for non-Russian speakers. Bargaining is an accepted and common practice at rynoks but not at conventional stores and supermarkets, where prices are marked.

Clothing

Temperatures during the year can range from-40° to +95 °F. Moscow winters can be very cold, especially if one is used to winter temperatures above freezing. It is necessary to be prepared for the harsh winter climate with plenty of warm clothing and outerwear. Men and women often wait until they arrive to buy a fur hat, and many women also purchase fur coats and boots locally. Other locally available winter gear may not meet American standards and/or style. Summers are short and often cool. Sweaters and a coat are necessary no matter what time of year you arrive.

The best type of clothing to have in Moscow is washable since clothing soils easily. Sturdy, waterproof clothing and footwear with good treads is essential. Sidewalks can be slick in winter and muddy and wet during the rest of the year. One should consider bringing enough clothing to last until replacements can be ordered through catalogs or while on leave outside of Russia.

Slippers or clogs are useful around the house in winter and spring as mud, ice, salt, and dirt can be tracked in off the streets and playgrounds. Russians usually take off their shoes when entering a home (and children are expected to), so it is appropriate to have a couple of extra pairs of slippers for guests who do not feel comfortable coming into your home with their shoes on. Slippers can be purchased locally.

Sports equipment and sportswear should be brought to Moscow when possible. There are various recreational activities at hand, including swimming, soccer, baseball, volleyball, cycling, rollerblading, etc. Traditional Russian wooden children's sleds are available for purchase in the city, but may be hard to find. Western winter sports equipment can be found around town but the prices tend to be high. Cross-country skiing, ice-skating and sledding are all common winter sports. The outdoor tennis court at Rosinka is also turned into a skating rink during the winter.

Men: Both heavy and light topcoats are desirable for spring and fall. Men wear down parkas and heavy topcoats appropriate for evening over their suits in the winter. Lined raincoats are not warm enough in the dead of winter although many people wear them in the spring and fall.

Warm gloves, warm and waterproof boots, and a warm hat are all essential. Building interiors are often too hot by American standards in winter, but in fall and spring, when there is no central heating, indoors can be uncomfortably cool. Light sweaters or vests that can be worn under suit jackets are convenient. Bring appropriate cold-weather clothes for outdoor sports. Lighter wool suits are desirable for summer wear.

Women: In general, women in Moscow wear the same style clothing as worn in the U.S. Moderately dressy suits with nice blouses and dresses are worn most often for receptions, dinners, and evenings out.

Women need a light coat, raincoat, and heavy coat. These could include anything from a mid-calf washable down coat with a hood, to fur coats, and/or a raincoat with a zip-out liner. Warm, waterproof, thick-soled boots, rainboots, warm gloves or mittens, and thermal or silk long underwear are useful. It is quite common (and completely acceptable by Russian standards) to wear sturdy boots to a dinner or reception, carrying other "inside" shoes and changing upon arrival. Sportswear, a bathing suit, and a large supply of stockings, tights, and underwear are important to bring, although they may all be obtained locally at prices higher than in the U.S.

Children: Children can never have enough hats and scarves, sets of gloves and mittens, rain boots and rain gear, as well as snowsuits, pants and boots. Locally purchased clothing may not meet American standards and/or styles and in many cases is more expensive than in the U.S.

Babies need warm winter clothing. Scarves, hats, mittens, and wool clothing for infants are available locally, but the prices are much higher than one would pay in the U.S.

Supplies and Services

European toiletries, paper goods, household cleaners, film, and basic children's toys and games are available in local shops. Be aware that prices are often much higher than in the U.S.

CDs are available for sale in kiosks around town and in music stores. There is even a CD rynok. There are numerous computer stores and a computer rynok in Moscow, but it could be more affordable to buy dual-voltage equipment, computer games and supplies in the U.S. Computer paper, ribbon cartridges and other computer supplies are available at computer stores, kiosks and large bookstores. Be advised that the locally available A4 size paper may not fit all printers.

E-mail and Internet surfing helps keep visitors in touch with the U.S. There are several providers from which to choose. Plan to spend about twice as much for an internet connection in Moscow as you might in the U.S.

A multisystem television set and multisystem VCR receiving NTSC, PAL, and SECAM (Russian) signals are useful in Moscow. Cable service is available.

Religious Activities

Most major religions are now represented in Moscow although services in English are not always available.

Education

The Anglo-American School (AAS) is supported by the U.S., British and Canadian embassies. The school accepts children from pre-kindergarten through 12th grade. It is located at the Pokrovsky Hills (Hines) complex; children living in Pokrovsky Hills can walk to school. The school usually opens during the third or fourth week in August. It is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges.

Most schools in Moscow are unable to accept children with special needs. If your child has an individual educational program (IEP), or needs assistance outside the classroom, please discuss these requirements with school officials as far in advance as possible.

Other Educational Opportunities

Piano rentals, music lessons, horseback riding, fencing, gymnastics, ballet classes, and private tutors for Russian and other languages are reasonably priced. The International Women's Club and American Women's Club both offer a variety of activities, such as yoga, aerobics, and Russian conversation groups, depending upon interest and availability of instruction.

Sports

Spectator sports include hockey, football (soccer), and basketball. A large number of international tournaments and championships are held, with increased participation by U.S. teams. Some people have participated in such diverse outdoor sports as skydiving, whitewater rafting, and wild game hunting. Your marksmanship can be tested at Moscow's shooting club; firearms, ammunition, and lessons are available at the site. There is a country club in Moscow that has a golf course. Unfortunately, this sport here is extremely expensive and the golf course is a long drive from town. There is a spring softball and baseball league for children.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Moscow contains a broad spectrum of museums, from pre-Revolutionary art treasures to science and history. Tours to the seat of the Russian Government, the Kremlin, Lenin's Tomb, and the picturesque, colorful GUM Department store on Red Square, and the homes of such revered Russians as Tolstoy, Gorky, and Chekhov may all be arranged with the assistance of local travel bureaus. Walking tours to the many architectural landmarks in Moscow are a good way to get a feel for the city. Moscow's underground metro system is justly famous. Many stations are elaborately decorated. Izmailovsky Park has become the main attraction for souvenir shopping in a frenzied bazaar atmosphere. Every weekend, local artists and craftsmen gather there to sell their wares to throngs of visitors.

In and around Moscow, sightseers will find historic palaces and museums, surrounded by gardens and parks. You can reach St. Petersburg, Tallinn, Riga, Vilnius, Kiev, and many other interesting cities by overnight sleeper train. Other cities such as Sochi, Tbilisi, and Tashkent are only a few hours away by air.

Entertainment

The principal hotels and restaurants offer American, European, Russian, and ethnic cuisine from the Commonwealth of Independent States. The quality of food and service is generally acceptable, and new restaurants seem to be opening daily. English/Russian menus are available at many. On the whole, dining out in Moscow is more expensive than in equivalent restaurants in the U.S. Western chains such as McDonald's, TGI Fridays, Sbarro's, KFC, and Pizza Hut continue to grow. There are several English-language publications for the foreign community that regularly print restaurant reviews and reliable guides to the better restaurants.

For the theatergoer, Moscow offers a wide range of entertainment at prices lower than in the U.S. The Bolshoi Theater offers world-famous ballet and opera programs during all but the summer months. For Russian speakers, the city also has several extraordinarily good dramatic theaters. One of the best is the Moscow Art Theater, where plays by classic Russian playwrights such as Chekhov are often performed. The city's children's and puppet theaters, including the world-famous Obraztsov Puppet Theater, are prime attractions for families. Both Moscow Circuses are highly recommended for children and adults alike. For classical music lovers, the Moscow Conservatory has a full annual schedule of concerts and recitals featuring Russia's best musical performers. The city also has an active jazz scene. Rock music has gained in popularity in recent years, and concerts are held quite frequently around the city. Tickets to most events are inexpensive and can be bought in advance at the theater or stadium box office, at special kiosks scattered about the city, or obtained by local tour companies. Several movie theaters show first-run, Western-made movies in English or dubbed in Russian.

The American Women's Organization offers children's holiday parties.

St. Petersburg

St. Petersburg, with a population of nearly 5 million, is the second largest city in Russia. Peter the Great founded St. Petersburg in 1703 and transferred the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg in 1712 to provide Russia with a "Window on the West." The city was renamed Petrograd at the outset of World War I, and in 1918 the capital was moved back to Moscow. On January 26, 1924, 5 days after Lenin's death, the city's name was changed to Leningrad. During WWII, the city suffered historic tragedy as over 480,000 people starved to death in the 900-day siege. In 1991, as a result of a citywide referendum, the city resumed its historical name of St. Petersburg.

St. Petersburg is slightly warmer than Moscow, but it is damper since winter winds blow off the Gulf of Finland. Snow may fall as early as October, and sunlight dwindles to only a few hours a day in the months of January and February. March is generally the rainiest month of the year. June brings the beautiful "White Nights" when the sun barely dips below the horizon. Summer weather can be quite varied, with temperatures fluctuating between the 50s and 80s.

Although the city declined in political importance with the move of the capital back to Moscow, St. Petersburg retained importance as a military-industrial and cultural center. With a highly skilled labor force and a long history of industry and commerce, St. Petersburg is a major producer of electric and electronic equipment, machine tools, nuclear reactor equipment, precision instruments, TV equipment, ships, heavy machinery, tractors, chemicals, and other sophisticated products, as well as consumer goods. It has one of the country's largest dry-cargo ports. It remains a major center for publication, education, and scientific research.

Since August 1991, St. Petersburg has been a reform-minded city. Its large military-industrial center, however, has been slow to adapt to changing conditions. U.S. investment in St. Petersburg has increased significantly in recent years with the opening of several major production facilities. The St. Petersburg consular district taken as a whole accounts for approximately 50% of all U.S. investment in Russia. Nevertheless, crime has increased as a result of the uncertain political and economic situations.

Both local and foreign donations have been focused at preserving and restoring the older parts of the city and outlying imperial residences, which were heavily damaged during World War II.

The older parts of St. Petersburg continue to suffer from the lack of investment over the past 8 decades.

Utilities

Electrical service in St. Petersburg (including off-compound apartments) is 220v, 50 hz. Most electrical outlets accept two round prongs; two general types are in use. Most apartments have both "German" and the smaller European-sized outlets.

Food

The growing season in St. Petersburg is short. Seasonal produce appears in the local markets for shorter periods than in Moscow. In winter, local greenhouses provide a small supply of produce; fresh fruits and vegetables are also brought from the southern parts of Russia and Europe at inflated prices. Finnish supermarkets offer a selection of fruits and vegetables year-round at prices considerably higher than those in the Washington, D.C. area.

The selection of meats available in local Western-style grocery stores is more limited than in the U.S., though acceptable chicken and pork is usually available. Beef tends to be significantly inferior to that found in the U.S.

Clothing

Winter temperatures in St. Petersburg can fall to-40 °E The climate is damper than in Moscow. All visitors should pack appropriate clothing. Warm parkas, boots, long underwear, face masks, hats, etc., are invaluable during the winter months. Warm clothing for children and infants is essential.

Rain, melting snow, and dirty streets combine to make walking in St. Petersburg messy during fall and spring. Waterproof, insulated footwear or galoshes are a must. Dark-colored clothes (especially slacks and jeans) are more practical than white or light-colored clothes. Winter clothing and rainwear of all sizes are available in St. Petersburg, but prices are high.

Days are warm in summer, but by August, nights are cool. Except in the middle of summer, you will find many opportunities to wear sweaters. Summer is the time of mosquitoes, so bring plenty of insect repellent. Mosquito nets are also advisable to make sleeping more comfortable for small children.

Supplies and Services

Although most everyday items can be found in St. Petersburg, prices on certain items tend to be higher than in the U.S. Feminine hygiene products, Western name brand kitchen and cleaning supplies, cosmetics, and name brand drugs are generally more expensive than in the U.S. A common problem when buying cleaning, kitchen, and automobile supplies is having to contend with usage instructions in a language other than Russian or English.

Local drycleaning facilities are improving, but consistently acceptable service remains elusive. Reliable drycleaning is available in major hotels and through a few private services, although rates are much higher than in the U.S. Spot remover and cold-water detergents are indispensable. Avoid clothing that needs frequent cleaning.

Russian beauticians and barber-shops are satisfactory, and prices are reasonable. Appointments are recommended.

Domestic Help

Domestic help is readily available at affordable rates. You may hire Russian citizens as housekeepers or nannies for your children, since permanent day care is not always available.

Religious Activities

Within or near St. Petersburg are many active Russian Orthodox churches, several Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Baptist churches, a Jewish synagogue, several branches of the Mormon church, and various other religious organizations. There are also missionaries from many religious denominations.

Most religious services take place in Russian. Strictly foreign congregations hold services in their native languages, including English, French, and German.

Education

The Anglo-American School of St. Petersburg, a branch of the Anglo-American School of Moscow, serves students in kindergarten through grade 12. The strong American-based curriculum is enriched with instruction in local culture and history through visits to and instruction from the city's numerous museums. Kindergarten students must be 5 years old by December 31 of the year of entrance. The school is located in a former Russian kindergarten building on Petrograd Island and is able to accommodate approximately 95 students. For the 1999/2000 academic school year, approximately 90 students were enrolled representing 18 nationalities.

Some parents have used Russian day care or kindergarten facilities. They have proven satisfactory for those few parents and children who are willing to cope with learning a new language, unfamiliar food, and rather strict discipline. During the initial months, the adjustment can be difficult. Russian facilities operate on a three-quarter or full-day basis. As they are set up for working parents, the facilities are often crowded, and significant delays can be expected in finding and getting access to a suitable facility.

Special Educational Opportunities

Those individuals with even average language skills may take advantage of public classes and lessons in all areas of interest where other students and participants are Russian-speaking nationals.

Sports

Depending on the season, you may make your own arrangements to attend football (soccer), ice hockey, figure skating, track-and-field, boxing, basketball, auto, bicycle and motorcycle racing, and swimming events. In most cases, prices are inexpensive. Soccer and ice hockey are especially popular; teams in both sports are excellent.

Swimming is not recommended in the Gulf of Finland because of the high level of organic and other pollutants. However, indoor swimming pools are available, with some restrictions. If you wish to use a public pool, you must have written permission from a Russian doctor attesting to your state of health. Fishing is popular in the Neva and the Gulf, but eating fish from the Neva is not recommended. Excursion motorboats, including hydro-foils, also ply the river and canals for sightseeing. There are good bicycle paths in some city parks and along the Gulf.

Winter sports include cross-country skiing and ice-skating. Outdoor rinks throughout the city are open to staff members. Cross country skiing is possible at city parks outside the city center and in the Repino-Zelenogorsk resort area near the Consulate General recreation facility on the Gulf of Finland. Skates and skis are available in St. Petersburg or in Finland, although if you are an avid winter sports enthusiast, bring your own equipment.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Near St. Petersburg are former royal palace grounds that have been beautifully restored and are now open to the public. These include Peterhof, with its magnificent grounds and fountains; Pavlovsk, the most completely restored royal home; and Tsarskoe Selo, formerly Pushkin, in which are located several palaces, one of which was the home of the last tsar and his family. Other palaces, such as Oranienbaum and Gatchina, are easily accessible for day trips.

Many people usually travel to these palaces in their own vehicles, but public transportation, including summer hydrofoil service to Peter-hof, is available, convenient, and inexpensive, though crowded.

St. Petersburg has about 40 museums covering a broad range of exhibits, from anthropology to zoology. First among these is the world-famous Hermitage, well-known for its collections of Rembrandts, French Impressionists, and Scythian gold. In the Russian Museum, you can see the best of Russian art through the centuries from the icons of Rublev to present-day painters. Several large cathedrals have also been opened to the public as museums, though many-such as St. Isaac's Cathedral, one of the largest in the world, and the Kazanskiy Cathedral-now function again as churches. The Peter and Paul Cathedral contains graves of Russian tsars since Peter the Great.

St. Petersburg offers a feast for the amateur and the serious photographer. There are a number of very good local photography shops which offer color developing and printing at reasonable prices.

Finland: The Finnish border is about 140 miles away-a 3-hour auto trip in good weather from St. Petersburg. You may like to travel to border towns, such as Lappeenranta, for shopping or relaxation. Helsinki is another 3 hours from the border, for a total trip of about 250 miles.

Several flights operate daily between St. Petersburg and Helsinki. The flight is about 43 minutes. Trains between St. Petersburg and Helsinki run daily. Round-trip train fare currently ranges from $90 to $150. A one-way trip takes about 5 hours.

Estonia: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, is approximately 200 miles away and can be reached in 4-5 hours by car and 10 hours by train. There is one night train that runs between St. Petersburg and Tallinn. Round-trip train fare is less than $50.

The smaller university town of Tartu is located less than 150 miles west of Tallinn and can be reached by daily buses and trains in 3-4 hours. Round-trip bus fare is $20 and train/electrichka fares range from $30-$60.

Latvia: The capital, Riga, is 400 miles from St. Petersburg. A total trip by car is approximately 7-8 hours, by train approximately 11-12 hours. One train runs daily from St. Petersburg to Riga. Round-trip train fare is approximately $85-$145.

Lithuania: The capital, Vilnius, is approximately 460 miles away. A total trip by car is about 8-9 hours, by train 11-13 hours. Trains to Vilnius run daily. Round-trip train fare is between $60$125.

Entertainment

St. Petersburg has about 30 theaters, concert halls, opera houses, and "palaces of culture" that offer a wide variety of ballet, opera, classical music, and plays. The best known is the Mariinskiy Theater, formerly named and recognized around the world as the Kirov Opera and Ballet Theater. The Mussorgskiy Opera and Ballet Theater (formerly Maliy Theater) also has a full repertoire of ballet and opera, and arranges its vacation period so that it performs throughout July and August, when the Mariinskiy is usually on vacation or on tour. St. Petersburg has two symphony orchestras, one of which enjoys a worldwide reputation. The Philharmonic Hall, named after local composer Dmitriy Shostakovich, is one of the finest in Europe. There are other concert halls and a choir hall, all of which offer programs during the September-June season.

The St. Petersburg Circus is definitely worth a visit. Light operettas are given at the Musical Comedy Theater, and there are two puppet theaters in town. The October Concert Hall and the city's several palaces of culture often have concerts that feature popular music or play host to foreign troupes. Both cultural and sporting events are staged at the Yubileyniy and several other palaces of sport.

Serious theater fans, whether or not they speak Russian, will find visits to the Maliy Dramatic Theater, Otkrytiy Theater, and the Theater on Liteiniy worthwhile. These are considered locally to be the most avant-garde of the regular theaters and include in their repertoires works by contemporary American playwrights, such as Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller. The Pushkin Theater is one of the most splendidly housed in Europe.

Films shown in English or with English subtitles are a rarity-usually, Russian is dubbed over the original language. Two movie houses in St. Petersburg show first-run films in English, although only infrequently. Videocassettes in English may be rented at a few places in the city.

Social Activities

The American community in St. Petersburg-including students on study-abroad programs, research fellows, businessmen, interns, missionaries, and volunteers-is close-knit, and informal get-togethers and spontaneous acquaintances with a wide variety of individuals from the U.S. are common.

The Marine Security Guard Detachment invites both members of the Consulate General community and private citizens from outside of the Consulate General (including Russians) to social functions at the Marine House approximately every 2-3 weeks.

In the past few years, St. Petersburg has enjoyed a significant increase in the quantity and quality of restaurants. A quick glance at the restaurant guide in the city's English-language newspaper shows restaurants that specialize in Chinese, European, French, German, Indian, Italian, Korean, Mexican, and Russian cuisine, as well as several pizza establishments. Other restaurants offer Georgian, American, and Central Asian cuisine. Many of the "Western-style" restaurants offer a mixture of Russian and international dishes.

Several of the hotel restaurants, and many of the Russian restaurants, offer floor shows. Most of the others offer some form of entertainment-from jazz combos to folk ensembles-often somewhat louder than musical entertainment to which Americans are accustomed. Service is sometimes slower than in American restaurants.

Recent years have also seen a large growth in fast-food establishments in the city, with prices comparable to those in the U.S. There are fast food shops specializing in roasted chicken, pizza, and Russian treats. The first of five Golden Arches appeared in St. Petersburg in 1996.

Possibilities for social contacts between Russian citizens and foreigners have normalized and become comparable to those in other countries. Frequently, opportunities arise for such contacts during daily work or while traveling outside the city. St. Petersburg also has an active and growing American and international business community.

Health

General health conditions in St. Petersburg are similar to those in Moscow, although dampness probably accounts for a higher incidence of colds and respiratory ailments.

For health problems Americans and their families primarily use the American Medical Center of St. Petersburg or the EuroMed Clinic. The AMC is the only primarily English-speaking medical clinic in St. Petersburg. It is staffed with both Western-trained medical doctors and Russian doctors. AMC currently offers the services of a Western-trained dentist. Pharmacy and laboratory services are available on site. The AMC offers 24-hour doctor availability, house calls, and emergency care. All of these services are extremely expensive. American's have also used the services of special St. Petersburg polyclinics for adults and children, depending on the circumstances of the illness or injury.

While local pharmacies offer a panoply of medications, it is often difficult to find a particular brand or formulation.

The St. Petersburg water supply originates from nearby Lake Ladoga. Western health authorities have noted a high incidence of infection by the intestinal parasite giardia lamblia in travelers returning from St. Petersburg. Such evidence points to St. Petersburg as a possible site of infection. This diarrhea-inducing parasite is found in many parts of the world and can be contracted by drinking untreated tap water.

Automobiles

Unleaded gasoline is available throughout St. Petersburg. The city has a small but growing number of service stations, but replacement parts for both Russian and Western automobiles can often be difficult to obtain locally. Bring only cars in excellent condition.

The following dealers also have offices in St. Petersburg, with limited service centers: BMW, Chevy, Chrysler, Ford, Honda, Hyundai, Jaguar, Jeep, Mazda, Mercedes, Nissan, Peugeot, Saab, and Volvo. Supplies and services are expensive.

Winterizing your car is important because of low winter temperatures. Low viscosity oil and antifreeze protection to-40 °F should be provided before a fall or winter shipment. Since few vehicles will start without assistance on the coldest mornings, bring a strong battery and jumper cables.

Snow tires, or at least tires with good all-weather treads, are necessary for winter driving (November through March).If you are in Finland, the law requires snow tires during severe winter weather. Studded snow tires may be used only between mid-October and mid-April. Snow tires (and studs, when used) must be on all four wheels.

Vladivostok

Vladivostok is Russia's principal Pacific port and the largest city in the Russian Far East, with a population of about 700,000. Founded in 1860 as a military outpost, Vladivostok abruptly became the Russian Pacific naval base when Port Arthur fell in the Russo-Japanese War. The city now serves as the capital of Primorskiy Kray (Maritime Territory). Vladivostok's harbor is a major fishing and shipping hub, and the city acts as the eastern terminus of the Trans-Siberian railroad.

Before World War 11, Vladivostok was well on its way to becoming an international commercial center. The Soviets closed the city to foreigners in 1958, however, and it was only declared an open city as of January 1, 1992. Currently, Vladivostok's foreign contacts and foreign population are rapidly growing as American, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese businesses and tourists move into the Russian Far East in increasing numbers.

Vladivostok has a relatively mild climate by Russian standards, moderated by its location on the Pacific Ocean. Spring is chilly until May, with occasional snow occurring in March. Summers are cool and rainy, and autumn is beautiful, with its warm temperatures and sunny weather. Winter is cold and dry, with temperatures ranging between 0 °F and 25 °F. Brisk, humid sea winds can make temperatures seem even colder.

Vladivostok is 10 hours ahead of Greenwich mean time (GMT), 15 hours ahead of eastern standard time (EST).

Utilities

Electricity is 220v, 50-hertz, AC. Outlets are primarily standard Russian two-prong (round). This size is similar to standard European, but the prongs are somewhat thinner

Vladivostok's utility systems are antiquated. Hot water outages are common in summer and fall, and occasional heating and electricity outages occur.

Food

The range and quality of foods available locally is improving, but still limited, especially in winter. Foods available locally in summer/fall include: fruits (apples, oranges, lemons, bananas), onions, potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, garlic, pork, beef, eggs, fish (fresh, frozen, smoked, and salted), and shellfish. Imported soft drinks, beer, and juices are available as well as imported tinned meats, rice, and macaroni. In winter, vegetables and meats are much harder to find, and the availability of most other foods varies from week to week. Prices are relatively low by American standards.

Clothing

Although the availability and quality of clothing in Vladivostok is increasing, it remains difficult, if not impossible, to purchase Western-quality clothing locally. Inexpensive, Chinese-made clothing and shoes are becoming increasingly available, but quality is low.

Men: Men should bring wool suits, sweaters, gloves, heavy winter coats, lightweight jackets, and a good raincoat with liner. Insulated boots, scarves, and winter hats are useful in the cold winter months. Good-quality fur hats may be purchased in Vladivostok at reasonable prices. Even in the summer months, heavyweight, woolen clothing can often be worn. Business attire in Russia is similar to that in the U.S. Bring sturdy, comfortable shoes, since Vladivostok's weather can cause shoes to wear quickly. Bring a full supply of casual clothes, including bathing suits, as swimming is possible at some beaches in late summer.

Women: Bring two pairs of each style shoe you plan to wear. Women's shoes, particularly pumps, wear quickly here and cannot be easily repaired. Business attire is similar to that in the U.S. At social events, cocktail dresses are usually worn.

Children: Bring mainly sturdy, warm, washable play clothes. Zippered, one-piece nylon snowsuits are recommended, together with material to patch this type of garment. Waterproof boots with insulated foam lining, several pairs of waterproof mittens, long thermal underwear, and waterproof snow pants are all recommended. Bring scarves, woolen hats and hoods, rubber boots, warm slacks, knee socks, tights, slicker raincoats with hoods, tennis shoes, and warm sweaters. Nightgowns or pajamas, slippers, and bathrobes are also needed. Summer clothing should include washable play clothes, slacks, jeans, shorts, and bathing suits. Babies need warm winter clothing.

Supplies and Services

Bring insect repellent effective against mosquitoes and ticks. Bring any necessary over-the-counter and prescription medicines, cosmetics, and toiletries, such as shampoo, soap, and toothpaste.

Although many basic services are available in some form in Vladivostok, quality is often poor and service slow. Local barbers and hairdressers can provide basic, competent haircuts for relatively low prices. Shoe repair and tailoring services are available, but of low quality.

Education

There is an international school, operated by Quality Schools International, for grades kindergarten through sixth grade. It offers a traditional American curriculum. English language schooling in Vladivostok is limited. Several city schools offer "English-language" programs that are actually carried out primarily in Russian with one or two classes a day taught in English. Local schools have adequate curriculum by American standards, but the schools lack sufficient supplies, equipment, and teaching materials. Overcrowding has forced most of the schools to adopt a two-shift daily schedule. The language barrier may make total reliance on the Russian system difficult.

Special Educational Opportunities

There are several area universities offering courses on a variety of subjects, leading to a degree. However, students must have a strong command of Russian to be accepted.

Sports

Vladivostok, Primorskiy Territory, and the entire Russian Far East offer a wide variety of outdoor activities. In Vladivostok, popular summer sports include sailing, fishing, hunting, tennis, baseball, and soccer. Winter sports include basketball, cross-country skiing, ice skating, and ice fishing. There are several public tennis courts in Vladivostok, although most are in relatively poor condition, and during the peak season (May-September), players often must wait for a court. Public basketball courts (indoor and out-door) and soccer/baseball fields are also available. There are many opportunities for Americans to participate in local sports through affiliation with various club teams or through social contacts. Sailboats and motor vessels may be rented and are popular in the summer for trips to nearby islands and beaches. It is also possible to go deep-sea fishing, while shore fishing and freshwater (particularly trout) fishing are popular throughout the region. Hiking and camping are also popular, particularly in the mountains and taiga (primeval forest) north of the city. Swimming is not recommended at many of the beaches near the city due to environmental concerns and the relatively cold water. There are several sandy beaches, which offer good sites for picnics and sunbathing, within an hour's drive of the city. Scuba diving for advanced divers is available and some scuba equipment may even be rented locally.

Vladivostok's relatively snow-free winters make it necessary to travel inland for the best cross-country skiing, but deep snow can be found less than 100 miles away. Downhill skiing is available in various locations in the Russian Far East. Bring all sports equipment, including skis, skates, balls, and rackets. Equipment available locally is of poor quality.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Although the Russian Far Eastlacks the variety of historic sites and old cities found in the European parts of Russia, it does offer a wide variety of beautiful scenery for the adventurous traveler. The Primorskiy territory coast, marked by numerous rocky islands, steep cliffs, and isolated beaches, is accessible by chartered boat. Tour companies offer hiking and camping tours to the taiga, Kamchatka's volcanoes, and winter ski trips to Siberian ski areas. Hunting and fishing expeditions can also be arranged. The city of Khabarovsk, about 450 miles north of Vladivostok on the Amur River, is the other main center and economic hub of the Russian Far East and can be reached by overnight train or a 90-minute Aeroflot Flight.

Travel within Russia can be tiring. Frequent transportation schedule changes, below-standard hotels, and harsh weather can combine to make an international trip more attractive. Currently, there are international flights to Korea, Japan, and China. In summer, there is a regularly scheduled passenger liner service to Japan and south Korea on Russian ships.

Entertainment

Vladivostok has limited entertainment facilities, but the number is increasing as the city develops. There are several good joint-venture restaurants in the city, with prices ranging from inexpensive to moderate. Although there are nightclubs and casinos, nightlife for the foreign community centers around restaurants and home entertaining.

Vladivostok has several small museums, including an art museum, a museum of natural history, and a military museum. Unlike many Russian cities of its size, Vladivostok has no major, permanent orchestra, theater, or circus troupe.

Visiting musical and theatrical performers, the Moscow Circus and other travelling circuses, a small local orchestra, and several small local theater groups provide cultural entertainment.

Many foreign residents bring video-cassette recorders. Because there are no tape clubs in Vladivostok, bring a supply with you. You can add tapes by ordering from catalogs or by borrowing from friends. Some Russian (PAL/SECAM) videos may be purchased on the local economy, including American films and TV shows that have been dubbed into Russian. Bring a large supply of books and other reading materials with you. English-language books, periodicals, and newspapers are not available in Vladivostok, so magazine subscriptions are also important.

You may read about current events in Vladivostok on the Internet at the following sites: http://vladivostok.com/golden-horn or http://www.vladnews.ru. The former is a Russian-language daily which has an English weekly page. The latter is an English-language internet newspaper.

Social Activities

The social life among the small American community is casual and personally arranged. The total resident American population of Vladivostok numbers about 70, not including the official American community, so contacts between Americans are frequent.

Americans have no difficulty meeting Russians through professional and social interaction. There is an International Women's Club, consisting of American, Russian, Korean, Japanese, and Indian women. Due to the relatively small size of the foreign community, contacts are frequent.

Health

You should endeavor to receive all necessary inoculations before arriving in Vladivostok. Among those required are Japanese B encephalitis vaccines (for both tick and mosquito), hepatitis B vaccine, and gamma globulin. Several of these vaccines are given as a series over several months, so advance planning is required.

Local Russian medical facilities are not recommended, except in case of emergency.

Bottled water is also readily available in the city. Other health hazards include mosquitoes, which carry a strain of Japanese B encephalitis, and ticks, which carry another strain of the same disease. Vaccinations provide complete protection, but bring mosquito and tick repellent anyway to avoid bites.

Automobiles

As Vladivostok's public transportation is limited, bring a vehicle. Japanese vehicles are common in the city, and Toyota and Nissan maintain service centers with trained mechanics. South Korean and European vehicles are slowly becoming more common. Consider a four-wheel-drive vehicle, because Vladivostok's hilly terrain makes winter driving difficult. Snow tires are helpful in winter, but are not mandatory, as snowfall is infrequent. As protection against car theft and vandalism, bring a steering wheel lock or other theft-protection device.

Before departing, ensure that Vladivostok is listed as an entry point on your Russian visa.

Yekaterinburg

Yekaterinburg lays claim to the title of Russia's third largest city and former President Yeltsin's home-town. It is best known to Americans as the place where the last Tsar and his family were murdered by the Bolsheviks in 1918 and the location where American U-2 spy plane pilot Gary Powers was shot down in 1960. Yekaterinburg is situated in the foothills of the Ural Mountains and is nominally an Asian city, lying 20 miles east of the continental divide between Europe and Asia. Like Chicago, its closest American counterpart, Yekaterinburg is the unofficial capital of a key region in the country's heartland, the Urals.

Yekaterinburg was founded in 1723 by Peter the Great, who named it for his wife Catherine I. Tsar Peter recognized the importance of the iron and copper-rich Urals region for Imperial Russia's industrial and military development. By the mid-18th century, metallurgical plants had sprung up across the Urals to cast cannons and Yekaterinburg's mint was producing most of Russia's coins.

Today, Yekaterinburg, much like Pittsburgh in the 1970s, is struggling to cope with dramatic economic changes that have made its heavy industries uncompetitive on the world market. Huge defense plants are struggling to survive, while retail and service sectors are developing rapidly. Yekaterinburg and the surrounding area were a center of the Soviet Union's military industrial complex. Soviet tanks, missiles and aircraft engines were made in the Urals. As a result, the Soviets closed the entire region to contact with the outside world for over 40 years during the Cold War. In 1992, thanks to lobbying efforts by local leaders, the new Russian Federation opened Yekaterinburg and the Urals to contact with the West.

The U.S. was at the forefront of Western efforts to seek to establish contacts in the Urals.

Food

The availability and quality of foods is improving here, but is still limited, especially in winter. Fresh fruits and vegetables are usually available, but selection varies seasonally. Many American staples rarely appear on store shelves. Imported liquor and wine are in short supply and expensive. Availability of items is subject to change. Yekaterinburg's water is not potable.

Clothing

Yekaterinburg has a continental climate similar to that of the American Midwest, with freezing winter temperatures and warm summers. Winter temperatures occasionally drop as low as minus 40 °F and the first snow usually falls in October. Planning for winter weather should be a high priority. Winter-weight clothing and boots are essential. Snow and ice make the sidewalks very slippery, so footwear with traction is highly recommended. Since the climate is very dry during the winter months, skin moisturizer plus lip balm are recommended items to bring.

Religious Activities

There are no religious services conducted in English in the city. Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Seventh day Adventist, Pentecostal, and Jewish services are held weekly. The Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints carry out missionary activities locally, and several of these missions also have weekly services.

Education

There is now one English-language school in Yekaterinburg, but with a Russian curriculum. Other city schools offer one or two classes a day conducted in English. There are no international schools.

Sports

The Urals' many lakes, forests and mountains are great for hiking, swimming and fishing. Winter sports include cross-country skiing and ice skating. The Ural Mountains, however, offer only limited opportunities for downhill skiing. Yekaterinburg's most popular spectator sports are hockey, basketball, and soccer.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

The Urals possess beautiful natural scenery, particularly northern Tyumen's distant tundra and taiga. For Russian history and culture buffs, ConGen Yekaterinburg's consular district offers many landmarks including the childhood home museums of classical composer Tschaikovskiy and mad monk Rasputin; the Nizhnyaya Sinyachika village outdoor museum of pre-revolutionary architecture; historic cities like Tobolsk; and the 400-year-old monastery at Verkhoturye, the 16th century capital of the Urals.

Travel is usually routed through Frankfurt (via Lufthansa's direct flight three times per week) or through Moscow via daily Urals Air, Transaero, or Aeroflot flights. There are also regular flights to St. Petersburg and other major cities in the former Soviet Union. Yekaterinburg's airport now features charter flights to many foreign countries, including Turkey, China, and the United Arab Emirates.

Entertainment

The performing arts are Yekaterinburg's cultural strong point. The city has an excellent symphony orchestra, opera and ballet theater, and many other performing arts venues. Tickets are inexpensive. The city's most notable museums are its fine arts museum, which contains paintings by some of Russia's 19th-century masters, and the geological museum which houses an extensive collection of stones and gems from the Urals.

Yekaterinburg's nightlife options are limited. There are a handful of expensive Western-style restaurants and bars, none of which would be worth frequenting in a more cosmopolitan city. Glitzy nightclubs and casinos have appeared to serve the city's nouveau riche clientele. Several new dance clubs have sprung up that offer a chance to rub shoulders with Yekaterinburg's more affluent youth.

Health

Yekaterinburg's health care delivery system does not meet American standards. There is no Western clinic in the city. Basic health care is marginal; dental care is inadequate. Visit a physician and dentist prior to arrival. Inoculations against all forms of hepatitis as well as tick-borne encephalitis (usually received in Russia) are especially important. The nearest Western-style basic medical care is available in Moscow, a 2-hour flight from Yekaterinburg, or in Frankfurt, a 4-hour flight away.

Currency

Yekaterinburg is a cash-only economy; credit cards are rarely accepted; travelers checks are not accepted anywhere.

OTHER CITIES

SAMARA , formerly Kuybyshev, an administrative center, is situated on the Volga River, 550 miles southeast of Moscow. It was founded in 1586. The city's position at the convergence of the Volga and Samara rivers contributed to its growth as a trade hub, as well as its status as a provincial capital. There are a number of factories here, many powered by a hydroelectric plant up-river. Samara has research and cultural organizations, and a population of nearly 1.3 million.

VOLGOGRAD , formerly Stalin-grad, is best known for its valiant stand against the German Army in a decisive battle during World War II. The city was almost totally destroyed, and the losses of human life (on both sides) numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Volgograd was known as Tsaritsyn before its name was Stalingrad; in 1961, it was given its present designation. It originated as a Russian fort against raiders in 1589, and became an important city with the advent of railroads. Today, it is a major river port and railroad junction, and has over one million residents. A large hydroelectric power station is located in the city, which is situated at the terminus of the Volga-Don canal.

NIZHNIY NOVGOROD , formerly Gorki, is a major river port and one of the chief industrial cities of the Russian Federation. Its population is over 1.4 million. Its named was changed in 1932 from Nizhniy Novgorod to honor Maksim Gorki, novelist and playwright who was born here in 1868. In 1991, its name was changed back to Nizhniy Novgorod.

The city, situated where the Volga River meets the Okra, was a frontier post in the early part of the 13th century. It was a principal trading center for Russia and the East. Nizhniy Novgorod was the capital of its principality in the 14th century, before its annexation by Moscow in 1392, and later became famous for its large, successful trade fairs. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was known as a cultural and political center.

NOVOSIBIRSK is the largest industrial center in Siberia, and a rail, river, and air transportation hub. It is the capital of the oblast whose name it bears. The Siberian branch of the world-famous Academy of Science is located here. The population is over 1.4 million.

Known as Novonikolayevsk from its founding in 1896 until it was renamed in 1925, the city became a trade center during the building of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. During the Second World War, entire industrial plants were moved here from threatened areas of the western Soviet Union.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Russian Federation is physically the largest country in the world, covering 17 million square kilometers or 1.8 times the size of the U.S. The territory of the Russian Federation covers 11 time zones and stretches 6,000 miles from east to west. It has a population of about 147.5 million compared with the 265 million in the U.S. Politically, the Russian Federation is a union of 89 constituent republics, regions, and territories that enjoy varying degrees of economic and political independence from the central government located in the capital, Moscow.

In the 19th century, most Russians lived in small, isolated villages, with little freedom to travel. Now, Russia is predominantly urban. Traditionally, Russia's population, with the exception of the upper class, has had few modern comforts and conveniences. Enclosed by long borders, with few natural defenses, Russians have a history of xenophobia. Given Russia's long history of authoritarian governments, until recently few Russians had much experience with pluralist democracy and market-based economy. Increasingly, however, democratic institutions and market economics are finding widespread support. A dynamic private sector has given rise to a growing middle class in and around the major metropolitan centers.

Moscow is the largest city in Russia and is located west of the great Russian plain on the banks of the Moscow Rivet at 37°73′ E and 55°45′ The city is built on several low hills varying from 25 feet to 815 feet above sea level. Moscow's short summers are as warm as those in the northern U.S. Winters in Moscow are comparable to winters in Chicago. Snow begins in October and continues periodically through April, although snowfall in May is not unusual. Annual rainfall averages 21 inches, with the heaviest rains falling between May and October. Prevailing winds are southerly and southwesterly. Due to Moscow's northern location, daylight varies from 7 hours in December to 17-1/2 hours in June. The average temperature in June and July is 66 °F, but the summer temperatures frequently reach the low 90s. In the winter the temperature may fall to minus 40 °F, but the average December and January temperature is 14 °E Though Moscow's winter air usually is dry, the wind chill factor makes the temperature feel much colder.

St. Petersburg, Russia's second largest city and the former imperial capital, is located on a flat plain at the mouth of the Neva River on the Gulf of Finland at 55° 57′ N and 30° 20′ E. Established in 1703, the city is built on a series of 101 islands, and is laced by canals and various streams of the Neva. The climate in St. Petersburg is milder than in Moscow but is damp and misty. Average temperatures are 64 °F in July and 17 °F in January. St. Petersburg is famous for its "white nights" which occur in June when the sun shines for nearly 19 hours and sunset only brings semi-darkness.

Yekaterinburg, Russia's third largest city with an estimated population of 1.5 million, is located near the center of Russia, at the crossroads between Europe and Asia. It is the Russian equivalent of Pittsburgh and second only to Moscow in terms of industrial production. Founded in 1723, Yekaterinburg today is the seat of the government for the Sverdlovsk region, which contains numerous heavy industries, mining concerns, and steel factories. In addition, Yekaterinburg is a major center for industrial research and development as well as home to numerous institutes of higher education, technical training, and scientific research.

Vladivostok, the largest city in the Russian Far East and home to the Russian Pacific fleet, is an important center for trade with the Pacific Rim countries. Closed to foreigners from 1958 to 1992, the city now is home to many foreign businesses and consulates. The climate in Vladivostok is milder than in many other Russian cities due to its location on the Pacific Ocean. Winter temperatures range between 0° and 25 °F.

Population

The majority of Russia's 148 million inhabitants is predominantly Slavic. The Federation consists of 89 subjects, including constituent republics, territories, and autonomous regions that enjoy varying degrees of economic and political independence from the central government. Moscow is Russia's largest city (population: 9 million) and is the capital of the Federation. St. Petersburg is Russia's second largest city (population 5 million). In the Russian Far East, the predominant city is Vladivostok, which is becoming an important commercial center in the Federation's trade with the Pacific Rim.

Public Institutions

Politically, economically, and socially, the Russian Federation continues to be in a state of transition. Although constitutional structures are well-defined and democratic in concept, genuine democratization continues to be a slow, but generally positive transition. The 1993 Constitution provides for an elected President and a government headed by a Prime Minister. There is a bicameral legislature, the Federal Assembly, consisting of the State Duma and the Federation Council. The President and the members of the Federal Assembly have won office in competitive elections judged to be largely free and fair, with a broad range of political parties and movements contesting offices.

The most recent elections to Russia's lower half of the Federal Assembly, the State Duma, were held in December 1999. The last presidential election took place in March 2000. Membership in the upper house of the Federal Assembly, the Federation Council, was made elective in 1996. Each of the Federation's 89 constituent republics, regions, and territories is represented by two members, the head of the local executive branch and the chair of the local legislature. The State Duma comprises 450 seats, of which half are from single-mandate districts and half are from party lists. Both chambers participate in shaping policy and enacting legislation, though the State Duma bears the brunt of the legislative workload.

Although it is beginning to show signs of independence, Russia's judiciary remains relatively weak and ineffective compared with the legislative and executive branches of the government. Judges are now only starting to assert their constitutionally mandated powers. The country's highest court, the Constitutional Court, reconvened in March 1995, after the new 1993 Constitution entered into force. The Constitution empowers the court to arbitrate disputes between the other two branches and between the central and regional governments. It also is authorized to rule on violations of constitutional rights, to examine appeals from various bodies, and to participate in impeachment proceedings against the President. The Constitutional Court, however, may not examine cases on its own initiative and is limited in the scope of issues it can hear.

A vigorous and critical media demonstrates that freedom of the press continues to exist in Russia. However, financial constraints make it nearly impossible for the print and broadcast media to survive without the support of business or political sponsors, who, as a result, have the power to influence public opinion. Such sponsors generally represent a sufficiently broad cross section of the Russian political spectrum to provide a variety of points of view on political developments in Russia. Russian television and radio are similarly affected, but provide a narrower spectrum of political viewpoints than the print media.

Arts, Science, and Education

Russian research, in some physical and mathematics sciences and in some branches of medicine, is of a high order. In history, sociology, psychology, political science, and, even in certain biological sciences, Marxist and Leninist preconceptions seriously retarded the development of objective scholarship. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian scientists have been allowed more academic freedom, but this freedom has resulted in a serious depletion of the country's human resources, as many Russian scientists have emigrated to other countries, creating a "brain drain."

Commerce and Industry

Russia remains in the process of developing the legal basis of a modern market economy. Since for several generations the economy was ruled by a command system that prohibited private enterprise, this task is formidable, and was exacerbated by the August 1998 financial crisis and threefold ruble depreciation. Business operating costs are relatively high, as are interest rates for business loans; and tax and accounting regulations remain murky. Interpretations of laws and regulations often vary. Reflecting this environment, foreign investment has entered Russia at a cautious pace, albeit one that seems to be accelerating again as of mid-2000, since the advent of the Putin administration has been perceived as promising greater political and economic stability. Various sources estimate cumulative foreign direct investment in Russia through 1999 at between $12-$13 billion, most of which has gone into oil extraction and food and consumer goods manufacturing. Russia's government coffers have received a boost from taxes on higher oil export revenues in 1999-2000, although it remains to be seen whether this windfall can be used to leverage the broader economy and promote the restructuring that Russian enterprises must undergo if they are to become more competitive.

In downtown Moscow itself, the economic and commercial transition are more advanced than in the country at large. Western consumer goods are generally available in Moscow, although retail and wholesale outlets are fewer and farther between than in Western countries. The service sector (in everything from internet service and residential cable TV to dentistry, hotels and restaurants to department stores and fast-food delivery) is developing rapidly, fueled by the inflow of Western companies over the past decade (most of whom have retained a presence here despite belt-tightening during the economic downturn in 1998-99).

Transportation

Automobiles

Driving in Russia requires constant attention, as Russian traffic regulations and procedures differ from those in the U.S. Speed limits are seldom observed; there is little, if any, lane discipline; and defensive driving is mandatory. Many pedestrians, oblivious to oncoming traffic, cross the street at random, which presents a real hazard. Streets are dimly lit at night and pedestrians wear dark clothing that makes them difficult to see. Although trucks are not allowed inside the Garden Ring without a special pass, numerous trucks and outsized, overloaded vehicles transit the rest of the city.

In mid 1999, a new Niva or Lada cost about $3,500, while a Volga was more and a Zhiguli less. Transaction time to purchase and register a Russian vehicle is usually 7-10 working days.

All imported vehicles should be new or in first-class mechanical condition to pass the strict Russian inspection requirements for vehicle registration:

• Each automobile must have at least two headlights, each with high and low beams. Supplementary lights are permitted, including side lights and fog lights. Front parking lights must be white; rear lights must be red, not yellow or tinted.
• Front and rear turn signals are required. Front turn signal must be white or orange; rear must be red or orange.
• Each vehicle must be equipped with a first-aid kit, fire extinguisher, and emergency warning reflector triangle.

Russian gasoline comes in 82, 92, 95, and 98 octane. Unleaded gasoline is widely available, and diesel fuel, although available, is usually of poor quality. There is no need to remove the catalytic converter unless extensive travel is planned for outside the city, where unleaded fuel is not as widely available.

Front-wheel-and four-wheel-drive vehicles offer the best handling in the Russian winter. The main streets in Moscow are regularly plowed; however, some side streets and housing complex parking lots may remain covered with snow and ice throughout the winter.

The Russian government requires that cars be covered by third-party liability insurance.

Ingosstrakh is an official Russian insurance company that offers third-party liability and comprehensive-collision coverage. Policies may be arranged within 2 days. Coverage is immediately invalidated if a driver is charged with drunk driving. The policy may require that covered vehicle damage be repaired in a Russian garage. Ingosstrakh rates are based on engine size, as measured by engine displacement. Insurance for sixand eight-cylinder cars costs more through Ingosstrakh than through a U.S. company. Ingosstrakh third-party liability insurance has two categories with different amounts of coverage. The average cost in 2000 for Ingosstrakh third-party liability insurance was $250 for an American car.

United Services Officers Insurance Brokers, Ltd.,44 High Street, Winchester, Hants, England, offers policies, including third-party liability and comprehensive and collision coverage.

Clements and Company, 1625 Eye Street, NW, Washington, D.C., has a policy that provides coverage for transportation of vehicles from anywhere in the world to Russia. Coverage includes comprehensive collision and protection against marine, fire, and theft loss. However, it does not cover third-party liability. Clements' rate structure is based on the U.S. Bluebook value of the car, and costs may be somewhat lower than those of Ingosstrakh.

Local

The Moscow street plan is a wheel with the Kremlin and Red Square at the hub. Around the hub are three concentric circles-the Boulevard ring, the Garden ring, and the outer ring highway (MKAD). A fourth ring is under construction and should be completed by 2003. The extensive public transportation system consists of buses, streetcars, trolley buses, and the metro. This system covers the entire city, but riders should be prepared to contend with pushing and shoving. The prices for riding the public transport are constantly changing but remain inexpensive. The metro runs from about 0600 until 0100. Stations are clean and safe, and many are internationally famous for the beauty of their interior design.

Taxis can be ordered from private companies. Private cars can be hailed on the street; however, the Regional Security Office advises against this practice. Drivers are sometimes reluctant to stop late in the evening or in bad weather, and the price must be negotiated in advance. Always ride in the back seat and never engage a vehicle that already has another passenger.

Regional

Rail and air transport networks are extensive, and service is adequate on both systems. First-class train fares are inexpensive. The overnight train to St. Petersburg is comfortable, but there is the danger of crime. The country's size makes flying to some of the more remote cities more convenient than train travel. Air traffic is sometimes unreliable due to delays caused by bad weather.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Telephone service from Moscow to the U.S. and to most European cities is not up to Western standards, but is improving. Recently, U.S.-based telephone companies such as AT&T and Sprint have established direct-dial facilities in Moscow. International calls can be placed by using telephone credit cards made available by these companies. Bring a personal AT&T, Sprint, or MCI calling card for personal long-distance calls.

Radio and TV

All media are in transition in Russia. There are now many joint venture radio stations, with English-speaking announcers who play America's top 40. For example, Radio Maximum, FM 103.7, is English speaking each morning from 6 am until 10 am. The station airs news, weather, business reports, and contemporary rock music. Open Radio on both AM 918 kHz and FM 102.3 MHz rebroadcasts Voice of America (VOA) and BBC programs, plus business and local news programs of their own. Reception of these radio stations is excellent, even on the cheaper "jam boxes." In addition, there is a wide range of excellent Russian radio stations on both AM and FM bands; however, the Russian FM spectrum does not conform to the U.S. FM bands. To receive all Russian FM radio stations, purchase a Russian radio.

Outside of Moscow and St. Petersburg, a good short-wave radio is needed to receive the VOA and BBC broadcasts.

The Russian system is SECAM. American NTSC TV's will usually receive a black-and-white video signal but will not receive audio. Bring or buy a multisystem set that will enable the viewing of Russian programs and cable channels. A multisystem VCR is also helpful, as this enables one to watch Russian and U.S. videotapes.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

An increasing number of Western newspapers is available in Moscow. The International Herald Tribune, USA Today, Wall Street Journal, Time, Newsweek, and the Economist are available at tourist hotels. Western newspapers arrive in Moscow the day after publication.

In Moscow, there are several English-language newspapers for the foreign community. Most are free and include lists of upcoming cultural events, restaurant reviews, TV schedules, and general news of the city and community. All of these papers contain news of the foreign community and coverage and analysis of Russian news and events.

Many publications are available for those who read Russian. In addition to the 2,000 newspapers and magazines that are published in Russian, there is a growing number of Western publications now available in Russian.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Moscow has three dental clinics with American-trained dentists and laboratory technicians. The Adventist Dental Clinic also has a Western-trained orthodontist on staff.

When hospitalization is needed, Michurnskiy Kremlin Clinic is utilized for diagnostic and in-patient care. The facility offers the highest level of Russian medical care available and has a 24-hour ambulance service. In addition, the American Medical Center has opened a full-service clinic on a membership basis.

For cases requiring advanced diagnostic procedures, surgery, or complicated treatment not available at the Michurinskiy Kremlin Clinic, patients are evacuated to London, Frankfurt, Helsinki, or the U.S.

Community Health

Although the standard of public cleanliness in Russia does not equal that of the U.S. and Western Europe, garbage collection is relatively dependable, and sewage is treated adequately. Public restrooms are usually unsanitary. Streets and public buildings are not clean, but conditions do not pose health hazards.

Moscow's water may not be adequately treated, and drinking water should be boiled or filtered as a precaution.

The Moscow area, as is the case in many parts of Russia, has the potential for environmental hazards. No serious detrimental health effects have been demonstrated from microwaves, NPPD, or nuclear fallout.

Preventive Measures

During the winter, the air in Moscow, especially in offices and apartments, becomes very dry. This sometimes causes dry skin and aggravates respiratory problems. Dry mucous membranes of the respiratory system are vulnerable to infection and irritation. Respiratory infections are common during winter. Reliable food sources are plentiful in Moscow. These local markets and the import stores offer a wide variety of foods, including fresh, dried, and canned products.

Personal Health Measures_

All immunizations should be current, including diphtheria, hepatitis A, and hepatitis B.

There are many reliable pharmacies in Moscow, and many medicines that require a prescription in the U.S. can be obtained over the counter in Moscow. Many Western medications are available in these pharmacies, but not all, and sometimes there are shortages of previously available medications. The best advice is still to bring several months' supply of any medication that is taken regularly or needed for urgent situations.

Several optical services have opened in Moscow, but bring an extra pair of glasses, plus the prescription. Those who wear contact lenses sometimes experience discomfort because of the dry, dusty Moscow air.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs and Duties

Currently, Delta is the only American airline that regularly flies to Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, check the latest schedules to determine what carriers and stopover combinations are authorized.

You can drive over the routes Prague-Warsaw-Brest-Moscow or Helsinki-St. Petersburg-Moscow with prior Russian Government approval. When driving by way of Warsaw, allow at least 6 weeks to arrange the Russian-Brest entrance visa and Czechoslovak and Polish transit visas.

The overland trip should be undertaken only by experienced drivers accompanied by another passenger or by two cars traveling together. If you do not have a Russian driver's license, have a valid U.S. license and an international driver's license available. Gasoline is often difficult to find in Russia outside of major cities. Gas stations take cash only.

Road travel in Russia is not geared to high-speed, long-distance runs. Surfaces vary greatly, detours are frequent, and drivers often do not perform according to expectations. Heavy truck traffic makes passing extremely dangerous. Service facilities are seldom seen and never to be depended on for parts. A carefully planned pacing is the best approach.

Currently, Delta flies into St. Petersburg. If transiting Eastern Europe en route, check for compliance with visa requirements and be aware that flight schedules between St. Petersburg and Eastern European cities often change without notice. If arriving by car, enter from Helsinki.

Initial travel to Vladivostok is possible either by air via Moscow or across the Pacific on an American carrier. There are frequent trans-Pacific flights from Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles to Tokyo and Seoul, and biweekly flights in summer from Seattle to Vladivostok via Anchorage and Magadan. Travelers choosing to transit Tokyo must take a "bullet train" from Tokyo to Niigata (about 2 hours). Aeroflot flies twice weekly (Thursdays and Sundays) from Niigata to Vladivostok. Travelers transiting Seoul must catch the weekly (Sunday) Aeroflot flight from Seoul to Khabarovsk, then fly or take an overnight train from Khabarovsk to Vladivostok.

U.S. citizens must possess a valid U.S. passport and appropriate visas for travel to or transit through Russia, whether by train, car, ship or airplane.

Russian visas should be obtained from an embassy or consulate in the U.S. or abroad in advance of travel, as it is impossible to obtain a Russian entry visa upon arrival. Travelers who arrive without an entry visa are not permitted to enter Russia and face immediate expulsion by route of entry, at the traveler's expense. Errors in dates or other information on the visa may result in denial of entry, and it is helpful to have someone who reads Russian check the visa before departing the United States.

Visas are valid for specific dates. An entry/exit visa reflects two dates written in the European style (day, month, year). The first date indicates the earliest day you may enter Russia; the second date indicates the last day you are permitted to be in Russia using that visa. Sometimes, the length of a visa may not correspond to the length of your planned stay. Before starting your trip, be sure your visa is valid for the dates of your planned entry and departure. Travelers who spend more than three days in the country must register their visa through their hotel or sponsor. It is helpful to make a photocopy of your visa in the event of loss, but note that a copy of your visa will not be sufficient for leaving the country, as Russian border officials always ask for the original.

The office that issued your visa must approve amendment of a visa necessitated by illness or changes in travel plans. If travelers experience entry and exit visa problems they and/or their sponsor must contact the nearest Russian visa and passport office (OVIR) for assistance. Visitors who overstay their visa's validity, even for one day, or who neglect to register their visa will be prevented from leaving until this is corrected, which usually requires payment of a fee and results in a missed flight or other connection.

Due to the possibility of random document checks by police, U.S. citizens should carry their original passports and registered visas with them at all times. Failure to provide proper documentation can result in detention and/or heavy fines. It is not necessary for travelers to have either entry or itinerary points in the Russian Federation printed on their visas.

All travelers must continue to list on the visa application all areas to be visited and subsequently register with authorities at each destination. There are several closed cities throughout Russia. Travelers who attempt to enter these cities without prior authorization are subject to fines, court hearings and/or deportation. Travelers should check with their sponsor, hotel or the nearest Russian visa and passport office before traveling to unfamiliar cities and towns.

Any person applying for a visa for a stay of more than three months must present a certificate showing that he/she is HIV-negative. The certificate must contain the applicant's passport data, proposed length of stay in Russia, blood test results for HIV infection, including date of the test, signature of the doctor conducting the test, medical examination results, diagnostic series and seal of the hospital/medical organization. The HIV test must be administered no later than three months prior to travel, and the certificate must be in both Russian and English.

Russia issues visas (with the exception of transit visas) based on support from a sponsor, usually an individual or local organization. Generally speaking, visas sponsored by Russian individuals are "guest" visas, and visas sponsored by tour agencies or hotels are "tourist" visas. Note that travelers who enter Russia on "tourist" visas, but who then reside with Russian individuals, may have difficulty registering their visas and may be required by Russian authorities to depart Russia sooner than they had planned. Student visas allow only for one entry. The sponsoring school is responsible for registering the visa and obtaining an exit visa. It is important to know who your sponsor is and how to contact him/her because Russian law requires that your sponsor apply on your behalf for replacement, extension or changes to your visa. Even if your visa was obtained through a travel agency in the United States, there is always a Russian legal entity whose name is indicated on the visa and who is considered to be your legal sponsor. The U.S. Embassy cannot act as your sponsor. U.S. citizens should contact their tour company or hotel in advance for information on visa sponsorship.

Persons holding both Russian and U.S. passports should be aware that if they enter Russia on a Russian passport that subsequently expires, Russian authorities will not permit them to depart using their U.S. passport. Since it may take several months to obtain a new Russian passport to satisfy Russian requirements for departure, travelers are advised to ensure that their Russian passports will be valid for the duration of their stay or that they travel on a valid U.S. passport and Russian visa.

For additional information concerning entry and exit requirements, travelers may contact the Russian Embassy, Consular Section, 2641 Tunlaw Rd., NW, Washington, DC 20007, telephone (202) 939-8907, web site-http://russianembassy.org, or the Russian consulates in New York (tel. 212-348-0926/55), San Francisco (tel. 415-928-6878, 415-929-0862, 415-202-9800/01) or Seattle (tel. 206-728-1910).

Russian customs laws and regulations are in a state of flux and are not consistently enforced. When arriving in Russia, travelers must declare all items of value on a customs form; the same form used during arrival in Russia must be presented to customs officials at the time of departure. As of October 2001, travelers must declare all foreign currency they are bringing into Russia. Non-residents of Russia are prohibited from taking any cash money in currency other than the Russian ruble out of the country unless it has been declared upon arrival or wired, and supported by an appropriate document. Those with stamped declaration forms may exit Russia with a sum of foreign currency no greater than the sum declared upon entry. Lost or stolen customs forms should be reported to the Russian police, and a police report (spravka) should be obtained to present to customs officials upon departure. Often, however, the traveler will find that the lost customs declaration cannot be replaced. Travelers attempting to depart Russia with more money than was on their original customs form face possible detention, arrest, fines and confiscation of currency.

Travelers should obtain receipts for all high-value items (including caviar) purchased in Russia. Any article that could appear old or as having cultural value to the customs service, including artwork, icons, samovars, rugs and antiques, must have a certificate indicating that it has no historical or cultural value. It is illegal to remove such items from Russia without this certificate. Certificates will not be granted for the export of articles that are more than 100 years old, no matter the value. These certificates may be obtained from the Russian Ministry of Culture. For further information, Russian speakers may call the Airport Sheremetyevo-2 Customs Information Service in Moscow at (7) (095) 578-2125/578-2120, or, in St. Petersburg, the Ministry of Culture may be reached at 311-3496.

Russia also has very strict rules on the importation of large quantities of medication, and of some medications regardless of quantity. It is advisable to contact the Russian Embassy or one of Russia's consulates for specific information regarding this or other customs regulations.

Americans living in or visiting Russia are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy or at the U.S. consulate general closest to the region of Russia they will be visiting, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Russia. The U.S. Embassy is located in Moscow at Novinskiy Bulvar 19/23; tel: (7) (095) 728-5000, fax: (7) (095) 728-5084. After-hours emergencies: (7) (095) 728-5000. Also, monitor the Embassy's web site at http://www.usembassy.ru or e-mail at consulmo@state.gov.

Pets

All pets entering Russia must be accompanied by a certificate of good health issued not more than 10 days prior to arrival. Veterinary care is available but technology is not very advanced. Animals with chronic problems probably should not be brought.

All pets should be given distemper, hepatitis, leptospira bactrin, parvovirus, and rabies immunizations before entering the Russian Federation. A rabies and an immunization certification stating dates must be available for customs formalities. Check with your airline concerning regulations and how far in advance you need the shots given to your pet.

There are veterinary clinics in Moscow that stock rabies, distemper, leptospira bactrin, and parvovirus vaccines for dogs and cats. Other pet medicines and supplies (worm pills, flea powder, vitamins, soap, etc.) should be brought with you.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

The Russian unit of currency is the ruble, composed of 100 kopecks.

The rate of exchange is relatively stable at 28-29 rubles to the dollar. Check local banks or hotels for the latest rate.

Numerous banks and dollar exchange facilities are located throughout the city.

The metric system of weights and measures is used.

Special Information

The importation and use of Global Positioning Systems and other radio electronic devices are subject to special rules and regulations in Russia. In general, mapping and natural resource data collection activities associated with normal, commercial, and scientific collaboration may result in seizure of the equipment and/or arrest of the user. The penalty for using a GPS device in a manner which is determined to have compromised Russian national security can be a prison term of ten to twenty years. In December 1997, a U.S. citizen was imprisoned in Rostov-na-Donu for ten days on charges of espionage for using a GPS device to check the efficacy of newly-installed telecommunications equipment. He and his company believed the GPS had been legally imported and were not aware that Russian authorities considered nearby government installations secret.

No traveler should seek to import or use GPS equipment in any manner unless it has been properly and fully documented by the traveler in accordance with the instructions of the Glavgossvyaznadzor (Main Inspectorate in Communications) and is declared in full on a customs declaration at the point of entry to the Russian Federation.

All radio electronic devices brought into Russia must have a certificate from Glavgossvyaznadzor (Main Inspectorate in Communications) of the Russian Federation. This includes all emitting, transmitting, and receiving equipment such as GPS devices, cellular telephones, satellite telephones, and other kinds of radio electronic equipment. Excluded from the list are consumer electronic devices such as AM/FM radios.

To obtain permission to bring in a cellular telephone , an agreement for service from a local cellular provider in Russia is required. That agreement and a letter of guarantee to pay for the cellular service must be sent to Glavgossvyaznadzor along with a request for permission to import the telephone. Based on these documents, a certificate is issued. This procedure is reported to take two weeks. Without a certificate, no cellular telephone can be brought into the country, regardless of whether or not it is meant for use in Russia. Permission for the above devices may also be required from the State Customs Committee of the Russian Federation.

The State Customs Committee has stated that there are no restrictions on bringing laptop computers into the Russian Federation for personal use. The software , however, can be inspected upon departure; and some equipment and software have been confiscated because of the data contained in them, or due to software encryption, which is standard in many programs.

For more information, contact: State Customs Committee of the Russian Federation, Russia 107842 Moscow. 1A Komsomolskaya Place, Telephone: 7-095-975-4070. Department for clearance of items for personal use: Telephone: 7-095-975-4095, Glavgossvyaznadzor, Russia 117909 Moscow, Second Spasnailovkovsky 6, Telephone: 7-095-238-6331, Fax: 7-095-238-5102.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 & 2…New Year's Day

Jan. 7…Christmas (Orthodox)

Jan. 25…St. Tatiana Day

Apr. 1…Laughter Day (Fool Day)

Apr/May…Easter (Russian Orthodox)

Mar. 8…International Women's Day

May 1…Labor Day

May 2…Spring Day

May 9…Victory Day

June 12… Independence Day

Nov. 7…Day of Consent and Reconciliation

Dec. 12…Constitution Day

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Baedeker, Karl. Baedeker's Handbook for Travelers: Russia. Arno Press: New York, 1914 (Reprinted 1970).

Binyon, Michael. Life in Russia. Pantheon: 1984.

Daglieb, Robert. Coping with Russia. Basil Blackwell, Ltd: Oxford, 1985.

Feshback, Murray and Fred Friendly, Jr. Ecocide in the USSR. Basic Books: New York, 1991.

Kaiser, Robert. Russia: The People and the Power. Atheneum: New York, 1976.

Klose, Kevin. Russia and the Russians. Norton & Co.: 1984.

Louis, Victor and Jennifer. The Complete Guide to the Soviet Union. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1980.

Massier, Suzanne. Land of the Fire-bird. Simon & Schuster: New York, 1980.

Plessix Gray, Francine du. Soviet Women Walking the Tightrope. Doubleday: New York, 1989.

Pomer, Vladimir. Parting with Illusions. Avon Books: New York, 1990.

Schecter, Jerrold. An American Family in Moscow. Little, Brown & Co.: Boston, 1975.

Shipler, David K. Russia: Broken Idols, Solemn Dreams. Times Books: New York, 1983.

Smith, Hedrick. The New Russians. Random House, Inc.: New York, 1990.

Smith, Hedrick. The Russians. Quadrangle Books: New York, 1976.

Willis, David. KLASS: Status and Privileges in the Soviet Union. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1985.

Wilson, Edmund. To the Finland Station. Praeger: New York, 1968.

U.S.-Soviet/U.S.-Russian Relations

Bishop, Donald G. The Roosevelt-Litvinov Agreements: The American View. Syracuse University Press: Syracuse, 1965.

Bohlen, Charles E. Witness to History, 1929-1969. Norton: New York, 1973.

Daniels, Robert V. Russia: The Roots of Confrontation. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 1985.

Feis, Herbert. From Trust to Terror: Onset of the Cold War, 1945-1950. Norton: New York, 1970.

Harriman, W Averell, and Elie Abel. Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1945-1946. Random House: New York, 1975.

Horelick, Arnold L., ed. U.S.-Soviet Relations-The Next Phase. Cornell University Press: Ithaca and London, 1986.

Kerman, George F. Soviet-American Relations, 1917-1920 (two volumes). Princeton University Press: Princeton, 1956-58.

Kohler, Foy. Understanding the Russians: A Citizen's Primer. Harper & Row: New York, 1970.

Newhouse, John. Cold Dawn: The Story of SALT. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.: New York, 1973.

Ulam, Adam B. Expansion and Coexistence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1973. Praeger: New York, 1974.

——. The Bolsheviks. Macmillan: New York, 1965.

Foreign Policy

Edmonds, Robin. Soviet Foreign Policy, 1962-1973: The Paradox of Super Power. Oxford University Press: New York, 1977.

Horelick, Arnold L. and Myron Rush. Strategic Power and Soviet Foreign Policy. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1966.

Kerman, George E. Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin. Little, Brown & Co.: Boston, 1961.

The Old Regime

Bialer, Seweryn. The Soviet Paradox: External Expansion, Internal Decline. Alfred A. Knopf New York, 1986.

Billington, James H. The Icon and the Axe. Knoft: New York, 1966.

Blum, Jerome. Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century. Princeton University Press: Princeton, 1961.

Byrnes, Robert E, ed. After Brezhnev, Sources of Soviet Conduct in the 1980s. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 1983.

Pares, Bernard. A History of Russia. AMS Press: New York, 1965.

Pipes, Richard. Russia Under the Old Regime. Scribner: New York, 1975. Venturi, Franco. Roots of Revolution. Grosset and Dunlap: New York, 1966.

The Revolutionary Period

Cohen, Stephen E. Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888-1938. Alfred A. Knopf. New York, 1973.

Courtois, Stephane & others. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University.

Deustcher, Isaac. The Prophet Armed: Trotsky, 1879-1921, vol. 1; The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky, 1921-1929, vol. 2; and The Prophet Outcast: Trotsky, 1929-1940, vol. 3. Random House: New York, 1965.

Hunt, R. Carew. The Theory and Practice of Communism. Penguin Books: New York, 1963

Marx, Karl. The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Books: New York, 1968.

Pipes, Richard. The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1923. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 1964.

Reed, John. Ten Days That Shook the World. International Publishing Co.: New York, 1967.

Rosenberg, William G., Ed. Bolshevik Visions: First Phase of the Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia. Ardis Publishers: Ann Arbor, 1984.

Salisbury, Harrison. Black Night, White Snow: Russia's Revolutions (19051917). Doubleday & Co.: New York, 1978.

Trotsky, Leon. The Russian Revolution: The Overthrow of Tzarism and the Triumph of the Soviets. (Abbreviated edition). Doubleday & Co.: New York, 1959.

Tucker, Robert C., ed. The Lenin Anthology. W. W. Norton and Co.: New York, 1975.

Ulam, Adam. Dangerous Relations: The Soviet Union in World Politics, 1970-1982. Oxford University Press: New York, 1983.

Wolfe, Bertram. Three Who Made a Revolution. Dell Publishing Company: New York, 1964.

Zbarsky, Ilya & Samuel Hutchinson. Lenin's Embalmers. Harvill.

The Stalinist Period

Carr, Edward H. A History of Soviet Russia (9 volumes). Macmillan: New York, 1953.

Conquest, Robert. Kolyma. The Arctic Death Camp. Viking Press: New York, 1978.

Conquest, Robert. The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties. Macmillan: New York, 1973.

Djilas, Milovan. Conversations with Stalin. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.: New York, 1962.

Ginsburg, Yevgenia. Journey into the Whirlwind. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.: 1975.

Medvedev, Roy. Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism. Random House: New York, 1973.

Medvedev, Zhores. The Rise and Fall of T.D. Lysenko. Doubleday & Company: New York, 1971.

Salisbury, Harrison. 900 Days: The Seige of Leningrad. Harper & Row: New York, 1969.

Ulam, Sm. Stalin: The Man and His Era. Viking Press: New York, 1973.

Post-Stalin Period

Barron, John. KGB: The Secret Work of Soviet Secret Agents. Reader's Digest Press: New York, 1974.

Bloch, Sidney and Peter Reddaway. Psychiatric Terror. Basic Books, Inc.: New York, 1977.

Brzezinski, Zbigniew. Ideology and Power in Soviet Politics. Green-wood Press, Inc.: Westport, 1976.

Fainsod, Merle. How Russia Is Ruled. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 1963.

Hingley, Ronald. The Russian Mind. Scribner: New York, 1977.

Katz, Zev, et al. Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities. Free Press: New York, 1975.

Medvedev, Roy and Zhores. A Question of Madness. Random House: New York, 1972.

Medvedev, Roy and Zhores. Krushchev: The Years in Power. Columbia University Press: New York, 1976.

S Chapiro, Leonard. Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Random House: New York, 1971.

Talbott, Strobe, ed. Krushchev Remembers. Little, Brown & Co.: Boston, 1971.

Tatu, Michael. Power in the Kremlin: From Krushchev to Kosygin. Viking Press: New York, 1969.

Tokes, Rudolph L. Dissent in the USSR: Politics, Ideology, and People. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 1975.

Russian Literature

Chekhov, Anton. The Cherry Orchard. Grove Press, Inc.: New York, 1977. The Sea Gull. Harper & Row: New York, 1977.

Chekov, Anton. Three Sisters. Macmillan: New York, 1969.

Dostoyevsky, Fedor. Brothers Karamazov. Norton: New York, 1976.

Dostoyevsky, Fedor . Crime and Punishment. Norton: New York, 1975.

Dostoyevsky, Fedor . Notes from the Underground. T.Y. Crowell Co.: New York, 1975. Gogol, Nicolai. Dead Souls. Norton: New York, 1971.

Lermontov. A Hero of Our Times. Penguin Books, New York, 1966.

Tolstoy, L. Anna Karenina. Bantam Books, Inc.: New York, 1977.

Tolstoy, L. War and Peace. Apollo Editions: New York, 1977.

Turgenev. Fathers and Sons. Washington Square Press, Inc.: New York, 1977.

Soviet Literature

Bulgakov, Mikhail. Heart of a Dog. Grove Press, Inc.: New York, 1968.

Bulgakov, Mikhail. Master and Margarita. Grove Press, Inc.: New York, 1967.

Gorky, Maxim. Mother. Progress Publications: Chicago, 1976.

Kopelev, Lev. To Be Preserved Forever. J.B. Lippincott, Company: Philadelphia, 1977.

Pasternak, Boris. Dr. Zhivago. New American Library: New York, 1974.

Sholokhov, T. Mikhail. And Quiet Flows the Don. Random House: New York, 1965.

Solzhenitsyn, A. August 1914. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc.: New York, 1972.

Solzhenitsyn, A. Cancer Ward. Dell Publishing Co.: New York, 1974.

Solzhenitsyn, A. The First Circle. Bantam Books, Inc.: New York, 1976.

Solzhenitsyn, A. The Gulag Archipelago (3 volumes). Harper & Row: New York, 1974-77.

Solzhenitsyn, A. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. Praeger: New York, 1963.

Tertz, Abram. The Trial Begins. McCosh, Melvin, Bookseller: Excelsior, 1960.

Voinovich, Vladimir. The Ivankaid. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc.: New York, 1977.

Voinovich, Vladimir. The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of Private Ivan Chonkin. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc.: New York, 1977.

Voznesensky, Andrei. Antiworlds and the Fifth Ace. Schocken Books, Inc.: New York, 1973.

Zamiatin, Eugene. We. Gregg Press, Inc.: Boston, 1975.

RUSSIA

Russian Federation

Rossiyskaya Federatsiya

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

In terms of territory, Russia is the world's largest country. With a total area of 17,075,200 kilometers (6,592,735 square miles), Russia covers about one-eighth of the world's land surface. Russia is 60 percent larger than the world's second-largest country, Canada. But, like Canada, much of Russia's territory is located above the 50th parallel, where subarctic and arctic weather conditions are prevalent. Until the disintegration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or "Soviet Union") in 1991, the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic was the largest and dominant administrative component of the Soviet Union. In August 1991, the Russian Republic was one of the 15 countries that declared independence from the Soviet Union.

Russia stretches from its westernmost point in the city of Kaliningrad, just north of Warsaw, Poland, to its easternmost point at Big Diomede Island in the Bering Strait. Within eyesight is Little Diomede Island, belonging to the United States just off the coast of Alaska's Seward Peninsula. Russia's great breadth of territory includes many different geographical regions. These include areas of permafrost (areas of eternal ice) in Siberia and the Far North as well as taiga and steppes (vast grassland). Much of Russia's northern and eastern coastline is hemmed in by ice for much of the year, complicating navigation. However, Russia has year-round warm water seaports at Murmansk on its northwestern coastline of the Barents Sea and at Vladivostok at the far eastern coast on the Sea of Japan.

POPULATION.

The population of Russia was estimated at 146,001,176 (July 2000 est.) by official U.S. government sources. According to official figures, the Russian population growth rate is negative, declining at a rate of 3 percent a year. The birth rate was at 9 births per 1,000 persons per year in 2000. The death rate was at 13.8 deaths per population per year. The declining population in Russia is taking place in the presence of a net in-flow of migrants. Migration to Russia averaged 1.38 migrants per year per 1,000 persons during 2000. The migration into Russia is composed heavily of migrants from the 14 countries of the former USSR that adjoin Russia but became independent states in late 1991.

Roughly 80 percent of Russia's population is ethnic Russian. The remaining 20 percent is made up of a wide variety of ethnic groups including Tatar, Ukrainian, Belarussian, Moldavian, Kazakh, and many others. About three-fourths of the population of Russia is urban. Moscow, Russia's capital and largest city, is home to some 9 million people. Russia has a well-educated population with near universal literacy.

Previously Russia was the world's sixth most populous country, following China, India, the United States, Indonesia, and Brazil. The Population Reference Bureau, one of the world's leading professional demographic organizations, differs with the official U.S. government estimates regarding the size of Russia's population, and estimated Russia's population in July 2000 to be 145,231,000. At the same time, the bureau estimated Pakistan's population to be 150,648,000. This differs with the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) World Factbook, which estimated Russia's population to be 146,001,176 and Pakistan's to be 141,553,775. Despite the difficulties in measuring population accurately, it is clear that Russia's population is declining and Pakistan's is growing rapidly. If the estimates of the Population Reference Bureau are accurate, Pakistan has already overtaken Russia. This would mean that Russia, previously the world's sixth most populous country, has fallen to seventh place behind Pakistan. Even if the figures are not exactly accurate, the population trends suggest that this transition is not far away.

The USSR was a multinational country with a population of 289 million people. The country was made up of more than 100 ethnic or "national" groups. Today's Russian Federation (or simply "Russia") emerged from the USSR with roughly one-half of the USSR's population. In the aftermath of the Soviet breakup, millions of people relocated from the parts of the USSR in which they lived to new homes in the 15 countries that resulted. This migration involved many of the citizens of the USSR relocating to their native homelands. Even after these population adjustments, however, Russia is still a large and varied country. Dozens of different language groups and ethnic groups occupy Russia today.

Many of the minority groups within Russia have asserted their right to greater cultural autonomy and, sometimes, political autonomy. A minority area within Russia inhabited largely by the Chechen people proclaimed independence from Russia in 1994. Russian troops crushed the separatist movement. Russia proclaimed victory over the breakaway area of Chechnya in 1996, but the war erupted again in 1997. The brutal Chechen war has left much of this corner of Russia in ruins and has contributed to an ethnic terrorist campaign against Russia. Chechnya lies in one of Russia's most economically strategic regions, across which passes oil and gas pipelines carrying energy resources to European and world markets. Independence in Chechnya would result in these pipelines falling under the control of Chechnya rather than Russia.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

Russia today has a diversified economy, but its most important sector is the sale of raw materials and primary commodities such as oil, timber, and gold. Russia is well-endowed with natural resources and raw materials. Russia ranks among the world's leading producers of petroleum and gas, copper, manganese, bauxite, graphite, uranium, titanium, gold, silver, and platinum. The former Soviet Union was a leading international producer of manufactured items such as chemicals, weapons, and military and aerospace equipment. Much of the industrial base of these manufacturing sectors was located within the Russian Republic itself. However, the disintegration of the USSR led to significant interruptions in commercial relationships.

During its 73 years of existence, the USSR grew to be a great military superpower. Measured in terms of crude output, the USSR created the foundation for massive production possibilities. The USSR became one of the world's largest producers of numerous processed materials and manufactured items, ranging from foodstuffs to nuclear warheads. But efficiency of production—that is the ratio of inputs to outputs for any given product— was not a major objective of the Soviet economic system. Great emphasis was put on outputs. Accordingly, the USSR developed an economic system that was focused almost exclusively on the achievement of production targets. The system proved to be extremely bureaucratic and highly resistant to technological change. The Soviet economic system was not capable of meeting the requirements of the dynamic international markets of the 21st century. Even before the Soviet Union broke up, the Russian government began initiating reforms to move the economy from a centrally-planned to a market-based liberal economy . This process of change has come to be known as the transition to a market economy.

Soon after independence, the Russian government announced a much more ambitious program of political and economic reform. The program included a transformation of the economy from the principles of state planning and administrative direction to market-based economics. Price controls were lifted. Government subsidies were eliminated or reduced. The government budget was organized along new lines so that it could be balanced through bringing tax revenues into line with government spending. A restrictive monetary policy was adopted. Foreign trade was liberalized through the lifting of export and import controls. The Russian currency, the ruble, was allowed to devalue to bring it into line with market rates. Privatization and restructuring of state monopolies was undertaken. Efforts were commenced to establish the legal and regulatory structure for a market environment. New legislation was passed to establish laws and procedures for the banking industry, capital markets, civil and contract law, adjudication of commercial disputes, and the development of a social safety net to cushion the social impact of economic structural transformation.

But the first years of transition proved very difficult for Russia. In its first decade as a market-oriented economy, the Russian economy suffered a contraction of nearly 60 percent over pre-independence levels as measured by GDP. Sharp declines in production in key industries and exports led to a continuously contracting economy between 1990 and 1997 as industrial production went into a "free fall," dropping more than 50 percent during the decade of the 1990s. The Soviet military-industrial complex, suppliers of goods to the state sector, and light industry were the hardest hit by the structural adjustment to a market-oriented economy and the withdrawal from superpower status.

In 1997 the economy began to show the first signs of post-transition recovery, posting a growth rate of slightly less than 1 percent. Despite the "shock therapy" of a rapid transition and the decline in industrial production, increase in poverty and unemployment, and the weakening of the social service infrastructure , Russia was beginning to show signs of an economic turnaround. Inflation , which skyrocketed in 1993 and 1994, finally had been brought under control. The ruble was stabilized. An ambitious privatization program had transferred thousands of enterprises to private ownership. Important market-oriented laws had also been passed, including a commercial code governing business relations and the establishment of an arbitration court for resolving economic disputes.

However, in the summer of 1998, a powerful wave of financial instability that originated in the Asian financial crisis of 1997 swept through the Russian financial community. The Russian economy has undergone tremendous stress as it has moved from a centrally-planned economy toward a free market system . Difficulties in implementing fiscal reforms aimed at raising government revenues and a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance government budget deficits led to a serious financial crisis in 1998. Lower prices for Russia's major export earners (oil and minerals) and a loss of investor confidence due to the Asian financial crisis exacerbated financial problems. The result was a rapid decline in the value of the ruble, flight of foreign investment, delayed payments on government and private debts, a breakdown of commercial transactions through the banking system, and the threat of runaway inflation. In August 1998 the Russian government allowed the ruble to fall precipitously and postponed payment on US$40 billion in treasury bonds. In the wake of the financial crisis, billions of dollars of foreign direct investment were swept out of the country, investor confidence fell, and Russia moved into a sharp economic contraction.

The 1998 financial crisis produced a steep and sudden decline in personal incomes, as GDP per capita in Russia dropped from US$3,056 in 1997 to US$1,867 in 1998. The sharp decline in per capita income and contraction of the financial markets also had some benign effects, however. In some economic sectors, Russian economic performance improved as higher world prices for fuels—world oil prices nearly tripled in 1999—and some metals facilitated improvement in exports. The Russian ruble was devalued in connection with the financial crisis. The devalued ruble rendered Russian-made products relatively cheaper than imports. This contributed to increased purchases of domestically produced goods and services as well as facilitating exports.

In 1999 output increased for only the second time since 1991, by an officially estimated 3.2 percent, regaining much of the ground lost during the 4.6 percent drop of 1998. The 1999 increase was achieved despite a year of potential turmoil that included the ousting of 3 premiers and culminated in the New Year's Eve resignation of President Boris Yeltsin. Of great help was the tripling of international oil prices in the second half of 1999, raising the export surplus to US$29 billion. On the negative side, inflation rose to an average 86 percent in 1999, compared with a 28 percent average in 1998. Average citizens found their real wages fall by roughly 30 percent and their pensions by 45 percent. The new Russian government, under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, gave high priority to supplementing low incomes by paying back wage and pension IOUs. However, many investors, both domestic and international, remained on the sidelines, scared off by Russia's long-standing problems with capital flight , widespread corruption, and newspaper articles on organized crime and the Russian mafia. The international press gave sensational coverage to investigations of money laundering schemes designed to move ill-gotten gains into safe havens out of Russia.

The rebound continued in 2000 as the Russian economy grew briskly throughout the year, far exceeding expectations. Buoyed by the devaluation of the ruble and a sharp increase in average oil export prices over 1999 levels, real GDP surpassed its pre-1998 crisis level, growing by over 8 percent in 2000. Growth in industrial output, which reached 8 percent in 1999, further increased in 2000. The increase in industrial production led to a reduction in the unemployment rate, with recorded unemployment falling to just over 10 percent by the end of 2000.

On the negative side, it must be noted that Russia's economic growth was still largely concentrated in a few sectors. Nor were the benefits of growth widely distributed throughout the society. More than one-third of the population of the Russian Federation continued to live below the poverty line. The social assistance provided by the government was not sufficient and was not successfully targeted to the poor and those most in need. In sum, the general quality of the government's services has deteriorated since 1991. The poor and the most vulnerable were the most directly affected by this deterioration.

The declines in industrial production have taken place simultaneously with a modest but steady growth in the trade and service sectors. These sectors were underdeveloped during the years of the USSR's central planning. The majority of Russian manufacturing enterprises remain uncompetitive if judged by world standards. Output has continued to fall at medium and large Russian enterprises, while many small companies and joint ventures have grown in output and efficiency. Overall, services have grown to account for more than 50 percent of GDP, with manufacturing contributing just slightly less than 40 percent and agriculture accounting for just under 10 percent. Overall trends indicate that the portion of GDP accounted for by services and taxes was increasing while industrial production and manufacturing were decreasing in importance as contributors to GDP. In December 2000, the Russian parliament (the Federal Assembly) passed Russia's first post-Soviet balanced budget.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

Until 1991 Russia was the largest republic in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, born out of the Russian Revolution that took place in 1917-18. Russia was ruled by a monarchy headed by a tsar until 1917 when, following Russia's disastrous participation in the First World War, the tsar abdicated the throne, leaving a provisional government in power. In the harsh Russian winter of 1917 a band of Marxist revolutionaries seized power. The Marxists called themselves the Bolsheviks ( bolshe in the Russian language means "larger," and this group of Marxists claimed to be in the majority, hence "Bolsheviks").

The Bolshevik Revolution introduced a new form of government and economics to the world. The Bolsheviks promised that they would create a humanitarian Marxist form of economics. The Bolsheviks championed the labor theory of value, claiming that all value was derived from the importance of the human effort that went into creating a good or service. They promised to create a new economic system that would eliminate economic exploitation of people, would substitute cooperative production for boom and bust cycles of production under capitalism , and would free people to take only what they needed from society and contribute whatever they could. The Soviet government followed this economic policy throughout its 73-year rule.

Political and economic discord brought the USSR to a critical juncture in the 1980s, when a new and dynamic political leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, introduced plans for economic restructuring and political reform. Gorbachev announced major political changes at the 19th Conference of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in June and July 1988. Gorbachev invited the leaders from the 15 Soviet Socialist Republics of the USSR to announce that free elections and economic reform were on the country's agenda.

There were those who thought that the reform efforts would allow the system to release some steam. In reality, once the lid was off, the situation quickly boiled over into a massive change of political and economic systems. A group of high party leaders from 11 of the 15 Soviet republics met in December 1991 in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, to pass an agreement that declared the "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall henceforth cease to exist." The leading countries in the world rapidly acknowledged this declaration. The Alma-Ata Declaration sealed the fate of the Soviet Union and created a successor, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The CIS—a loose affiliation of the former Soviet states—has not proved to be a viable political entity, and today exists largely in form. Without a popular referendum or mandate, without parliamentary advice or consent, and without judicial review, the Soviet state simply was declared a thing of the past. USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev, acknowledging the inevitable, resigned on 25 December 1991. The Soviet flag ceased to fly over the Kremlin.

Today, the Russian Federation is a constitutional democracy with 3 branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The Russian Constitution, which came into effect on 12 December 1993, recognizes a separation of powers. The constitution describes the purposes of government, outlines the rights and responsibilities of citizens, and defines the structure of public institutions in the Russian Federation. The legal framework is based on a civil law system, and there is judicial review of legislation.

Despite the separation of powers, in terms of process, the Russian Federation functions as a presidential style of government, which concentrates most authority in the president as the head of state. The first president of the Russian Federation was Boris Nikolaevich Yeltsin, who was succeeded by Vladimir Putin. The Russian president is elected for a 4-year term. There is no vice-president. In the event of the incapacity of the president to carry out the constitutional mandate, the prime minister succeeds the president. The legislative branch consists of the Federal Assembly, made up of an upper house—the Council of Federation, made up of 1 representative from each of Russia's 89 federal constituent units—and a lower house—the State Duma, made of up 450 seats.

The executive branch includes: 1) the Presidential Administration, which drafts presidential decrees and provides staff and policy support to the entire executive branch; 2) the Security Council, which was established as a presidential advisory body in June 1991 and restructured in March 1992, when it was given responsibility for managing state security; 3) the Cabinet, which includes the ministers—the heads of the government ministries, who are appointed by the president; 4) the Council of Heads of Republics, which includes the leaders of the 21 ethnic-based republics; and 5) the Council of Heads of Administrations, which includes the leaders of the 66 autonomous territories and regions, as well as the mayors of Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Since 1991 the Russian government has frequently tried to minimize its budget deficits by failing to pay for wages and pensions. Weak tax administration, a cumbersome tax system with high rates that invite tax evasion, falling industrial output, the use of barter in the economy, and blunt refusal to pay by large, politically powerful firms has weakened the government's ability to meet its obligations. Under the new leadership of President Vladimir Putin, overcoming the travail of the collapse of the financial markets in Russia in August 1998 is high on the government's agenda. A comprehensive program to transform the Russian economy was approved on 26 July 2000. The Putin government has sought to establish a prudent fiscal policy in part by collecting significantly higher tax revenues than anticipated under the state budget and managing to restrain spending. The government placed considerable emphasis on reforms of the tax code.

But there are other weaknesses in the structure of the government. The Russian state bureaucracy is still at an early stage of its adjustment to the needs of a modern market-oriented economy. The objectives, functions, and competencies of the different governance structures are poorly defined, leaving substantial space open for discretionary action by bureaucrats. Civil servants are underpaid and inadequately monitored, which creates a strong incentive for the use of public office for private gain. Government decisions, privileges, and regulatory exemptions in Russia are routinely and quite openly influenced by bribes to public officials. While there are many civil servants who maintain high professional standards, the institutions within which they serve are poorly equipped to regulate a market-oriented economy.

Fair and impartial adjudication of disputes is a key to an effectively functioning market economy. Russia's judiciary and justice system remain weak. Numerous matters that are dealt with by administrative authority in European countries remain subject to political influence in Russia. The 1993 constitution empowers the courts to arbitrate disputes between the executive and legislative branches and between Moscow and the regional and local governments. The court also is authorized to rule on violations of constitutional rights, to examine appeals from various bodies, and to participate in impeachment proceedings against the president. The July 1994 Law on the Constitutional Court prohibits the court from examining cases on its own initiative and limits the scope of issues the court can hear. President Yeltsin reconvened the Constitutional Court in March 1995 following its suspension in October 1993. The Russian government has begun to reform the criminal justice system and judicial institutions, including the reintroduction of jury trials in certain criminal cases. Despite these efforts, judges are only beginning to assert their constitutionally-mandated independence from other branches of government.

Public accountability is complicated by the existence of a substantial informal sector . One of its features is the practice of barter arrangements. Many enterprises, being unable to meet their commercial or their tax obligations, turn to barter transactions. Because these barters are not always denominated in currency, their true value for purposes of taxation is often obscure. Moreover, many local and regional governments have been willing in the past to sometimes accept barter payments or "in-kind" payments in lieu of taxes from enterprises that could not pay but had an important social role as a major employer in the community.

When Russia liberalized its economy, explicit budgetary subsidies for enterprises were drastically curtailed. However, industrial enterprises have continued to be supported by "implicit subsidies" channeled largely through the energy sector and lax tax enforcement. These implicit subsidies have taken the form of non-cash settlements for energy and tax payments. Sometimes these non-cash settlements were "payments-in-kind," such as when a factory could not pay its tax bill in rubles because it was not selling its goods. It would then agree with the local tax authorities to pay in production of the goods it makes. This might mean that a tire factory, for instance, would pay its local tax bill in the form of tires supplied to the local tax authority. The tires, in turn, would be used or traded by the tax authorities. These forms of payment were also used to pay energy companies for electricity and gas, which are critical for the operation of factories.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

The transportation infrastructure in Russia is underdeveloped. The transport system is heavily Moscow-centered, with virtually all transportation channels of economic significance emanating from Moscow. Commercial transportation relies heavily on rail. Roughly 90 percent of commercial haulage is rail-based and insufficiently integrated into world transport systems. The Russian trucking industry is only minimally developed, and roads are not designed to carry heavy and long-distance truck traffic.

The Russian railway system includes a total of 150,000 kilometers (93,210 miles) of broad gauge rail, making it one of the most extensive railway systems in the world. However, of this total only 87,000 kilometers (54,061 miles) is in "common carrier" service. The remaining 63,000 kilometers (39,148 miles) serve specific industries or are dedicated railways lines and are not available for common carrier use. Following decades of insufficient investment in maintenance and capital improvement, the railway infrastructure has badly deteriorated. About 30 percent of freight cars, 40 percent of passenger cars, and nearly half the locomotives are of such poor quality that they should be replaced immediately.

The Russian highway system includes a total of 948,000 kilometers (589,087 miles) of road including 416,000 kilometers (258,502 miles) that serve specific industries or farms and are not maintained by governmental highway maintenance departments. Of the total road system, only 336,000 kilometers (208,790 miles) are paved. Russia's great territorial expanses and rugged terrain have hindered the development of a nation-wide highway

system. The European parts of the country are much better served than the areas east of the Ural mountains.

The Russian waterways system is an important component of the transportation infrastructure. Total navigable routes in general use by the Russian River Fleet amount to 101,000 kilometers (62,761 miles). Among Russia's most important ports are Arkhangelsk, Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnoyarsk, Moscow, Murmansk, Novorossiysk, St. Petersburg, Rostov, Sochi, Vladivostok, Volgograd, and Vyborg. The Russian merchant marine includes some 700 ocean-going vessels, but its fleet is twice as old as the global average.

Russia has some 630 improved airport facilities, 50 of which are capable of accommodating international flights. The country also has an extensive oil and gas pipeline system, with some 48,000 kilometers (29,827 miles) of pipelines for crude petroleum, 15,000 kilometers (9,321 miles) designed for shipment of refined petroleum products, and 140,000 kilometers (86,996 miles) designed for shipment of natural gas.

There are serious capital and operating inefficiencies and poor financial performance in what should be cost-recovery sectors, that is, sectors that should be able to pay their own way through user fees rather than through central government subsidies or direct administration. These include public utilities (called "natural monopolies" in Russia) such as public transportation, water, gas, and electricity, as well as some commercial transportation systems such as river and lake navigation. Transportation tariffs (user fees) have not kept pace with inflation.

Russia's overall electricity production (1998) was 771.94 billion kilowatt hours (kWh). Of this amount, some 69 percent was produced through burning fossil fuel, 20 percent resulted from hydroelectric generation, and roughly 13 percent was produced at commercial atomic generating stations. Electricity consumption amounted to 702.71 billion kWh, while 21 billion kWh was exported and 5.8 billion kWh was imported.

Effective wholesale gas and electricity tariffs have been at only around one-tenth of the Western European level for the past decade, with the ratio even worse in distribution to households. The problem has been exacerbated by low rates of cash collection. In the power sector, cash collection rates stood at less than 20 percent in 2000. Due to its financial unattractiveness but also due to the lack of an appropriate legal and regulatory framework to facilitate private sector participation, infrastructure services are generally provided by state and local government-owned entities. Progress in the corporatization (turning utility systems into corporate entities) and commercialization of infrastructure has been poor. There has been some separation of publicly-owned service providers from government, transforming them into legally autonomous corporate entities. However, there continues to be a high degree of government (federal, regional, and local) interference in their management and financial operations.

Russia's telecommunications system is in the midst of the global telecommunications revolution. The country's phone system has undergone significant changes since the breakup of the state phone monopoly in 1990. By 2000, there were over 1,000 companies licensed to offer communication services. During this period access to digital lines has improved, particularly in urban centers. Internet and e-mail services are now widespread and rapidly improving. In a few short years, Russia made significant progress toward building the telecommunications infrastructure necessary for a market economy. Cross-country digital trunk lines run from Saint Petersburg in the northwest to Khabarovsk in the Russian Far East and from Moscow in the country's European center to Novorossiysk in the south. The telephone systems in over 60 regional capitals had installed modern digital infrastructures by 2000. Cellular services, both analog and digital, expanded rapidly in 2000 and 2001. Three undersea fiber-optic cables connect Russia to the international phone system. Digital switches in several cities provide more than 50,000 lines for international calls. Satellite earth stations provide access to Intelsat, Inter-sputnik, Eutelsat, Inmarsat, and Orbita.

ECONOMIC SECTORS

The chief sectors of the Russian economy are natural resources, industry, and agriculture. The natural resources sector includes petroleum, natural gas, timber, furs, and precious and nonferrous metals. The agriculture sector includes grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, meat, and dairy products. Manufacturing and industry includes a complete range of manufactures, notably automobiles, trucks, trains, agricultural equipment, advanced aircraft, aerospace, machine and equipment products, mining and extractive industry, medical and scientific instruments, and construction equipment. Trade exports emphasize petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, woods and wood products, metals, and chemicals. Major markets include the countries of the European Union, the other former Soviet countries, China, and Japan, as well as countries of the Middle East. Imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, consumer goods , medicines, meat, sugar, and semi-finished metal products. The trading partners for imports are the same as those for exports.

The Soviet economy created distorting policies and reduced the interest of firms and individuals to use natural resources carefully. The costly and destructive environmental legacy of the Soviet economy is still very much evident in Russia. There is a high risk of environmental accidents and emergencies. Environmental policy at both the federal and regional levels is not always consistent or clear. Enforcement of regulations to protect the environment is often left to the discretion of the firms that create the problems. The merging of the independent environmental agency into the Ministry of Natural Resources in 1999 created a further cause for concern given the potential conflicts of interest of the institutions involved.

Russia is the most industrialized of the former Soviet Republics. However, much of its industry is antiquated and highly inefficient. Besides its resource-based industries, it has developed large manufacturing capacities, notably in machinery. Russia inherited most of the defense industrial base of the Soviet Union. Efforts have been made with little significant success over the past few years to convert defense industries to civilian use.

Most major industry sectors showed an increase in output in 1999 over 1998. However, this was not true of agribusiness and the power and fuel sectors, which showed improvements over 1998, but declines compared to 1997. The sub-sectors showing declines in output in 1999 over 1998 include heating oil, machine tools, television, and sausage production. Some sub-sectors that fared poorly in the mid-and late 1990s, such as light industry and the pulp/paper, chemical, and building materials sector, showed increased output in 1999 over 1998. Sectors that fared the worst in 1998 included light industry, metallurgy, chemicals, and agribusiness. Despite across-the-board improvements in recent years, many Russian enterprises remain uncompetitive. In addition, output through 2000 continued to decline at medium and large Russian enterprises, while small companies and joint ventures were responsible for increased output. The CIA World Factbook estimated that agriculture accounted for 7 percent of GDP, industry 34 percent, and services 59 percent in 1999.

AGRICULTURE

Employment in agriculture and forestry remained relatively constant in recent years. Agriculture and forestry employment accounted for about 14 percent of total employment in 1999, about the same level as a decade earlier. Russia comprises roughly three-quarters of the territory of the former Soviet Union, but only a small amount of this vast area is suited for agriculture because of its arid climate and inconsistent rainfall. Nevertheless, with 133 million hectares of arable land, a large agrarian workforce (14 percent of the total), and 146 million inhabitants to feed, Russia is a major regional and global agricultural producer and consumer. The Russian fishing industry is the world's fourth-largest, behind Japan, the United States, and China. Russia accounts for one-quarter of the world's production of fresh and frozen fish and about one-third of world output of canned fish. Russia has a major forestry industry, possessing one-quarter of the world's forests.

Northern areas concentrate mainly on livestock and the southern parts and western Siberia produce grain. Restructuring of former state farms has been an extremely slow process, partially due to the lack of a land code allowing for the free sale, purchase, and mortgage of agricultural land. Private farms and garden plots of individuals account for more than one-half of all agricultural production. Much of the agricultural sector has been almost unaffected by the transition to the free market. Accordingly, the output performance of agriculture has been very weak. This has tended to strengthen the arguments of those who oppose economic reform in favor of a return to the state-managed economy of the past.

Primary agriculture in Russia continues to be dominated by inefficient, Soviet-type collective farms with outdated technologies and management skills and strong political connections, especially at the regional level. Household plots and small private farms comprising only 3 percent of the agricultural land account for over 40 percent of the country's food production. The business infrastructure for the agriculture sector is especially underdeveloped including support services, transportation, distribution networks, and financial services. For agriculture in Russia to go through the transformation to a modern system, the key step will be establishing and enforcing farmers' rights to use land. The first step in this process is to develop an efficient system of issuing and protecting title to land rights. This will also require a more reliable and enforceable framework for secured financial transactions so that farmers can buy and sell their land or use the land as collateral for obtaining loans.

The economic reform that began in Russia in the early 1990s reduced Russia's livestock sector. The down-sizing of the livestock sector ended the need for imports of feed grain, soybeans, and meal. At the same time, imports of meat and other high-value products such as processed foods, fruit, and beverages grew considerably. The 1998 economic crisis reduced Russia's ability to import food. After plunging to extremely low levels in late 1998, agricultural imports rebounded in 1999. Imports of most agricultural and food products grew to roughly 60 percent of the level of the pre-crisis period. Imports dropped because the crisis reduced consumer incomes, thereby decreasing demand for food in general, and the severe crisis-induced depreciation of the ruble made imported food more expensive compared to Russian domestic output.

The large former state and collective farms control most land. Farm workers can branch off as private farmers by obtaining a grant of land from their parent farm, though they lack full ownership rights. The land code proposed by the Russian legislature (the Duma) does not change existing law—that is, it does not allow the free purchase and sale of land for agricultural use. Rather, it would allow land to be bought and sold solely for economically insignificant purposes, such as building a summer cottage, a dacha.

INDUSTRY

Russia has a range of mining and extractive industries. These include coal, oil, and gas extraction as well as the chemicals and metals industries. Russian enterprises take part in all forms of machine building from rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles. Russian enterprises are involved in shipbuilding, manufacturing of road and rail transportation equipment, communications equipment, agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment. Russian firms produce electric power generating and transmitting equipment, medical and scientific instruments, consumer durables, textiles, foodstuffs, processed food products, and handicrafts.

Russia is a leading producer and exporter of minerals, gold, and all major fuels. Oil and gas exports continue to be the main source of hard currency . Russia has vast reserves of oil, gas, and timber. Siberia and the Russian Far East are particularly rich in natural resources. However, most deposits of resources are located in remote areas with challenging climate conditions.

The most important export sector is energy. Russia is the world leader in natural gas production, third in oil, and fourth in coal. Gazprom, the large natural gas monopoly, inherited from the former USSR a massive network of production and distribution facilities that was built over a period of decades. The energy industry is significant also in its intricate ties with political elites. Energy monopolies are thus able to enjoy special privileges such as subsidies of various kinds. However, much of the physical infrastructure is in a state of disrepair. Gazprom will require billions of dollars to upgrade its physical systems. Declining energy prices hit Russia hard in the mid-1990s. The rebound in energy prices in the late 1990s was a great benefit to Russia's foreign trade account.

The oil sector has undergone substantial liberalization and now is primarily restructured and privately held. The oil industry, unlike gas and electricity, was broken up into a dozen companies as it was privatized. Oil prices have therefore moved very quickly toward world prices. Oil export tariffs were phased out entirely in July 1996. Simultaneously, however, oil production excise taxes were increased.

Russia has an estimated 49 to 55 billion barrels of oil in proven reserves, but aging equipment and poorly developed fields are making it difficult to develop these reserves. The depletion of existing oilfields, deterioration in transport infrastructure, and an acute shortage of investment—aggravated by the country's August 1998 financial crisis—may lead to further declines in oil production unless these trends can be reversed.

Natural gas is the predominant fuel in Russia, accounting for nearly half of the country's domestic consumption. With 1.7 quadrillion cubic feet (TCF) in proven gas reserves, Russia has more than enough for itself, allowing it to export significant amounts of gas. In fact, Russia is the world's largest gas exporter. Europe is a major consumer. Although the country's natural gas production has dipped only slightly (8 percent from 1992 to 1999) during the transition to democracy, low investment has raised concerns about future production levels. Gas production in the established West Siberian fields that account for 76 percent of Russian gas output is declining. At the same time, the planned development of new fields continues to be delayed as a result of lack of investment resources.

SERVICES

Russia's previously underdeveloped services sector has played an important role in containing the social calamity of the collapse of the USSR, manufacturing and industrial sectors. The service sector employed 55 percent of the workforce and contributed 59 percent of GDP in 1999, according to the CIA World Factbook. Important service industries include financial services; advertising, marketing, and sales; tourism; and retail trade.

TOURISM.

Foreign and domestic tourism was centrally managed during the Soviet Union. In 1991 the tourism industry was reorganized and today is one of the most important branches of the service sector, both in terms of total revenue and numbers of employees. The number of tourist companies has grown from several state tourist organizations in 1991 to several hundred in the larger Russian cities today. Most tourist firms are small, employing fewer than 15 people, and function as both operators and agencies. Operators are those firms that develop their own tourist routes. Tourist agencies market the existing routes established by operators. Most travel transactions involve the domestic market, offering travel services within Russia either for foreigners or for domestic travelers. Providing services for Russians traveling abroad is a smaller but more lucrative market.

The August 1998 financial crisis in Russia had a major impact upon the tourist industry. The number of Russian tourists traveling to foreign countries dropped off sharply and the number of foreign tourists visiting Russia also declined. According to the Russian Statistical Committee, the number of Russians visiting the United States in 1999 fell by nearly half between 1998 (175,660) and 1999 (95,280). The number of Americans visiting Russia also fell considerably between 1998 (216,976) and 1999 (177,120).

In the old USSR domestic tourism was one of the largest industries. There were many resorts, recreational centers, tourist bases, and summer camps for children. Large enterprise and labor unions provided people with inexpensive package tours. During the first years after the breakup of the Soviet Union, domestic tourism declined sharply, but has regained ground since then. Russian tourists travel abroad to Europe, the countries of the Mediterranean, and the United States—a popular tourist destination for young people. Local foreign language schools often offer English language training in the United States to teenagers and young people. Obtaining visas to travel to the United States, however, involves complicated regulations and is often a hindrance.

Russia is a popular destination for foreign tourists, primarily because of its cultural attractions. Over 80 percent of foreign tourists come to Russia with the intention of visiting Moscow and/or St. Petersburg. However, in recent years the country's natural environment has attracted a growing proportion of foreign travelers. Russia may one day become a popular destination for eco-travel, attracting adventure travelers and tourists looking for something out of the ordinary. Travel to Russia is particularly well-represented by travelers from Germany, China, the United States, Japan, Italy, Poland, Turkey, and Israel.

A legacy of Soviet-era infrastructure neglect, oppressive paperwork, high costs, and lack of local marketing know-how have limited attractiveness of travel to Russia for many foreigners. Despite improvements in the first decade since the Soviet breakup, the Russian travel industry continues to be hindered by the lack of accommodations and travel-related services that are in accordance with international standards. Recent years have witnessed improvements in the quality of services. In addition, new programs have been instituted that provide training in hotel and restaurant management services. At the same time, new hotel, restaurant, and recreational equipment and expertise have become more widely available.

FINANCIAL SERVICES.

The Russian government has put considerable emphasis in recent years on restructuring and stabilizing the banking system and the financial services industry. A legal framework was adopted, establishing procedures for forming statutory capital, specifying procedures for starting and terminating commercial bank activities, procedures of issuing and recalling licenses for bank audits, establishing procedures for bank bankruptcies, and establishing procedures for the operation of non-banking financial organizations that offer financial services and were licensed and regulated by the National Bank.

But the Russian banking system is still in a state of transition. Banks do not have the resources, capability, or the population's trust to attract substantial savings and channel them to productive investments. While ruble lending doubled in the 2 years following the August 1998 financial crisis, loans remained at the pre-crisis level of 30 percent of total bank assets. The Russian Central Bank reduced its refinancing rate 3 times in 2000, to 33 percent, signaling an attempt to lower lending rates. However, banks still perceived commercial lending as risky, and some banks were inexperienced at assessing credit risk. The Russian Central Bank announced that it was developing a procedure to finance banks for promissary notes, rights of claim under credit agreements, and mortgages.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Russia's foreign trade consisted of US$75 billion in exports and imports of US$48.2 billion in 1999 and then to US$105.1 billion in exports and US$44.2 billion in imports by 2000. Russia sells a broad range of commodities and manufactures including petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, wood and wood products, metals, chemicals, and a wide variety of civilian and military manufactures. Russia's largest trading partners for exports are Ukraine, Germany, United States, Belarus, the Netherlands, and China. Russia imports machinery and equipment, consumer goods, medicines, meat, grain, sugar, and semi-finished metal products. Russia's largest trading partners for imports are Germany, Belarus, Ukraine, the United States, Kazakhstan, and Italy.

Real GDP growth in Russia in 1999 was over 3 percent. The main contributing factors were the devaluation of the ruble, which made Russian products competitive abroad and at home; high commodity prices on international markets, particularly oil (while domestic costs were substantially lower); low inflation and a consensus that inflation must be controlled; and a relatively healthy fiscal situation based on strict government budget discipline. The major contributor to growth was trade performance. Exports rose to US$74.3 billion while imports slumped by 30 percent to US$41.1 billion. As a result, net exports ballooned to US$33.2 billion, more than double the previous year's level. Higher oil prices had a major effect on export performance, particularly in the latter half of the year. Even though volumes of crude oil exports (to non-CIS countries) were down by 3 percent, prices jumped 46 percent. Fuels and energy comprise 42 percent of Russian exports. Other exports performed better in 1999; fertilizer exports were up 16.7 percent, forestry products up 38 percent, copper up 17.6 percent, and aluminum up 10 percent.

Trade with other former Soviet states is overwhelmingly in energy and industrial products, and in many instances has been, until quite recently, conducted by barter. Russia's trade surpluses eroded over the course of 1998. Imports to Russia grew by 10-15 percent per year between 1995 and 1997, as consumers benefited from an appreciating ruble and rising average wages. At the same time, export revenues were falling, due in particular to sharply lower prices for oil and gas (accounting for 43 percent of merchandise exports in 1997). Moreover, Russia's manufactured exports compete poorly on the world market, especially since Asian goods have become less expensive following steep currency devaluations. The devaluation of the ruble and difficulties in completing transactions through the Russian banking system reduced imports substantially. Frequent changes in customs regulations also have created problems for foreign and domestic traders and investors.

Russian oil companies have been rushing to export their oil (resulting in a windfall of hard currency coming into the country) to such an extent that Russian officials have set export quotas in order to maintain an adequate domestic supply of oil. In 2000, Russian net oil exports totaled 4.3 million metric barrels a day (MMBD). In addition to export quotas and higher taxes levied on oil exports, a serious problem facing exporters is the lack of export routes. Russia is maneuvering to become a major player in the exploration, development, and export of oil from the Caspian Sea. Transneft is the parastatal responsible for Russia's extensive oil pipeline system. Many of these pipelines are in a poor state of repair. The Russian Fuel and Energy Ministry notes that almost 5 percent of crude oil produced in Russia is lost through pipeline leaks. Transneft lacks the funding to repair or upgrade many of these malfunctioning pipes. The company's focus has been on building new pipelines rather than repairing the old. In addition to those in the Caspian Sea Region, Russia has a number of new oil and gas pipelines planned or already under construction.

MONEY

At the start of the economic transition, key reform-oriented policy makers in the Russian government sought to get market price mechanisms working as quickly as possible. These reformists argued that price liberalization and policies designed to bring about macroeconomic stabilization could be expected to impose some economic hardship for a period of time, but that it was better to live with temporary difficulties than to be burdened by distorted prices and unsound policies that might endure for years or even decades. This pro-reform perspective became known as "shock therapy." The reformists took their inspiration in large measure from Western monetarist doctrines that maintained that

sound monetary policy should be the basis of a govern-ment's economic programs.

The Russian post- communist economic transition thus started with prices being rapidly liberated from artificially low levels. This led to a rapid rise in prices for many basic commodities. It also led quickly to an immediate burst of inflation. The pent-up demand for consumer goods that had been suppressed during the period of Soviet central planning gave additional impetus to inflation as consumers rushed to buy previously unavailable goods, thereby bidding up prices. Early in the transition, inflation averaged over 1,000 percent per year in Russia. As inflation ate away at the value of the ruble, the amount of money necessary to buy a loaf of bread, for instance, appeared to grow inordinately large. While the size of the numbers on a country's currency should be arbitrary—that is, no one should care if the cost of a loaf of bread is 1 ruble or 1,000 rubles—what matters is what proportion this represents of a person's income. The fact that it had become necessary in Russia to hand over large amounts of rubles to buy simple, everyday necessities was psychologically unnerving for the public. To address this problem, on 1 January 1998 Russia "rede-nominated" its ruble, introducing new bills with 3 fewer zeros than pre-1998 rubles.

Redenomination is a process by which a country's money is reissued but assigned a different number. The Russian bank authorities simply decided to remove the "excess" 3 zeroes after the numbers on the face of the currency. For instance, a 1,000 ruble note was reissued as a 1 ruble note. At the same time, Russia re-introduced the traditional coin, the kopek, valued at 1/100th of a ruble.

These redenomination measures were primarily for convenience. They were designed to have no technical effect on the value of the currency. However, they did have an effect on the public. These measures tended to contribute to the erosion in public confidence in the currency and an increase in the use of foreign currencies, particularly the dollar, as an alternative to saving.

Russia has undertaken a number of different approaches to exchange rate policy. These included establishing a "currency corridor" in 1995 and a "crawling band" mechanism from 1995 to 1997. For the most part, these measures were viewed as part of an effort to establish a more "natural" ruble-to-foreign currency rate. From 1994 until 1998, falling inflation, slow money supply growth, and the effective functioning of Russia's ruble-dollar mechanisms contributed to a period of relative ruble stability. In January 1998, with the ruble trading at just over 6 to the dollar, Russia replaced the crawling band mechanism with a more freely floating but still semi-managed ruble. The exchange rate policy allowed the ruble to fluctuate within 15 percent around a central exchange rate, which Russia intended to maintain at between 6.1 and 6.2 rubles to the U.S. dollar between 1998 and 2000. In July 1998, the ruble was trading at R6.2 to the U.S. dollar. In August of 1998, Russia widened the band within which the ruble was allowed to fluctuate, resulting in an unofficial but real devaluation of the ruble. In total, the ruble lost 71 percent of its value in 1998, closing the year at R20.65 to the dollar. The ruble fell to R25 and lower to the dollar in April 1999, mildly appreciated in value through early summer, but began to decline again at the height of summer. The ruble ended 1999 at R27 to the dollar.

The monetary authority in the former Soviet Union was the Soviet Central Bank. The Soviet Central Bank functioned as an investment mechanism to achieve social objectives, not as a bank in the Western sense of provider of specific financial services. Soviet practice emphasized financial stability and the assignment of prices not on the basis of relationships of scarcity (that is, supply and demand) but on the basis of social criteria. Prices were established at levels that the government thought would achieve the most social good. Typically, necessities such as bread and housing were extraordinarily cheap to the consumer while luxuries, such as cars and foreign vacations were extremely high or unavailable altogether. Prices of foreign goods were established indirectly through the exchange rate that was stipulated by the Central Bank for foreign currencies. When the transition started, price liberalization implied that buyers and sellers should be able to establish their own agreed-upon prices. New laws were passed to allow the functioning of private banks, but initially these banks did not have provisions for inter-bank settlement of accounts. Consequently, the private banks begin to function less as banks and more as investment funds.

Spurred on by the potential gains of the initial waves of privatization of state enterprises between 1993 and 1995, these private banks in fact offered few financial services but served mainly as holding companies for large investors and conglomerates. The unevenness of supply and demand in the transitional markets created opportunities for great profit-taking and great risk-taking. This led to a serious problem of capital flight. As investors and speculators captured gains from buying and selling, they sought to park their earnings in stable investments. For the most part, this meant foreign currencies, particularly the American dollar. For a period of time in 1992 and 1993, Western currencies were in popular use in Russia and were preferred to the ruble. Massive amounts of money moved out of the Russian economy to Europe and America. To address this problem of capital flight, the government imposed a series of frequently changing regulations on the financial services industry between 1993 and 1994. In 1994, the Central Bank imposed new currency controls, requiring all exchanges of foreign currency to go through licensed currency traders who were closely regulated by the government.

After the financial markets collapsed in 1998, the Russian central bank, aided by increased technical assistance from the international financial institutions and Western countries, developed a considerable amount of autonomy from the Russian government. This allowed the central banking authorities to resist the attempts of the government to call upon the bank's assets to solve short-term problems or address the demands of important political constituencies. Gradually, the role of the Russian Central Bank came to resemble that of most market economies, a role in which the bank functions as a neutral and independent manager of financial functions, not as a personal banker to the government or government officials.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

The transition from communism to a market-based economy did not create poverty in Russia, but it certainly made life more difficult for many groups of people. Poverty became widespread in 1992 and grew in 1993, widening from not more than about 10 percent of the population in the 1980s to nearly 30 percent by 1993. Poverty, often associated with family size, was concentrated increasingly in families with children, as well as in families with unemployed or handicapped persons. Poverty grew especially quickly in the rural areas. Certain

geographical regions of Russia were disproportionately affected by poverty, reflecting increasing disparities in wages. The Russian Far North and Far East were hard hit. Poverty was strongly associated with single-parent status, and the majority of such households were female-headed.

Measuring poverty is difficult. Nevertheless, it is undisputed that a large share of the Russian population lives below the poverty line. The social assistance provided by the Russian government has not been sufficiently targeted to the poor. According to surveys of the standard of living, the share of eligible households who did not receive social benefits increased from 60 to 80 percent. Further, the share of the households that were legally entitled to public benefits and received them has decreased dramatically as local governments have "postponed" payments. Measures of public satisfaction indicate the quality of government services has generally deteriorated since 1991, and the poor, particularly the elderly poor, have been the most directly affected.

The economic transition also witnessed the "feminization" of poverty. Single-mother families and single elderly women make up a group with the highest poverty risk. In the case of single-mother families, poverty factors include the low individual income of the mother. Added to this is the insufficient amount of private and public transfers designed to partly offset the absence of other income sources such as alimony after divorce or pensions for the benefit of children after the death of their father.

The elderly also suffer from insufficient pensions, of which 90 percent go to women, according to a World Bank report. The average pension allowance is two-thirds of a retiree's cost of living. This means that pensions cannot meet even the most basic necessities of the elderly population. The problem for women retirees is compounded by the fact that pensions, which for this age group is largely the only source of income, are higher for men of retirement age than for women.

WORKING CONDITIONS

Russia has paid a high social price for its rapid progress in the transition from communism. Under communism, economic growth was restrained but there was a very low level of inequality. Most workers made roughly the same income. Extremes of high and low incomes were rare. Since embarking on a market economy, Russia's rapid macroeconomic and political reforms created anxiety among the citizens who came to expect a modest but dependable lifestyle. Russia's abandonment of subsidies for Soviet-era industries permitted a steep industrial decline, throwing millions of citizens out of work. Today the Russian labor force is undergoing tremendous change. Although well-educated and skilled, it is mismatched to the rapidly changing needs of the Russian economy. Millions of Russian workers are underemployed . Unemployment is highest among women and young people. Many Russian workers compensate by working other part-time jobs.

Russia's financial crisis had a severe effect on wages in the country. Many employees were helpless as ruble devaluation and price increases drastically eroded the buying power of their salaries. Meanwhile, both foreign and Russian companies, faced with their own challenges stemming from the crisis, resorted to pay cuts in order to maintain what staff they felt able to keep. As a result of the financial crisis, although nominal wages in Russia continued to climb, real wages in the country continued to fall. The average nominal monthly wage in January 1999 was approximately 1,200 rubles. In January 2000, the nominal wage was roughly 1,575 rubles, or about US$58 at the prevailing exchange rate at the time. According to official figures, real wages and real disposable income had fallen roughly 30 percent by the end of 1999 compared to 1997.

According to a minimum wage law signed by President Putin in June 2000, the minimum wage increased to 300 rubles per month by mid-2001. In December 1999, the average monthly subsistence minimum was 943 rubles, or approximately US$36 at the prevailing exchange rate. Therefore, approximately one-third of Russia's population is living below the subsistence level. As of 1 February 2000, Russian pensions increased 20 percent. The minimum Russian pension is 410 rubles per month. The average pension is 650 rubles per month, which is still below the subsistence minimum.

Although the Russian government has been using International Labor Organization (an arm of the United Nations) statistical methods to determine unemployment, officially reported unemployment levels in Russia, as with other official statistics, have often been lower than figures determined by the international community. Russia reported several years of very slowly growing unemployment, which temporarily peaked at 9.6 percent in the spring of 1997 before dropping to a low of 9 percent at the end of 1997. During this time, alternative estimates of unemployment suggested a combined unemployment and underemployment rate of between 12 and 15 percent. In 1998 unemployment levels resumed their climb. In the wake of Russia's financial crisis, both Russian and foreign companies resorted to layoffs and salary cuts. In November 1998, when the official unemployment rate was 11.6 percent, the Russian Ministry of Economy predicted that unemployment would grow 70 percent by 2001. In early June 1999 the Russian government reported that unemployment had reached 14.2 percent of the country's workforce, or 10.4 million people, the highest level ever officially reported by Russia. For much of 1999 the unemployment rate hovered at 12.4 percent, or 9.12 million people. Russia closed 1999 with an official unemployment level of 11.7 percent.

Russia's well-educated but relatively inexpensive labor force has been a leading attraction for foreign firms. While in the early 1990s many Western firms initially found it challenging to find employees educated in Western business concepts and practices, there is a growing pool in Russia of individuals with Western business exposure, education, and experience. Russian law requires that wages be paid in rubles.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

945. Treaty of Igor with Byzantium (Constantinople) establishes first claim to government in the many lands of Russia, known as the many "Russias."

1237. Mongol tribesmen, invading from the East, conquer Russia and impose foreign rule for over 240 years.

1565-72. Ivan the Terrible's "reign of terror" establishes a precedent of strong, unaccountable central government.

1802. Formation of the first government ministries, establishing a strong principle of government control of the private economy.

1864-85. Conquest of Central Asia.

1891. Beginning of the Trans-Siberian railway.

1906. First Duma (parliament) established; first written constitution adopted.

1914. World War I begins.

1917. Russia pulls out of World War I; Bolsheviks take power and begin communist era.

1918. The period of "war communism" with emphasis on administrative direction of the economy is introduced.

1921. Retreating from tight control of the economy, the government introduces the "New Economic Policy" (NEP). The policy favors market-based economic relations in lieu of administrative measures.

1928. Return to communism and top-down direction of the economy as the first "Five-Year Plan" is adopted. Joseph Stalin (Iosef Dhugashvili) assumes control of the communist party organization. Agriculture is collectivized. A massive industrialization campaign begins.

1932-33. A severe famine in Ukraine is testimony to the effects of the agricultural collectivization program.

1937-41. The Stalin-era purges of political opponents take place.

1941. German invasion of USSR (June 22) and Second World War.

1957. First Soviet "Sputnik" (satellite) is launched. The "space race" begins.

1973. United States and the USSR embrace "Détente," a policy of relaxation of tensions, and adopt a new bilateral trade agreement, but implementation is not successful.

1979. In December, Soviets invade Afghanistan. This futile war drains Soviet resources and creates negative sentiment toward communist party rule. This eventually plays an important role in the collapse of communism.

1985. Mikhail Gorbachev becomes communist party leader, calling for economic reforms ( perestroika ) and greater openness ( glasnost ).

1986. 26 April disaster at Chernobyl nuclear generating station debunks myth of Soviet technological superiority.

1989. Political reforms begin in Central Europe; Berlin Wall comes down.

1991. On 19 August, a group of Communist Party hardliners announces takeover of the Soviet government. The takeover fails. Boris Yeltsin emerges as the most popular politician.

1991. On 21 December, 11 high leaders of USSR meet in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, to sign the "Alma-Ata Declaration" ending the USSR and establishing the "Commonwealth of Independent States" (CIS).

1992. On 2 January, Russian prime minister frees prices; ruble value plummets; prices skyrocket.

1992. On 1 October, voucher privatization begins in Russia.

1993. On 21 September President Yeltsin dissolves the parliament. On 22 September a breakaway parliament appoints Vice President Alexander Rutskoi as president. On 4 October, government forces loyal to Yeltsin storm the parliament building and arrest Rutskoi and the disloyal parliament.

1998. Following a massive sell-off of Russian bonds, securities, and rubles, the prime minister announces a ruble devaluation; financial markets are paralyzed by liquidity shortages, and share prices plunge. Unable to pay its creditors, Russia defaults on foreign loans.

1998. Yeltsin fires the prime minister and the entire government cabinet. He appoints Victor Chernomyrdin as interim prime minister, but parliament refuses to confirm him.

1999. After months of political turmoil, Yeltsin appoints Vladimir Putin as prime minister.

2000. On 31 December, Yeltsin resigns the presidency (with a full pardon), leaving Vladimir Putin as head of state.

2000. Vladimir Putin is elected president.

FUTURE TRENDS

The Russian economy faces serious challenges. Russian industry is not likely to regain an important role in a global economy that demands peak efficiency. Consequently, the export of primary commodities and raw materials is likely to remain the bulwark of economic development. Primary commodity markets are relatively more susceptible to fluctuations than are industrial markets. Russia is likely to continue to be influenced by economic trends that it cannot control. International investors, including the major investment banks, commercial investors, and companies interested in expanding their businesses in world markets have remained on the sidelines, scared off by Russia's long-standing problems with capital flight, reliance on barter transactions, corruption of government officials, and fears of organized crime.

The Russian government and leading economists in the country have developed a consensus on the need for various kinds of administrative changes. Failures such as corruption are not moral failures, but a failure of administrative structure. There is a consensus that the country needs to strengthen the institutional and legal underpinnings of a market economy. Improving the legal and regulatory structure would provide a reliable framework for improving governance, strengthening the rule of law, reducing corruption, and attracting the long-term capital needed for deep restructuring and sustained growth. The country also needs to improve its tax system to encourage greater tax compliance and a realistic appreciation in the population that the people must pay for the costs of a modern society. The government must avoid pressures to use central bank money to finance its budget deficit. Further reforms are needed in the banking sector, including a legal framework to make it easier to close down troubled banks.

Any measures aiming to reduce poverty levels among workers are primarily associated with the increase in the official wages drawn by the lower paid workers, the majority of which are women, and also with the identification and taxation of income in Russia's informal sector.

A positive sign was that in mid-year 2000, the Russian government adopted an official development strategy for the period 2000-10. The strategy identified economic policy directed at ensuring equal conditions of market competition, protecting ownership rights, eliminating administrative barriers to entrepreneurship, making the economy more open, and carrying out tax reform. The strategy identified the creation of an effective state performing the function of a guarantor of external and internal security and also of social, political, and economic stability. The strategy spoke of a "new social contract" between the more active sections of Russian society and the reformed government.

Russia's economy remains very vulnerable to external shocks and has not yet been able to develop a stable base for continued growth and poverty reduction. While the data are not yet sufficient to carefully assess the impact of the economic recovery on the enterprise sector, it appears that the rebound in the non-oil/gas traded goods sector has so far been driven by the real depreciation of the ruble and the greater availability of capital. Furthermore, there are indications that industrial growth is beginning to slow. Therefore, maintaining a realistic exchange rate, while controlling inflation, must remain a policy priority for sustaining the recovery and future growth of the real economy. Strong fiscal discipline needs to be maintained. A large swing factor is, of course, the level of capital flight, the reduction of which depends on progressive improvement in the investment climate in Russia. Finally, over the longer-term, Russia's deteriorating infrastructure is a matter of concern. Russia's basic public infrastructure—including roads, bridges, railways, ports, housing, and public facilities such as schools and hospitals—was built during the Soviet period. After independence, investment in maintenance and new construction of public infrastructure has fallen dramatically. Russia's aging physical plant is likely to become an increasing constraint to growth unless an improved investment climate can ensure substantially higher levels of investments than is presently the case.

DEPENDENCIES

Russia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Russia. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2001.

Embassy of the Russian Federation. <http://www.russianembassy.org>. Accessed October 2001.

Fedorov, Boris. "Killing with Kindness: No More 'Help' for Russia, Please." Asian Wall Street Journal. 12 June 2000.

Fischer, Stanley, and Alan Gelb. "Issues in Socialist EconomyReform." Journal of Economic Perspectives. Vol. 5, No. 4, Fall 1991.

Government of the Russian Federation. <http://www.pravitelstvo.gov.ru/english/>. Accessed June 2001.

Kornai, Janos. "Making the Transition to Private Ownership." Finance and Development. Vol. 37, No. 3, September 2000.

Lane, David Stuart. The Political Economy of Russian Oil. NewYork: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999.

Ledeneva, Alena C. Russia's Economy of Favours: Blat, Networking and Informal Exchanges. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Loungani, Prakash, and Nathan Sheets. "Central Bank Independence, Inflation and Growth in Transition Economies." Journal of Money, Credit and Banking. Vol. 29, No. 3, August 1997.

Oleh, Havrylyshyn, and John Odling-Smee. "Political Economy of Stalled Reforms." Finance & Development. Vol. 37, No. 3, September 2000.

Population Reference Bureau. "2000 World Population Data Sheet." <http://www.prb.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Other_reports/2000-2002/2001_World_Population_Data_Sheet.htm>. Accessed June 2001.

Stuart, Robert C., and Paul R. Gregory. The Russian Economy: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1995.

Varese, Federico. The Russian Mafia: Private Protection in a New Market Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

World Bank Group. "Summary: Feminization of Poverty inRussia." <http://www.worldbank.org.ru/eng/statistics/femine1/femine1_4.htm>. October 2001.

World Bank Group. "Whither Reform? Ten Years of the Transition." <http://www.worldbank.org/research/abcde/stiglitz.html>. Accessed June 2001.

—Gregory Gleason

CAPITAL:

Moscow.

MONETARY UNIT:

Ruble (R). R1 equals 100 kopeks. Coins are in denominations of R1, 2, and 5. Paper currency is in denominations of R10, 50, 100, and 500.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, wood and wood products, metals, chemicals, and a wide variety of civilian and military manufactures.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Machinery and equipment, consumer goods, medicines, meat, grain, sugar, semi-finished metal products.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$1.12 trillion (purchasing power parity, 2000 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$105.1 billion (2000 est.). Imports: US$44.2 billion (2000 est.).

RUSSIA

RUSSIA. Russian food is typically hearty in taste, with mustard, horseradish, and dill among the predominant flavorings. The cuisine is distinguished by the many fermented and preserved foods that are necessitated by the short growing season of the Russian North. Cabbage (sauerkraut) and cucumbers (pickles) are enjoyed greatly, as are a wide range of salted fish, vegetables, and meats. Fish and produce are also frequently dried or brined for lengthy storage. Foraged foods, especially mushrooms, are important to both Russian diet and culture. Although the Russians have never excelled at making hard cheeses, they prepare an expert array of fresh dairy products, such as creamy curd cheese (tvorog ) and various cultured yogurt-like preparations (riazhenka, prostokvasha ), in addition to excellent sour cream (smetana ). Honey is the traditional Russian sweetener and is used as the basis for drinks, fruit preserves, and desserts. Early condiments (known as vzvar, from the word "to boil") consisted of onions or beets cooked slowly in honey until rich and sweet.

Russian cuisine is known for its extensive repertoire of soups. The national soup (shchi ) is made from cabbage, either salted (sauerkraut) or fresh, in which case it is known as "lazy" shchi. The beet soup (borshch ) commonly associated with Russian cuisine is actually native to Ukraine, to the south of Russia; it became popular abroad following Jewish emigration from that region. Soup is traditionally served at the midday meal and is accompanied by an assortment of small pies, croutons, or dumplings. The Russian diet tends to be high in carbohydrates, with a vast array of breads, notably dark sour rye, and grains, especially buckwheat (grechnevaya kasha ).

The national cuisine is further distinguished by wonderful pies filled with myriad combinations of meat, fish, or vegetables. Prepared in all shapes and sizes, pies are both festive and a practical way to use up leftovers. The most elegant pie is, perhaps, the kulebyaka, a multilayered fish pie with thin pancakes (blinchiki ), kasha, and salmon (including the spinal marrow or viziga ) that was adopted into French cuisine as coulibiac.

Diet of the Early Slavs

Early Slavic agriculture was largely grain based. Hearty crops like rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, spelt, and millet provided the mainstay of the diet, most often in the form of gruel or baked into cakes made of meal sweetened with honey and flavored with berry juice. Although wheat was cultivated in the South, it remained of secondary importance. From the Scythians, a Eurasian tribe that roamed the steppes of southern Russian from the eighth to the fourth centuries B.C.E., the early Slavs learned how to make leavened breads, using primarily sourdough. Grains were supplemented by legumes (gorokh ), an important source of protein. Freshwater fish and wildfowl, both of which were abundant, provided additional sources of protein. Vegetable and nut oils (especially hempseed and linseed), foraged mushrooms and berries, and orchard fruits such as cherries, pears, plums, and apples supplemented the largely carbohydrate diet. Also critical were cultivated vegetables, including turnips, beets, radishes, onions, garlic, cabbage, and cucumbers. Turnips were an important staple until the widespread (and enforced) cultivation of the potato in the nineteenth century. Given the geographical limitations on agriculture, much of the population lived in a state between hunger and starvation, and up through the twentieth century Russia experienced frequent famines.

The earliest domestic livestock included cows, pigs, sheep, and goats; chicken, ducks, geese; turkey was introduced somewhat later. Butter was traditionally prepared from cow's milk by heating sour cream, rather than by churning it from sweet cream, a method the Russians learned only in the eighteenth century from the Finns.

By the twelfth century the Russians were already boiling down salt from water from the White Sea, but salt remained an expensive commodity that only the wealthy could afford. Even those who could afford salt used it sparingly. A seventeenth-century German visitor Adam Olearius, complained that "in Moscow, they use coarse salt fish, which sometimes stinks because they are thrifty with the salt. Nevertheless, they like to eat it." In general, the affluent had a plentiful assortment of fish, meat, fruits, vegetables, and grains, a diet that contrasted greatly with the meager rations of most of the population, who subsisted on little more than oatmeal gruel (tolokno ) and rye bread. Although the soil around Moscow and in the south of Russia yielded excellent produce, the growing season was short, and most people did not have access to a variety of foods.

Cooking Methods

Apart from the methods used for preserving food, boiling and baking were the most common ways of preparing foods (frying and grilling were also practiced). By 1600 rich and poor alike were cooking food in the Russian masonry stove (pech' ), which was massive enough to take up nearly one-quarter of a peasant cottage. This stove defined the living space, demarcating the female and male spheres of the room into the cooking area (female) to the left of the hearth, and the icon-dominated "beautiful corner" (male) to the right. The earliest stoves had no flue, causing smoke to issue directly into the cottage; more prosperous families replaced these "black" stoves with more refined "white" stoves fitted with chimney pipes. Russian peasants generally believed that the stove held mystical powers, with a house spirit (domovoi ) residing beneath or behind it.

Food could be prepared in many different ways on the stove—boiled, baked, steamed, roasted, and braised. Many of Russia's most typical dishes reflected the specific properties of the stove, which blazed and was very hot after firing and then gradually diminished in the intensity of its heat. Breads and pies were baked when the oven was still very hot, either right in the fire's ashes or immediately after they had been scraped out. Once the temperature began to fall, grain dishes could cook in the diminishing heat, which ensured that porridges were crusty on top and creamy within. As the oven's heat continued to subside, the stove was ideal for the braised vegetables and slow-cooked stews that represent the best of Russian cooking. Dairy products were cultured in any residual oven heat.

Whether the medieval Russian diet was varied or sparse, the cooking methods for rich and poor were nearly analogous. Although Tsar Peter the Great introduced the cooktop (plita ) from Holland in the eighteenth century, and metal stoves became common in urban dwellings in the nineteenth century, the Russian stove remained in use in the countryside well into the twentieth century.

Influence of the Russian Orthodox Church

In 988 Grand Prince Vladimir of Kievan Russia adopted Christianity for his people. Many of the existing pagan celebrations, such as those marking the seasonal solstices, were transformed into religious holidays like Christmas and Easter. The Orthodox Church had a profound influence on the Russian diet, dividing the year into feast days (skoromnyi ) and fast days (postnyi ). The latter accounted for approximately 180 days of the year. The fast periods largely coincided with times in the agricultural year when food supplies were running low. Most Russians took fasting seriously, strictly following the proscriptions against meat and dairy products. In addition to meatless Wednesdays and Fridays, the Russians also observed extended fasts, the most important of which were the Great Lenten Fast (forty days, plus one week, Passion Week, which precedes Easter), the Christmas or Filippov Fast (the six weeks preceding Christmas), the Fast of Saints Peter and Paul (beginning in late May or June and lasting from one to six weeks, depending on when Easter fell); and the Fast of the Dormition (two weeks in August). On the most stringent fast days (Lent and the Dormition Fast), even fish and vegetable oil were forbidden. Generally, the poorer the household, the more devoutly it fasted, since meat and dairy products were at best scarce even on non–fast days. For the wealthy, fasting did not necessarily mean deprivation. A mid-seventeenth-century state dinner given on a fast day for the English ambassador Carlisle offered no fewer than five hundred dishes, not one of which was made with meat products. Throughout the nineteenth century, cookbooks offered suggestions for both feast day and fast day meals. In addition to recipes for fish and vegetarian dishes, the cookbooks provided information on substituting nut oils and almond milk for dairy products in cooking and baking.

Holidays and Ritual Foods

Numerous feast days compensated for the stringent fasts. Feasts were held in celebration of weddings, funerals, and the name days of saints, which the Russians observed instead of birthdays. Many religious holidays were also considered feast days. Just before the rigorous Lenten fast came Butter Week (Maslenitsa ), similar to Mardi Gras, except that it lasted a full week. Although no meat was allowed, the Russians consumed excessive amounts of dairy products, most often in the form of blinies. These traditional yeast-raised pancakes, made with buckwheat or wheat flour, are porous enough to soak up plenty of melted butter. Topped with caviar, smoked fish, pickled herring, or sometimes jam, the bliny can be traced back to pagan times, when the early Slavs baked round pancakes in the image of the sun to welcome its return at winter's end.

Easter is the most important holiday in the Russian Orthodox year. Throughout Easter week a table is kept laden with food. The two most traditional foods are kulich, a tall loaf of bread enriched with eggs, butter, sugar, and candied fruits, glazed with confectioners' sugar, and often topped with a rose; and paskha, fresh farmer's cheese mixed with cream and butter and molded into a pyramid shape. Raisins or nuts are used to decorate it with the letters XB for "Christ is Risen."

Virtually every festive occasion calls for a special bread. Pies, such as an elaborate chicken pie layered with vegetables (kurnik ), are served at weddings; a sweet, pretzel-shaped loaf (krendel' ) is traditional for name days; and animal-shaped buns are distributed to Christmas revelers. These buns, as well as the lark-shaped breads baked to celebrate the return of the birds in spring, predate the Christian era. Other breads, such as one baked in the shape of a ladder for the holiday of the Ascension, have Christian roots. Kut'ia, which is a dish of wheat berries sweetened with honey and flavored with dried fruits or nuts, is traditionally served at funeral repasts.

The Tradition of Hospitality

The Russian word for hospitality (khlebosol'stvo ) derives from the words for bread (khleb ) and salt (sol' ). Taken together, they mean a regalement with that which is most basic to life, and that which is a luxury. A large, round loaf milled from the finest flour (karavai ) was traditionally presented as a symbol of hospitality or was offered to newlyweds as a housewarming gift. The loaf often had an indentation in the top crust to hold a small dish of salt. The act of honoring guests lies at the heart of the Russian national identity. As counseled by the Domostroi, a sixteenth-century manual that teaches household management and piety, guests are sacred; by receiving them well, you also serve God. One should offer guests are the very best food available. The Russians took this advice to heart: even the poorest households did not turn strangers away.

The sharing of bread was ritualized in the practice of "begging for crusts," which occurred whenever food shortages threatened the peasantry. Unlike simple begging, which was looked down upon, "begging for crusts" was accepted as part of the natural order: each peasant family knew that the situation could be reversed, and next time they might be the ones in need of food after a bad harvest.

In medieval Russia hospitality to foreigners was expressed through the institution of the podacha, a ritualized presentation of food. Privileged guests at the tsar's palace were given confectionery items to bring home at the end of each feast; the amount given was determined by the person's rank. Anyone unable to attend the festivities might have the podacha delivered to his residence by couriers, who would parade through the streets of Moscow in a display of the tsar's power and largesse.

Today, the hissing samovar or tea urn is the acknowledged symbol of Russian hospitality, ready to serve unexpected guests at a moment's notice. However, this tradition is relatively recent, as use of the samovar became widespread only in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Alcohol Consumption

The Primary Chronicle, Russia's earliest historical record, relates that Grand Prince Vladimir proclaimed "Drinking is the joy of Rus' " when he chose Christianity over Islam, which forbids the consumption of alcohol. From the earliest times the Russians enjoyed alcoholic beverages, especially mead, a fermented honey wine flavored with berries and herbs; kvas, a mildly alcoholic beverage made from fermented bread or grain; berezovitsa, lightly fermented birch juice; and beer. Distilled spirits, in the form of vodka, appeared only in the fifteenth century, introduced from Poland and the Baltic region. Vodka was originally used for medicinal purposes, but it gradually displaced the older beverages in popularity, and by the seventeenth century spirits were already causing social problems. Because the high taxes on vodka filled the state coffers, the government was not eager to curtail use of the substance (a few privileged noblemen were given the right to produce vodka, but the government basically had a monopoly on its production). In the late nineteenth century the famous chemist Dmitri Mendeleev set the optimal alcoholic content of vodka at 40 percent spirits diluted with distilled water. Commercial producers capitalized on Mendeleev's pronouncement, and Russia has been known ever since for its excellent vodka.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible established the first taverns (kabaki ) in the sixteenth century by for the sole benefit of his elite guards. Since then the government has vacillated between strict and lax approaches to vodka consumption, at times encouraging it to build up the state treasury and ease public unrest, at other times curtailing access to the drink. Tsar Peter the Great was known to ply his guests with drink in order to find out what was really going on at court, and he himself engaged in drinking binges that lasted for days at a time. More recently, in the Soviet era, two Communist leaders, Yuri Andropov and Mikhail Gorbachev, attempted to control access to vodka. Their ill-fated attempts caused widespread discontent, as well as severe shortages of sugar, which people purchased in bulk to produce moonshine.

Eastern Influence on Russian Cuisine

In 945 Russia, though still not unified, initiated trade with Constantinople, the seat of the Byzantine Empire. In exchange for honey and furs, the Russians received rice, spices, and wines. In 1237 the Mongols invaded the Russian principalities, and for nearly two hundred years Russia had to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. The occupation was not without culinary benefits. The Mongols reopened the ancient trade routes between China and the West, which had become too dangerous due to frequent tribal wars. Foods introduced along these routes included noodles and cultured milk products such as koumiss, the fermented mare's milk drunk by Turkic nomads.

With Russia's conquest of the Volga region in the mid-sixteenth century, the Russians were able to trade for spices like pepper, saffron, cinnamon, and ginger, as well as rhubarb, which became an extremely lucrative export crop. Also from the Volga region came sweet watermelons from Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, and increased access to sturgeon, sterlet, and caviar from the Caspian Sea.

Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible; 1530–1584) led a series of Eastern campaigns to subjugate the khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Tatar Bashkiria; in 1582 he also annexed Siberia. This eastward expansion introduced the Russians to pel'meni, wonton-like pockets of boiled dough filled with ground meat and onions. The Russians serve these dumplings either with vinegar and mustard or with butter and sour cream. Pel'meni are frequently made in large quantities at the beginning of winter and kept frozen outdoors in a bag, ready for boiling into a quick meal. Exotic fresh and dried fruits were also introduced from the East, and raisins and dried apricots have held a prominent place in Russian cuisine ever since.

Tea also arrived in Russia by way of Siberia. As early as 1567 emissaries from Ivan IV had spoken of this strange brew, but it wasn't until 1638 that tea found its way to the royal court. The signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 established regular trade between Russia and China. From then on tea became a valuable commodity, although until the nineteenth century tea drinking was largely confined to Moscow's urban population.

With the expansion of the Russian Empire into the Caucasus and central Asia, beginning in the late eighteenth century and continuing under Soviet rule, dishes from Eastern cuisines entered into the Russian repertoire. From Georgia came grilled meats (shashlyki ), flattened chicken cooked under a brick (tabaka ), and herbed kidney beans (lobio ); from Armenia came flat bread (lavash ); from Azerbaijan, ground lamb kebabs (lyulya-kebab ); from Tatar Crimea, fried meat pies (chebureki ); from Uzbekistan, rice pilaf (plov ) and dumplings (manty ); and from Kyrgyzstan, lamb and noodle stew (lagman ).

The Era of Muscovy

During the era of Muscovy (from the fourteenth to early eighteenth centuries) the disparity between rich and poor became firmly established, resulting in two very different cuisines. The poor ate little more than bread, gruel, and soup made from vegetables and grains. The wealthy, on the other hand, ate so lavishly that foreign visitors like the French envoy Foy de la Neuville, on a 1689 visit, declared them gluttons. Foreigners generally considered the Russians uncivilized, not only due to their prodigious appetites, but also due to the pleasure they so openly expressed from their meals via belching and other bodily sounds.

The wealthy indulged in feasts that lasted for hours. Pickled or salted beef, ham, suckling pig, elk, boar, lamb, and rabbit all appeared on the table. Swan was considered the most luxurious of birds, although the wealthy also enjoyed crane, heron, black grouse, hazel hen, partridge, lark, goose, duck, and chicken. Veal was rarely consumed, and the Russian Orthodox Church forbade eating doves, since the birds symbolized the Holy Spirit. Hot and cold soups, noodle dishes, roasts, and sauces were seasoned with onion, garlic, pepper, saffron, and sometimes savory. The combination of sweet and sour so typical of medieval foods throughout Europe was especially compatible with Russian tastes. Rich, dark swan meat was often served with vinegar or a combination of sour milk, pickles, and prunes.

The tsar's table was furnished year-round with fish from distant waters, transported whole or in pieces, fresh or salted, or brined in barrels. Sturgeon and sterlet were brought live in tanks from the Caspian Sea to Moscow; whitefish came from Lake Ladoga; and several varieties of salmon were sent overland from the Kolsk Peninsula in the far North. Pike, bream, perch, pike-perch, and many other sorts of excellent fish were caught in the rivers and ponds around Moscow.

Eighteenth-Century Reforms

The reforms carried out by Peter I (the Great; 1672–1725) affected virtually every aspect of Russian life. Upper-class women, who had previously lived in seclusion, were allowed into male company and could eat at the same table as men. Peter introduced napkins from Holland (until his reign, tables had been covered with short cloths, the edges of which were used to wipe the hands and mouth while eating). Since large joints of meat were carved and served in small pieces at table, several people would generally share forks and knives among them, but Peter encouraged the use of individual twopronged forks.

In the kitchen, the most significant development for Russian cuisine was the introduction of the Dutch range, which, contrary to the traditional Russian stove, relied on a cooktop more than on oven chambers. This change necessitated more labor-intensive cooking methods as well as new utensils. Saucepans, for instance, replaced the customary earthenware pots.

Peter was eager to acquaint Russians with new foodstuffs and culinary methods that he had learned on his extensive travels. From Holland he imported not only hothouse vegetables and fruits (pineapples became a particular Russian passion), but also aged cheeses, which the Russians did not know how to make. He sought grape varietals that could thrive in southern Russia and placed the two-centuries-old Astrakhan winery under the supervision of a French vintner to increase its quality and production.

In 1712 the imperial court moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg. The design of the commercial center (Gostinyi dvor ) incorporated a canal right in the building so that boats could unload their wares on site. Petersburg's significant foreign population influenced the city's eating habits, and foods such as waffles and artichokes found welcome reception. Furthermore, the young Russian men whom Peter had sent abroad to further their education returned with new tastes. Seeking more variety in their diet, they began to import exotic foods. When Peter hired a Saxon as his private chef, the nobility soon followed suit. Thus Russia's first foreign chefs came primarily from Saxony, Bavaria, and Austria.

Because the founding of Saint Petersburg had caused trade to decline at the far northern port of Archangel on the White Sea, in 1721 Peter issued an ukaze ordering his people to eat ocean fish. Previously the Russians had used only freshwater fish from rivers and lakes, and many were suspicious of such strange species as cod, whiting, and mackerel.

French Influence on Russian Cuisine

The culinary changes wrought during Peter's thirty-six-year reign were so great that by the time his daughter Elizabeth seized the throne in 1741, lemons and oranges were no longer a luxury, and English beer was in greater vogue than traditional Russian brews. As the century progressed, more and more European influences came to bear on traditional Russian methods. The vocabulary introduced into Russian over the course of the eighteenth century reveals influences from the Dutch, German, English, and ultimately French cuisines. By the close of the eighteenth century, food in the homes of the wealthy was unabashedly French, and Russia's most affluent families employed French chefs, whose style supplanted the Germanic influences of Peter's era.

With so much foreign influence, Russian cuisine lost its simple national character and became increasingly complex. By the end of century, meat was cut into small pieces that demanded complicated handling, as opposed to the large joints of meat that had been roasted or braised in the great Russian stove, or grilled on a spit. As the nineteenth century drew near, many French dining habits were firmly entrenched in Russia, although sometimes with a Russian twist. One practice that came into vogue among the aristocracy was the open table, at which any nobleman, invited or not, was welcome to dine. The conservative prince Mikhail Shcherbatov, in his treatise On the Corruption of Morals in Russia, complained that the nobility's excessive socializing at table led to moral deterioration. He was troubled that the nobility gave so little thought to the relationship between the food served and the religious obligations underlying it. Even so, Peter the Great's reforms and the subsequent refinements to the table broadened and polished Russian cuisine. Adapting western trends to their own needs and tastes, the Russians ultimately made their table quite sophisticated.

Table Service and Meal Times

The Russian peasantry ate their meager fare from a communal bowl, with each individual wielding his or her own spoon. The wealthy, however, sat down to a vastly different table, which was also distinct from its European counterparts. By the seventeenth century society meals throughout Europe were served in the style known as service à la française, which meant that for each course, all of the foods were set out on the table, ranked according to size and symmetrically arranged. The Russians ate in a manner that came to be known as service à la russe (it eventually replaced the French style of service in Europe in the late nineteenth century). Here the table was not previously laid with the foods for each course. Instead, each dish was brought individually to the table and presented with fanfare before being removed to the kitchen or sideboard for carving. Each diner received a portioned serving, which ensured that the food was still hot and at the peak of freshness. Furthermore, diners were not limited to the foods located within reach. The drawback of service à la russe was that it entailed a large and well-trained staff.

Under Peter the Great, the multicourse banquets typical of the Muscovite era began to evolve into the sequence of four courses that is familiar today. Peter's war with Sweden and his travels in Holland resulted in the introduction of the lavish zakuska (hors d'oeuvres) table that has become the hallmark of Russian cuisine. Adapted from the Swedish smorgasbord, an array of salted and smoked foods, including caviar, salmon, sturgeon, herring, pickles, and ham, is offered before the main course. Open-faced sandwiches with meat or cheese reflect a direct borrowing from Dutch practice. After the zakuski, soup is served, then a main course, followed by dessert.

Meal times were rather flexible. The wealthy, having no immediate tasks to attend to, often slept late and did not have breakfast until mid-morning. The main meal of the day (obed ) took place at around 2:00 P.M., followed by a late-afternoon collation or tea, then supper between 8:00 and 10:00 P.M. Peasant families had more structured mealtimes. Breakfast (zavtrak ) was typically eaten at 5:00 or 6:00 A.M., followed by the so-called second breakfast (vtoroi zavtrak ) at around 10:00 A.M., providing a break from the day's labors. Dinner was eaten any time between 12:00 and 2:00 P.M., with a midday snack (poldnik ) at 4:00 or 5:00 P.M. Supper (uzhin ) was generally served at 8:00 P.M., and, after tea drinking became an established custom in the late nineteenth century, tea (chai ) often followed. For those who could afford a variety of foods, the Russian breakfast was a hearty affair, complete with porridge (often buckwheat or semolina), smoked or pickled fish, and eggs or pancakes. The main meal of the day was still not considered complete without a soup course before the entrée.

Revolutionary Changes

The indulgent lifestyle of the aristocracy and gentry came to an abrupt end with the Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent establishment of the Soviet Union. The new Bolshevik government undertook a radical transformation of social life, promoting as one of their platforms the liberation of women from kitchen drudgery. To this end, vast communal dining facilities ("factory kitchens") were set up. However, because the food was bad, and most families did not like the impersonal cafeteria style of these facilities, the experiment ultimately failed. What did take hold, however, were communal kitchens in urban houses that had been requisitioned by the government. The great influx of people into the cities following the Revolution of 1917 caused a housing shortage that led to the creation of communal apartments, with sometimes as many as a dozen families sharing a kitchen. Communal kitchens, some of which still exist, contributed to the disintegration of family life and created social tensions.

The political and economic turmoil of the Civil War (1917–1922), coupled with drought in the Volga region, caused a severe famine between 1921 and 1922, in which nearly half a million people died. But this loss of life is small in comparison to the many millions who perished during Joseph Stalin's enforced collectivization of agriculture, which he carried out between 1929 and 1934, especially in Ukraine. Under this policy, private farms were destroyed and agriculture organized into state-run collective farms (kolkhozy ). Collectivization proved disastrous for Soviet agriculture, as it was inefficient and discouraged personal initiative. The Soviet Union was forced to import much of its grain from the United States and Canada and frequently suffered from food deficits.

The Soviet Era

The Soviet Union was never a fully egalitarian society. Most of the populace subsisted on a monotonous diet of poor-quality food, but the government and cultural elite had access to special stores and goods, so they were able to eat well. Although the government ensured that no one went hungry (all factory workers, for instance, received a free lunch at state expense), the average diet was not especially nutritious, as it was low in fresh fruits and vegetables.

The Soviet period was marked by extraordinary hardship. Following collectivization and the political purges of the late 1930s, the Russians endured World War II, also known as the Great Patriotic War. During the Siege of Leningrad (1941–1944), which lasted for nearly nine hundred days, roughly one million people died of starvation. At the most critical point in the siege, the bread ration for factory workers was only 250 grams (8.8 ounces) a day, 125 grams (4.4 ounces) for all others, with no other food available. Leningraders resorted to eating whatever they could scavenge from the city or find in their apartments, including tooth powder, Vaseline, glycerine, cologne, wallpaper paste scraped from the walls, flour dust collected from cracks in the kitchen floorboards, and spattered grease that was licked from the kitchen walls.

Although life stabilized after the war, the Soviet era was generally characterized by a low standard of living. Shopping was especially difficult, with long lines even for basic foodstuffs. There was very little variety. When socalled deficit items did suddenly appear, shoppers had to stand in line for hours. The vocabulary reflected this reality: products were "obtained" (dostat' ) rather than "bought" (kupit' ). Because of the hierarchy of food distribution, country dwellers flooded daily into Moscow, increasing the crowds and further limiting availability.

The state food stores had very little to offer, but decent foodstuffs could be purchased at the farmers' markets, where entrepreneurs from Georgia, Armenia, and central Asia sold lemons, melons, and high-quality meat and produce, often at steep prices. To survive, most Soviet citizens became adept at working the unofficial barter economy, and they knew how to take advantage of the black market. Restaurants were few; those that existed frequently offered only one item from their menu and subjected diners to surly service. Therefore most Russians ate at home. The Soviet-era kitchen table became the site of the most important social interactions, where information was exchanged, poetry recited, politics argued, friendships expressed. Despite the food shortages, the difficulty of shopping, and the cramped living space, Russians still took pride in being generous toward their guests, and the tradition of hospitality endured.

Post-Soviet Russia

The Soviet Union was officially disbanded at the end of 1991. The following year saw the introduction of stringent market reforms, which brought economic hardship to the general population. With a safety net no longer in place, beggars appeared on the streets. The countryside, in particular, suffered from insufficient food. Russia's economic problems were exacerbated by the crash of 1998, when the ruble lost two-thirds of its value. Still, the Russians are a resourceful people, and in the early twenty-first century the economy was back on its feet.

The collapse of the Soviet state initially brought a rash of investors to Russia, and numerous fast-food chains, such as McDonald's, gained a foothold. In response to so many Western imports, a feeling of national pride gradually emerged, and domestic chains like Russkoye Bistro began to compete with the foreign establishments. Homegrown products again appeared on the market when the economic turmoil of the 1990s caused many foreign firms to leave. Once the economy stabilized, many restaurants opened that offered expensive and elegant pre-Revolutionary fare, nostalgic country-style cooking, and ethnic cuisine. After seventy years of isolation under Soviet rule, the populace was eager to experiment with new tastes.

With the appearance of self-service grocery stores, shopping was simplified, and it was no longer necessary to stand in line for food. However, one might question whether shrink-wrapped tomatoes imported from the Canary Islands represent progress when locally grown produce can be bought at the market or at curbside kiosks. The slick grocery stores with their aisles of imported goods and the expensive restaurants were status symbols for the wealthy class of New Russians who had money to spare: the majority could not afford them. These New Russians also bought food magazines (unheard of during the Soviet era) and cookbooks: both the French Cordon Bleu cooking course and the Hare Krishna Book of Vegetarian Cooking were translated into Russian. Young Russians became increasingly aware of diet and nutrition, the down side being that eating disorders began to appear.

Meanwhile, average Russians could only admire the glossy publications and the wide variety of foods, which were beyond their means. Police in a number of cities have had to put Operation Harvest into effect to protect the potato fields—which were now private property—from hungry poachers. Significantly, the consumerism of the moneyed class was balanced by a return to spiritual values, as many Russians once again expressed their identity through the foods they choose either to eat or forego.

See also Asia, Central ; Central Europe ; Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Christianity ; Food as a Weapon of War ; France ; Siberia .

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Darra Goldstein

Caviar

The Russians were the first to develop a caviar industry based on the several varieties of sturgeon that they fished, and the world's best caviar still comes from the Caspian Sea. The thirteenth-century court of Grand Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod had a special sturgeon master to oversee the procurement, preparation, and serving of sturgeon. The roe was particularly relished. (Although Russians consider sturgeon roe the finest, they also enjoy the eggs from such fish as burbot, white salmon, pike, carp, and grayling, although technically this roe is not considered caviar.)

Making caviar is extremely labor-intensive, as the fish eggs are both fragile and perishable. The roe must be extracted by hand, then kept cold during processing (generally at 28°–32°F [–2°–0°C]) to keep it fresh. Salt is added to lower the temperature at which the eggs will freeze, as well as to help preserve them. The best fresh caviar, which contains roughly 4 percent salt, is known as malosol ("little salt" in Russian). Today, for exports to Europe, the Russians also add a small amount of borax to the roe, which works as a preservative and reduces the need for salt. Borax gives the eggs a slightly sweeter taste and makes them a bit oilier. Russia omits the borax for caviar imported into the United States, which prohibits the sale of borax-treated eggs.

The flavor and quality of caviar depend on the type of sturgeon it is taken from. The most common types, in decreasing order of size, are beluga, osetra, and sevruga. Beluga sturgeon can weigh over two thousand pounds; its roe is a pearly gray and has a very subtle flavor. Many Russians prefer the strong flavor of payusnaya or pressed caviar, made from eggs that have been broken in processing or from very mature eggs pressed into a concentrate the consistency of thick jam.

Caviar was standard fare for the wealthy on the numerous fast days dictated by the Russian Orthodox Church, when meat and dairy products were proscribed. Medieval Russians often left the roe in the egg sac. They seasoned it with salt and pepper, then dusted it with flour and fried it, serving an onion, cranberry, or saffron sauce on the side. Sometimes they offered the cooked caviar cold, cut into slices and flavored with an herb vinegar or mustard sauce. For the Muscovite dish kal'ia, pressed caviar was cut into thin rounds, then placed in an earthenware pot with chopped onion, pepper, pickles, pickle brine, and water. This mixture was steamed in the Russian stove, with additional pepper added upon serving. Nineteenth-century culinary fashion called for slicing pressed caviar and serving it in a napkin as "serviette caviar." Elena Molokhovets, Russia's Mrs. Beeton, suggested a more practical use for pressed caviar. In her classic cookbook, A Gift to Young Housewives, she explains how to clarify bouillon with pressed caviar, using onequarter pound of the caviar in place of two egg whites.

By the mid-nineteenth century the finest sturgeon caviar had become rare enough that it was generally served unadorned. Astrakhan caviar, with its large, gray grains, was considered the ultimate roe. It was served on toast points or mounded in a pyramid and decorated with lemon wedges with croutons on the side. Late-nineteenth-century cookbooks sometimes cautioned against buying caviar with a greenish tinge, which was caused by treatment with a dye containing copper salts.

All varieties of sturgeon are endangered, due to environmental pollution and poaching (there is a thriving black market in caviar in southern Russia). The political and economic chaos that afflicted Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union caused many foreign purveyors to turn to Iran for the highest quality caviar. Now, in order to keep up with world demand for the roe, scientists are experimenting with farm-raised sturgeon, particularly in the Caspian waters belonging to Kazakhstan.

RUSSIA

RUSSIA. Russia emerged as a state at the end of the fifteenth century on the northeastern periphery of Europe, with a thin population spread over the forest belt of the east European plain. Never having seen either feudalism or serfdom, its society was different from that of western Europe. Its Christianity came from Byzantium, which further set it apart from its western neighbors. During the sixteenth to eighteenth century Russian society changed rapidly, with the appearance of serfdom, economic growth, and expansion south into the steppe and east to Siberia. The Russian state grew in size and sophistication, especially after the reign of Peter I the Great (ruled 1682–1725). Peter inaugurated a vast cultural revolution, bringing European secular culture to Russia and thus including Russia in the circle of European civilization.

GROWTH OF THE STATE

The core of the Russian state was the Moscow principality, which gained control of the original Russian ethnographic territory with the annexation of Novgorod (1478), Pskov (1510), and other neighboring regions. Essentially a household state managed by a few secretaries and the boyar elite, the Russian state began to acquire the trappings of state administration in the reign of Ivan IV, "the Terrible" (ruled 1533–1584). The growth of the state in the center was not matched by a corresponding development in local administration. The abolition of "feeding," direct payments in kind from local areas to provincial governors, occurred in the 1540s. From then on the treasury paid local officials, but tax collection remained largely in the purview of the local communities, which collected the dues as a service to the crown. Thus the grand claims of the tsars to autocracy met very sharp limits in the small size and limited competence of administration, especially local administration.

In the seventeenth century the central apparatus grew swiftly, reaching some two thousand officials and scribes by the 1680s. Again provincial administration lagged behind, with huge areas managed only by a governor with a staff of some five to ten clerks and scribes and little or no armed force. Even the cadastres that registered landholdings and tax obligations of the rural population were compiled almost entirely on the bases of the village communities' own reports of their population and holdings. These cadastres allowed the state to collect an annual tax on peasant households, mainly to support the army. The collections were also in the hands of the village communities, which meant that collection was slow and often in arrears. The state did have some more effective tools for raising revenue, such as the sales tax and the vodka monopoly. Older systems persisted, such as the expectations that musketeers would live partly from trade and handicrafts and that the gentry cavalry would live from their estates, both serving in the military only during the summer months. These methods were enough to ensure Russia success in some wars and expansion to the south and east. At the same time the state had little effective control over the countryside. Confronted with popular unrest, as in 1604–1605, 1648–1650, and 1671–1672 (the great Cossack revolt of Stepan Razin), the tsar could do little more than call out the army and hope that it could restore order.

Administrative reform. Ultimately, the existing forms proved inadequate in the face of the larger aims of Peter the Great. Peter transformed the Russian state. After several experiments, he established the Senate to coordinate government and take the routine tasks away from the tsar, eleven colleges or ministries headed by a committee for central administration, a reorganized local administration, and the Table of Ranks (1722) to regulate promotions and status in the army and civil service. His army was a permanent body, living in barracks and ready to fight at any time of the year. He shifted the burden of taxes further onto the peasantry by the introduction of the "soul tax," levied on individuals, not households. He attempted to increase the size and effectiveness of provincial administration, but here he was less successful. Some of his measures in this area had to be rescinded as too complex and expensive.

Catherine II the Great (ruled 1762–1796) and her son Paul I (ruled 1796–1801) continued the reordering of the state along European lines. Catherine redrew internal boundaries into more easily administered provinces, increasing the size and rationalizing the structure of provincial governments. She also introduced modest participation by the gentry into the judicial system, as well as similar forms of participation in the courts for the urban elites. Her Charter to the Nobility (1785) specified the rights and obligations of the gentry, for the first time introducing such formulations into Russian legislation. The outcome was a great increase in efficiency in the provinces, but the neglect of the central administration. Her son Paul recentralized government in the 1790s. Both reigns prepared the way for a more modern central state after 1801. The result was a relatively modern government in St. Petersburg, still resting on thin foundations in the provinces. If to a lesser extent than in the sixteenth century, the autocracy of the tsars still meant grand claims and more limited reality. Society was only in part subject to state direction.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY

For the whole of the early modern period Russia remained an agrarian society. In the sixteenth century Russian peasants inhabited settlements often of two to four small households, widely scattered along the rivers and lakes of the central and northern forest zones. While the peasants of the center and northwest cultivated grain and raised livestock in modest quantities, northern peasants derived most of their livelihood from hunting and selling furs and obtaining other forest products as well as preparing salt from saline springs. The life of the Russian peasantry changed fundamentally at the end of the sixteenth century with the appearance of serfdom. Unfortunately little is known about the process and causes of enserfment. The law regulated only peasant movement, at first allowing landlords to bring back peasants who left the estates within five years, but by 1649 allowing them to do so in perpetuity. The restrictions on peasant mobility, though difficult to enforce in practice, corresponded to the state's need for a stable tax base and populated land to reward the gentry cavalrymen.

By the mid-seventeenth century a bit over half of the Russian peasants were serfs of secular landlords, about a fifth serfs of the monasteries and bishops, and another fifth, concentrated in the north, the Urals, the Volga region, Siberia, and the southern border, remained free and normally without gentry or ecclesiastical landlords. The north prospered in these years, especially as the increasing trade with Holland and England opened new markets for furs and other forest products and the expansion of population in Russia itself meant a growing market for salt. The population of Russia grew rapidly after recovery from the Time of Troubles (1598–1613), reaching about eleven million by the 1670s. Much of the increase came from colonization of new land in the south and the Volga region.

Among the peasants of Russia who were not serfs, nearly half were also non-Russian in ethnicity. The largest groups lived in the middle Volga region, the descendants of the peoples of the Kazan' Tatar khanate. The Muslim Tatars lived in villages around Kazan', while the Bashkir pastoralists occupied the steppe to their southeast toward the southern Urals. To the north, east, and west of these Turkic-speaking peoples were other, smaller Turkic and Finnic groups, animists in religion. All of them paid a tax to the state called yasak and were not enserfed. Similarly, the incorporation of the Ukrainian Cossack Hetmanate into Russia as an autonomous unit brought in Ukrainian peasants who were legally free (mainly as Cossacks), and more than half of whom also owned their own land.

Among peasants and townspeople, households were small, comprising the nuclear family and occasionally a relative. Better-off townspeople and northern peasants might have a servant or two in addition, while the nobles maintained large staffs of house servants, artisans, and stewards. Some of the latter were bondsmen in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, a status that merged with serfdom in the early eighteenth century. The greatest aristocrats maintained huge establishments in Moscow, with hundreds of servants as well as a large body of administrators for their vast estates. Toward the very end of the seventeenth century the aristocrats began to build the first country houses, mostly within a few hours' ride of Moscow.

The ruling elite of Russia was organized in a system of court and military ranks, at the top being the Duma ranks—boyar; okol'nichii, a sort of junior boyar; Duma gentleman; and Duma secretary—in all about a hundred men from some two hundred families by 1600. They formed the pinnacle of the sovereign's court, and in turn the core of the Moscow ranked gentry. Below them were the provincial gentry, organized for purposes of military service around provincial towns or forts, more or less coinciding with residence and landholding patterns. Men with Duma ranks, especially the two highest, held all important household positions at the court, military commands, and provincial governorships, and in the seventeenth century also headed almost all chanceries (prikazy). Immensely wealthy, the boyars also provided the inner circle of advisers, formally through the Duma or tsar's council and informally as friends or favorites of the tsar. Other than the tsar's relatives by marriage, powerful men from outside this circle were extremely rare.

In elite families women were secluded in separate parts of the houses and did not join in the all-male banquets that were the staple of elite socialization. Women of all classes were expected to dress modestly, in the voluminous traditional Russian clothing and with their hair covered, and to obey fathers and husbands. But women also owned and managed property, including tax obligations to the state. This was particularly true of the mothers and wives of the gentry, whose men were often away with the army every summer for years in a row. In merchant families the men traveled to distant markets while the women stayed home and ran the business as well as the household.

Social control. The inability of the state to regulate social life to the extent of Western societies placed a premium on various forms of communal solidarity. The urban and peasant communities collected taxes themselves and judged many petty crimes and civil disputes. The absence of any police or military force over large areas meant that even serious crimes (murder, rape, banditry) were often left to local communities, rather than to state authorities as required by law. The local communities had a conception of what sort of actions by administrators were incorrect and petitioned the tsar or revolted if these were violated. Sometimes state and community norms coincided. Many disputes over slander, verbal arguments, and insults were settled in state courts as disputes over honor. Everyone in the Russian state, even slaves and serfs, had honor, and an insult to that honor was punished by fines or, if the victim was higher in rank, by beating, prison, or various rituals of humiliation. Repeated violations of the community and state norms of honor put the offender outside the protection of his neighbors, as did witchcraft (the majority of accused witches were male).

RELIGION AND CULTURE

Until the very end of the seventeenth century, culture in Russia was essentially equivalent to religion. Though the predecessors of the Russian princes had received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, Russia did not inherit the secular culture of Byzantium, with its ancient Greek classics. The language of the church was not Greek but Church Slavonic, a dialect of early medieval Bulgaria. Thus the religious literature of Russia had its foundation in Slavonic translations of the church fathers and some later Byzantine theological and devotional literature.

Until 1448 the Orthodox church in Russia was under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople, who appointed the metropolitan of Kiev and later of Moscow. Most of the metropolitans were thus Greeks or southern Slavs, and the Moscow princes had little say in their appointment. At the council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1445), however, the Greek metropolitan of Moscow, Isidoros, went over to Rome, and the Russian church and the Moscow prince deposed him, appointing the Russian Iona in his place. The Orthodox church thus became in fact autocephalous. Even after the restoration of Orthodoxy in Constantinople, the Russians continued to select their own metropolitan. Conflicts between the princes and tsars and the metropolitans were inevitable, especially as the tsars tried to increase their power over the church in the course of the centuries. If Metropolitan Makarii was an ally to Ivan the Terrible, his successors were expected to obey, and Metropolitan Filipp was murdered for opposing Ivan in 1569. The elevation of the metropolitan to the rank of patriarch by the Greeks in 1589 regularized Russia's relations with the Greek church, but the new patriarch, Iov, was very much the tsar's man.

Structurally the church in Russia differed in some ways from the Byzantine model. In place of the many small eparchies in the former Byzantium, the sees of Russian bishops were very extensive, and bishops were few in number and controlled little landed wealth, except for the metropolitan (later patriarch) of Moscow. The monasteries, in contrast, were as great and wealthy as those of the Greeks, if not more so. Collectively they were the lord of at least a fifth of the peasantry, more in central Russia. They were also the spiritual centers of Orthodoxy, producing almost all the saints and the devotional literature, original and translated from Greek. Only the metropolitan of Moscow himself, and to some extent the archbishop of Novgorod, had comparable spiritual authority and power at the start of the sixteenth century.

Laymen came to the monasteries for occasional spiritual advice, but also for pilgrimages to the burial places of holy monks and saints. They came for cures at the many shrines, both relics of saints and miracle-working icons. The elite and the provincial gentry tried to bury their dead in the monastery cemeteries and pay for liturgies for the dead. Particular monasteries became the objects of charity of particular clans and families, who endowed them with land, money, and valuable vestments, books, and even whole churches. Most larger monasteries enjoyed valuable immunities from taxation as well as from local judges and administrators. The parish clergy of the sixteenth century largely served churches created by private foundations and were subject to the founders' jurisdiction. They lived poorly on small parcels of land or meager income from services and gifts from parishioners. The clergy was not yet a hereditary caste, though most parish clergy were of humble origin, while monks were usually lesser gentry landholders. The ruling elite almost never entered monastic life voluntarily, though they gave generously to support it and buried their dead at the great monasteries.

Religious life for the laity in the sixteenth century revolved around the celebration of the liturgy in daily life, observation of the many fasts, and processions and pilgrimages to local shrines and monasteries. Preaching was virtually nonexistent, and the spiritual and moral direction came mainly from the clergy as spiritual fathers of laymen, each parish priest and sometimes monks taking on a group of families to follow through life.

Reform within the church. In the seventeenth century the Orthodox church saw many changes. The increasing influence of Kiev and the Ukrainian church under Polish rule played a major role. The Orthodox church in Kiev retained its dogmatic beliefs but also began to present them in the neo-Scholastic forms of Catholic theology. The basis of learning was no longer the fathers but Latin grammar and the Jesuit curriculum in language and philosophy. Preaching became a prominent part of religious life, while miracle cults and shrines were secondary and mainly served the purpose of confessional propaganda. Simultaneously in Russia reformers among the parish clergy called for greater propagation of Orthodox teaching and stronger discipline, coming to influence Tsar Alexis I (ruled 1645–1676) on these matters. In 1649 the tsar invited the first of a series of Kiev-trained clergy to Moscow to aid in translation of religious texts. They also preached in and around the court, giving a strong impulse to native reformers.

Earlier in the century Patriarch Filaret (d. 1633) had been a powerful figure, dominating his son, Tsar Michael (ruled 1613–1645), as long as he was alive, but his power came more from his position as the tsar's father than from his position in the church hierarchy. In 1652 Nikon, one of the reformers, was selected patriarch by the reformers in the church, with the informal pressure of the tsar. Besides taking a crucial role in secular politics, Nikon introduced liturgical reforms that ultimately caused a schism in the church. He left the office in 1658 over a quarrel with the tsar, a dispute only resolved by his deposition at the council of 1666–1667. The later patriarchs Ioakim (reigned 1674–1690) and Adrian (1690–1700) reinforced the power of the patriarchate and the clergy, striving especially hard and largely successfully to remove the parish clergy from the power of gentry church founders and place them under ecclesiastical jurisdiction.

In the later seventeenth century the impulses from Kiev grew stronger every decade, reinforced by the establishment in 1687 of the first real school in Russia, the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow. Though its teachers were Greeks, they were Italian-educated and relied exclusively on Jesuit textbooks. These changes in the church, supported by the increasing flow of secular texts from the west, especially from Poland, changed the culture of the court and ruling elite, taking them away from traditional Orthodoxy with its monastic orientation toward a lay religion that included a much stronger moral element as well as some elements of secular culture. Greater changes were ahead.

Cultural change and secularization. These changes came from Peter the Great, who vastly accelerated the pace and scope of change. Culturally, his reign was a revolution. He sent young noblemen abroad to study languages, mathematics, and other subjects. He ordered the printing presses to produce a long series of texts basic to secular culture, elementary reading texts, introductions to history, architecture, mathematics, geography, and military sciences. He reoriented the ritual of the court away from the pilgrimages and virtually daily attendance at liturgy to secular celebrations of great victories and name-days and birthdays of the tsar's family and favorites. His new city of St. Petersburg was a port city with European-style architecture and only one monastery, in contrast to the dozens in and around Moscow. By the end of his reign the basic ideas of European politics, art, and learning were available in textbooks translated into Russian. In thirty-six years, the old exclusively religious culture came to an end.

The church also changed rapidly in Peter's time. At the death of Patriarch Adrian Peter appointed a Ukrainian, Stefan Iavorskii, as locum tenens of the patriarchate. Throughout his reign he preferred Ukrainians to Russians as bishops, a practice that continued until the 1760s. Eventually Peter abolished the patriarchate altogether and established in its place the Holy Synod, a board composed of laymen and clergy appointed by the tsar to run the church. The monasteries came to play a very subordinate role. In the later seventeenth century their revenues had already been placed under state control, and Peter reestablished that policy, hoping to use them as hospitals and schools rather than centers of ascetic spirituality.

BUILDING A MODERN STATE

Peter's political and administrative measures were not as radical, but they nevertheless had major effects. They produced a European style of absolutism in the central government, though still without sufficient apparatus outside the capital. Combined with victory over Sweden and the acquisition of a Baltic seacoast and new capital, Peter's state-building made Russia a major regional power, and one with a European culture. His successors in the eighteenth century continued to reorder and build the state, maintaining Russia's power as well. In the 1730s Empress Anna (ruled 1730–1740) upheld Russian influence in Poland and retained a foothold on the Black Sea. Russia was an active participant in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), emerging with no concrete gains but considerable prestige owing to the defeat of Frederick the Great of Prussia. It was Catherine the Great who made Russia a great power in Europe, with two successful Turkish wars (1768–1774, 1787–1792) and the partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795). These victories moved Russia's borders far to the west, incorporating most of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania and conquering Crimea and the whole of the northern Black Sea coast.

While the years from Peter's death until the middle of the reign of Elizabeth (ruled 1741–1762) were devoted to court intrigues and succession struggles, the 1750s saw the resumption of policies designed to modernize state and society. Under the influence of her favorite, Count Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, Elizabeth founded Russia's first university in Moscow (1755) and encouraged other cultural projects, such as Russian-language theater at court. Other measures included fostering trade and industry, the abolition of internal tolls, and other economic projects. Plans to free the nobility from obligatory military service and to confiscate monastery lands came to fruition only after Elizabeth's death.

Catherine's reign saw more extensive political projects in the Legislative Commission (1767) and reorganization of provincial as well as central administration. These measures included a certain element of participation by the nobility and urban elites, as well as the delineation of their rights and privileges in law. By the end of her reign the issue of serfdom arose, most sharply in the work of Aleksandr Radishchev, who condemned the institution on moral and economic grounds. Catherine herself was by then alarmed at the French Revolution and sent Radishchev to prison, but his ideas, like her own measures, were typical products of the European Enlightenment.

RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The Enlightenment was the first European current of thought to be fully received in Russia. Peter's cultural revolution had laid a foundation not only by example but through new institutions as well. His plan for an Academy of Sciences was realized in 1725, after his death. The academy brought scientists and scholars of European reputation to St. Petersburg, where they not only pursued their researches but also taught Russian students. The Noble Cadet Corps, based on the European noble academies, came into being in 1731, teaching young noblemen a curriculum that emphasized modern languages, law, history, and the sciences as well as proper behavior at court. Few formal schools followed its example, but private tutors among the gentry and private gymnasia supplemented the few state schools. The theater, dramatic and musical, flourished at the court, joined in the 1750s by a Russian-language dramatic theater and even theaters outside the capital. The Academy of Arts (1758) trained Russian painters to supplement the few Western and Western-trained artists already at work. Catherine founded a Society for the Translation of Foreign Books in 1768, which merged into the Academy of Letters in 1783. St. Petersburg evolved into a city of largely baroque and classical architecture, built by Italians and Germans. Even in Moscow and the provinces classical palaces sprang up alongside ancient churches and monasteries in the older Russian styles.

Both within the framework of these institutions and outside of them, Russians absorbed European thought and culture with great speed. Most of the well-known European writers of the time appeared in Russian translation—all of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for instance, except Du contrat social (1762; Social contract), had appeared by 1780. Works that remained untranslated nevertheless circulated widely, since the elite generally knew either German or French by mid-century. Russia contributed little that was original to European culture in the eighteenth century. Its art and literature followed European patterns, as with Aleksandr Petrovich Sumarokov's (1717–1744) tragedies, based on the models of Jean Racine and Voltaire. Even the church followed European patterns, in spite of the turn toward Russian rather than Ukrainian bishops in the 1760s. Earlier in the century the seminaries and other church schools continued the seventeenth-century Jesuit curriculum inherited from Kiev, but gradually other trends emerged. Pietism was a major influence after about 1750, with Johann Arndt's Vier Bücher vom wahren Christentum (1605–1609; True christianity) a work widely read, even by such luminaries as St. Tikhon Zadonskii. The great preachers of Catherine's time, such as Metropolitan of Moscow Platon Levshin, followed Lutheran models, preaching a mildly rationalized Christianity and sentimentalizing morality.

Political thought stayed within the framework created elsewhere by Voltaire, Charles-Louis de Secondat de Montesquieu, and others, propounding ideas of enlightened absolutism, aristocratic rights and privileges, and the need to create legal order. Radishchev was unusual in his radicalism in the face of serfdom, but he too borrowed his theoretical arguments from European writers on slavery, such as the abbé de Raynal. The importance of the eighteenth century lay not in original contributions but in the thorough integration of European thought and art into Russian culture.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES AND IMPERIAL EXPANSION

Underneath the intellectual growth and ferment Russian society moved within the inherited framework of serf agriculture, but some new phenomena emerged. The settlement of the southern steppe with its rich black earth soil continued, especially after the Turkish wars and the defeat of Crimea. The southern steppe zone gradually became an area of great estates worked mainly by labor services, which diminished or disappeared in central Russia. The new ports on the Black Sea gave an outlet to grain from the steppe, while central Russia turned more to market gardening, crafts, and seasonal labor such as transport on the great rivers. The result was a boom for the gentry, who began to build great country houses on their estates, even those far from the cities. Nobles tried to use the latest ideas in European agrarian practices to enhance their incomes. In Peter's reign noblewomen had emerged from seclusion to mix freely with men and women outside the family at home and at court. They retained more property rights and played a larger role in estate management than women farther west. For non-elite women, however, little changed.

The serf peasants of central Russia found themselves neighbors of the "economic peasants" when monastic lands were confiscated in 1764 and put under the College of the Economy. Many of the former monastery villages were great centers of crafts and trade, producing dynasties of wealthy merchants. In these villages and those of great noblemen the crafts began to turn into more modern enterprises. In the Sheremetev villages of Ivanovo and Voznesensk serf entrepreneurs built cotton textile factories and hired their fellow serfs as laborers. The Urals, with more primitive technology but low costs, became a major iron producer. By the 1760s St. Petersburg was the center of Russian trade in the Baltic, as Peter had hoped, becoming the home of an international business community of Russians, Germans, Swedes, Britons, Dutch, and other commercial peoples. In the Volga area the growing trade with Persia and Central Asia came to a large extent into the hands of the Kazan' Tatars, giving them a new significance in the area and incidentally a leading role among Muslims in Russia. The conquest of the south and the foundation of Odessa in 1794 gave rise to a new port and new trade, dominated by Greeks, Jews, Bulgarians, Poles, and even some Russians, exporting grain to western Europe and trading with the Ottoman Empire. In remote Siberia, the Russian-American Company entered the fur trade in Alaska.

Russia's population grew rapidly, reaching some thirty-six million by 1800, of which only about six million came from territorial annexation. This demographic expansion, which continued into the twentieth century, provided an important stimulus to economic growth and to colonization of the southern steppe as well as eastern regions. If the center and south of Russia prospered, the north went into decline, resulting from the decline of the northern salt industry and the shift of the fur trade ever farther east. The Siberian economy was hampered by low population, but the discovery of silver and gold in the 1720s laid the foundation for a new and increasingly important industry, one largely under state control.

The expansion of the empire brought in new peoples. The nomadic Bashkirs, Kalmyks, and Tatars were now fully inside Russian borders in the south. The partitions of Poland brought most of the Ukrainian people into Russia, as well as Lithuanians and Belarusians. In the vast formerly Polish territories the nobility was almost entirely Polish, and initially Russia maintained Polish local gentry institutions, placing them under Russian governors. The towns in this area were largely Jewish in population, bringing another new people into the Russian orbit. As with the Polish nobility, Russian policy initially preserved preexisting community structures. In the old Ukrainian Hetmanate, the defection of Hetman Ivan Mazepa to Sweden in 1708 led Peter to appoint his own hetman and later abolish the office. Local institutions and laws remained, however, until the 1780s, when Catherine's reform of provincial administration meant the end of the Hetmanate's remaining autonomy. It also meant the integration of the Cossack nobility into the Russian imperial nobility, reflected in high positions in the army and government. Similarly, the German nobility of the Baltic provinces retained local rights and elected institutions until the 1780s, while Baltic German families played an increasingly central role in St. Petersburg. As many conservative Polish magnates chose to serve the tsars as well after 1796, the Russian ruling elite took on an increasingly multiethnic character, with Germans, Poles, and Ukrainians prominent in all spheres of the government and military services.

At the end of the eighteenth century Catherine's son Paul, frightened by the French Revolution, satisfied his conservative instincts by a recentralization of government, paradoxically coupled with some restoration of local gentry rights in the Baltic provinces and elsewhere. His eccentric personality, however, led to his assassination on 11 March 1801, ushering in a new century and a return to more liberal measures under his son Alexander I. Russia's society, state, and especially culture changed rapidly in the early modern era, but not enough to erode the basic structures. Those would have to wait for more powerful forces still to come.

See also Alexis I (Russia) ; Anna (Russia) ; Autocracy ; Avvakum Petrovich ; Black Sea Steppe ; Boris Godunov (Russia) ; Catherine II (Russia) ; Elizabeth (Russia) ; False Dmitrii, First ; Fur Trade: Russia ; Ivan III (Muscovy) ; Ivan IV, "the Terrible" (Russia) ; Law: Russian Law ; Michael Romanov (Russia) ; Morozova, Boiarynia ; Nikon, patriarch ; Old Believers ; Oprichnina ; Orthodoxy, Russian ; Paul I (Russia) ; Peter I (Russia) ; Pugachev Revolt ; Razin, Stepan ; Romanov Dynasty (Russia) ; Russian Literature and Language ; Russo-Ottoman Wars ; Russo-Polish Wars ; Serfdom in Russia ; Sofiia Alekseevna ; Time of Troubles (Russia) ; Vasilii III (Muscovy) .

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Paul Bushkovitch

Russia

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 has been followed by years of economic, political, and cultural tumult with serious repercussions for individuals and families. As the country struggles to privatize industries and services, jobs have been lost, workers have gone unpaid, inflation has skyrocketed, crime rates have multiplied, and people have discovered that attitudes and skills that garnered good positions in the former socialist command-economy do not always bring success in the new world of competitive business. Although well-heeled new Russians symbolize the wealth that can be achieved under capitalism, poverty rates have soared and the gulf between rich and poor has widened dramatically. Hand-in-hand with the economic revolution are shifts in ideology concerning the degree to which government may interfere in interpersonal matters. This has meant the easing of controls on a variety of details concerning marriage and childrearing, but it has also meant a much weakened social safety net.

The Demographic Crisis

The social costs of the country's political and economic upheaval since the Soviet collapse are sharply conveyed by figures reflecting the demographic crisis of the decade that followed. Between 1992 and 2000, Russia's population declined by more than three million people. Birth rates trail mortality rates. In 1989, Russian women had an average of 2.0 children; today, the average family has only 1.3 children. (Replacement requires 2.2 children per family.) Low birth rates are blamed on young spouses' reluctance to have children in challenging times and on infertility resulting from previous abortions and poor maternal health (Russian Life 2001; Bubnova et al. 2000).

Malnutrition and deficiencies in the health care system contribute to high infant mortality rates (an average of 16.7 infant deaths per 1,000 live births from 1995 to 2000) and poor health in children. For adults, drinking, smoking, lack of exercise, and stress are additional risk factors (Breeva 2000a; LaFraniere 2001; United Nations Population Division 2000). In 1987, the life expectancy of Russian men and women was 64.9 and 74.6 years, respectively. In 1998, these numbers had dropped to 61.3 and 72.9 years (Veselkova and Zemlianova 2000). The greater vulnerability of males creates a sex ratio that is among the most unbalanced in the world.

The Family in Soviet Times

Before the Revolution of 1917 (that replaced tsarist rule with Soviet rule), arranged marriages were common and family life was heavily patriarchal. Early Soviet law reflected more egalitarian beliefs. Marriages were to be voluntary and based on mutual respect and love. On paper, men and women were given roughly equal rights. However, in reality, discrimination at work and at home continued. Though Soviet ideology and financial need led virtually all women into the workplace, few held positions of prestige or equal pay. At home, the double-shift prevailed—employed women returned home from work to a full measure of housework and little participation by their husbands (Ispa 1984; Boss and Gurko 1994).

On the positive side, important supports for families were put into place. Partially because the government wanted to increase the birth rate and partially because such practices fit with socialist ideology, liberal maternity leave policies were put into place, families with small children were paid stipends, families with three or more children were given priority access to some goods and services, and the availability of childcare centers and after-school programs was widened. At the same time, the government did little to make safe, reliable birth control available. Many women resorted to abortion (legalized in 1955) as a form of birth control.

Soviet ideology stipulated that the family existed to serve the state. In that vein, the Marriage and Family Code of 1969 promoted government oversight of important marital and childrearing decisions. Parents were to obey the prescriptions of teachers and pediatric health care providers and to foster communist morality in their children (putting the collective interest above personal concerns). Coworkers, teachers, and others who detected breaches of proper parenting strategies or marital relations were encouraged to intervene.

Post-Soviet Legal Codes Affecting the Family

Soviet family law was thus contrary to democratic views that a partnership should exist between individuals and the state and that family privacy should be respected. After the collapse of Soviet rule, authoritarian laws pertaining to the family were therefore scrapped. The Family Code of 1995, which was partially modeled after the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, outlawed "arbitrary intervention" by outsiders in family matters. Parents have clear obligations to care for their children, but only in the case of child maltreatment do others have the right to intervene. Even then, every effort must be made to preserve the family unit. Removing the child is to be a last resort. Moreover, children now have the right to voice their opinions. Their preferences are to be taken seriously during custody hearings and other disputes.

The new code also supports self-determination in marriage. Engaged couples may write their own marriage contracts specifying the percentage of income and property to be shared. (Soviet family law did not deal with property rights because, according to socialist ideology, citizens were not supposed to concern themselves with material possessions.) Another innovation in the 1995 Family Code was the explicit recognition of fathers' rights to participate in parental decision-making, to take parental leaves, and to win custody after divorce (Butler and Kuraeva 2001).

The 1995 code also abandons the Soviet view that, when children are involved, judges decide if a marriage may be dissolved. Now, when desire for divorce is mutual, judges must grant the request regardless of spouses' motives; the court's role is limited to decisions regarding custody and protection of children's property interests. When only one spouse desires divorce, the couple may opt for a court hearing. However, if either spouse refuses to air private difficulties in court, the judge's only option is to give the couple three months to reconcile. After three months, the divorce is granted even if only one spouse wants it. Lawmakers reasoned that children's interests are not served by the maintenance of unhappy marriages. The only exceptions involve cases in which the husband wants a divorce but the wife is pregnant or they have child who is less than a year old (Antokolskaya 1996; Dyuzheva 1995).

The 1995 Family Code is also notable for its stance regarding individuals' responsibility for the well-being of extended family members. It continues Soviet tradition in requiring financial support not only of one's own children, but also of needy parents, siblings, grandchildren, and grandparents. This includes the legal right of relatives to live in the family home no matter what their age or marital status and no matter what the size of the dwelling. Post-Soviet price inflation coupled with stagnant pensions has seriously affected the quality of life of the aged; many couples must help elderly relatives with financial support, if not with daily care.

Even before the 1995 Family Code, the 1992 Education Law had sought to democratize relationships between parents, teachers, the community, and students. Whereas during Soviet times, schools were expected to guide and, where necessary, instruct, parents on vospitanie (moral upbringing) (Grigorenko 2000), the 1992 law gave parents the right to use their discretion in accepting or rejecting teachers' and health care workers' instructions. Moreover, parents have the right to be informed about school educational philosophies and strategies and may choose preferred types of schooling (public, private, religious, or at home) for their children.

Accordingly, the Parents' Committee, which had operated since Soviet times, appears to have changed in nature from being a vehicle for teachers to enlist parental support with vospitanie, to one that assists in the daily life of school, helps with children's education, and serves a platform for the voicing of complaints. In addition, a new School Council composed of parents, teachers, students, and community representatives has been introduced. However, the relationship of this body to other decision-making bodies has not been clearly spelled out and it seems that, in many cases, its function has been limited.

It must be said that, realistically speaking, it will be years before most Russian families feel these legal changes in practice. Many parents, teachers, and health care workers are unaware of parents' new rights. Second, for most families, especially for those living outside of the major large cities, choices of educational institutions are limited. Third, though some educators are indeed engaging in a more collaborative effort with parents than ever existed during Soviet times, creating new types of relationships is often difficult for parents and professionals socialized in different times according to different standards. Fourth, the age-old priority of the mother-child over the father-child relationship will be difficult to rebalance, as evidenced by the fact that, in the vast majority of cases, mothers are still awarded custody after divorce (Butler and Kuraeva 2001).

Common Patterns in Contemporary Marital and Parent-Child Relationships

Russians tend to marry and bear children young. The average age at marriage in the late 1990s was 22, and the peak childbearing years were from 20 to 24. There is strong social pressure to marry; both sexes tend to believe that women in particular cannot be fulfilled if they never marry. In surveys, husbands and wives tend to rate their marriages as satisfactory and to explain that their families provide a haven in which one can be oneself, express opinions openly, and find emotional support (Goodwin and Emelyanova 1995b; Vannoy et al. 1999). Yet divorce rates are among the highest in the world and have been increasing since 1991 (Bubnova et al. 2000; Dyuzheva 1995). Alcohol abuse is blamed in a large number of the cases. Family tensions arising from unemployment, poverty, labor migration, disagreements about gender roles, and improved housing access (allowing divorcing couples to move apart) contribute as well. Also troublesome are high rates of spouse abuse, often rooted in alcoholism and patriarchal tradition (Vannoy et al. 1999).

Olga Zdravomyslova (2000) calls Russian families quasi-patriarchal. Her research shows that, though husbands and wives rely on one another for emotional support and help in decision making, men nonetheless have higher status, expect to be the main breadwinners, and leave most housework and childcare to their wives. Surveys suggest that preference for the egalitarian distribution of household labor is rising, especially among young couples, but in the majority of families, traditional gender roles are maintained. As in many parts of the world, more people espouse egalitarianism than actually practice it, and men tend to be more traditional in this regard than women. This means that, in general, men handle repairs and women are in charge of day-in-and-day-out domestic tasks, including the nurturing of children (Vannoy et al. 1999). Elena Breeva (2000b) found that, accordingly, adolescents indicated that they felt much closer to their mothers than to their fathers.

Although it is not unusual cross-culturally for children to feel closer to their mothers than to their fathers, the Russian situation has some unique features. As demonstrated in centuries of literature, art, and folklore, motherhood in Russia is held in special reverence. Even today, the traditional Russian image of mother is of a woman who is everloving and always ready to sacrifice for her children. Her ability to endure endless work and hardship in order to provide for family needs has earned her adjectives such as virtuous and strong (e.g., Hubbs 1988; Young 1996). Moreover, according to Russian sociologists, during the Soviet period, wives and mothers came to be the de facto family heads because their contributions—financial support plus domestic labor—were greater than men's financial support only. The Soviet socialist command economy further undermined men's position because at work there were few opportunities to exercise initiative. Their status at home thus could not benefit from prestige garnered at work. This pattern has persisted into the post-Soviet era (Zdravomyslova 2000).

At the same time, a backlash against maternal employment that began in the Soviet years has since accelerated. Having a stay-at-home wife has become a status symbol for young businessmen, and many young women would prefer to stay home if they could afford it. The difficulties post-Soviet women face in finding satisfying, well-paying employment and good quality child care are certainly factors. In post-Soviet Russia, women have suffered unemployment and underemployment even more than men. Moreover, cuts in state support to childcare centers and after-school programs have led to thousands of closings. High fees at remaining programs make them inaccessible for many families. As a result, across Russia, only 50 percent of young children attend preschool programs (Fillipov 2001). Contemporary messages from the mass media glorifying sexiness and passive femininity contribute to the devaluing of female employment. In addition, family histories are at play. Generations of Soviet children grew up with limited availability to their mothers and keen awareness of their mothers' exhaustion from coping with dual roles. Since the 1970s, the envisioned—but hard to attain—solution in many minds has been for fathers to earn enough to permit mothers to stay home (Attwood 1996; Ispa 1988; Vannoy et al. 1999).

In 1970, after several visits to the USSR, Urie Bronfenbrenner wrote about the devotion to children he detected everywhere he turned. In general, Russians are indeed a child-loving people. Family relationships tend to be close and children in particular are cherished. Yet economic hardship and the strain of parents' heavy workloads have had negative implications for a growing number of children. In 2001, childcare providers and teachers told Jean Ispa that, although most parents are committed to doing everything possible for their children, many are too harried. The educators worried about children from low-income families, where resources are stretched, but also about neglected children of the new class of well-to-do entrepreneurs. Many such parents spend long hours establishing and managing their businesses—and therefore very little time at home.

Another concern voiced by many adults reflect the belief that the advent of a "predatory capitalism" (Lisovskii 1999, p. 58) and increasing social polarization have challenged the traditional value systems and led to anomie and a "spiritual vacuum," particularly among the young. Oleg Karpukhin (2000a, 2000b) believes that many young Russians have become alienated from the cultural and historical values the Russian people have lived by and this has resulted in widespread anxiety and depression. In their place, he argues, has been the formation for youth of value systems gleaned from mass culture and mass media and at odds with traditional parental values. For many Russian commentators, such developments have resulted in a shift from consideration for family and others to a preoccupation with the well-being of oneself, a growth of immorality, and a loss of spirituality. Others note that many children, particularly in the large cities, are more independent, self-confident, relaxed, and entrepreneurially inclined than their Soviet-era predecessors.

As everywhere in the world, family attitudes and behavior in Russia differ according to adult educational level and occupational prestige as well as according to the personalities of the individuals involved. For example, when compared to manual workers, educated individuals and entrepreneurs tend to have more liberal attitudes toward divorce, to share more of their most intimate thoughts with their spouses, and to be more likely to espouse goals for children that are centered on developing curiosity and independence of thought rather than on winning obedience (Ispa 1994; Goodwin and Emelyanova 1995a; Vannoy et al. 1999).

It is also necessary to recognize the relativity of perceptions about value changes among Russian youth. Although Russian commentators worry about increases in anti-intellectual, instrumental attitudes, international studies suggest that many Russian young people still reflect traditional respect for parents and scholarship, especially when compared with their Western peers (Elliott et al. 1999, 2001).

Stability and Reform in Compulsory and Higher Education

The Russian educational system provides free and compulsory education from the age of six or seven to fifteen years. Two more years of upper secondary schooling are available for those who wish it, thus providing a ten-year education. It is intended that the addition of an eleventh year at age seventeen will soon make the age of school leaving the same as that of most other industrialized nations.

An outstanding feature of the system of compulsory education in Russia, in comparison with most other countries, has been its durability. In the half century between the mid-1930s and mid-1980s, the basic system changed only in minor ways by gradual evolution. (It should be noted that many of the moral and social precepts outlined in Soviet documentation would be shared by contemporary U.S. and U.K. readers.) Nonetheless, pressure for educational democratization mushroomed during the time of Gorbachev's glasnost. At the national level, pressure for decentralization brought republics more independence and control over management and curriculum content. At the local level, democratization and decentralization led to demands for schools to have increased bureaucratic and budgetary freedoms. At the level of the student, individual needs were increasingly recognized and concern was voiced about the rigid system of schooling and heavy workload that, it was argued, served to alienate and overly stress many students. Reforms centered around six key concepts: decentralization (of regions and of schools), de-ideologization (removal of communist ideology from schools), democratization (giving greater freedoms for educational decision-making to teachers, parents and students), diversification (allowing the development of different school types), humanization (placing greater emphasis upon student individuality and needs), and humanitization (increasing the proportion of time allocated to arts and humanities in the curriculum).

The above elements of reform were realized through the 1992 Law on Education and its 1996 amendment. Education was now seen to include both obuchenie (instruction) and vospitanie—though the latter was downgraded from preeminent to subsidiary status in order to avoid any redolence of Soviet indoctrination. This was a reversal of Soviet policy wherein obrazovanie (education) was seen as a component of all-important vospitanie and individual differences were seen as elements to be overcome through the influence of education.

Greater emphasis on competitiveness and individualism have been reflected in the education system by a plethora of structural and pedagogic reforms, many of which have resulted in the development of socially divisive educational hierarchies and inequalities (Konstantinovskii and Khokhlushkina 2000). If the 1980s was the era of many innovatory and experimental teaching approaches, the 1990s was a time of diversification and differentiation in the type and roles of schools (Sutherland 1999). Although the expected increase in private and religious schools largely failed to materialize (Galina Cherednichenko [2000] lists only ninety-eight such schools in Moscow for the 1997–98 school year), there has been a mushrooming of gymnasia, schools that are approved to run specialized programs for more able students, and schools that offer intensive instruction in one or more specialized subjects. In 1991, there were 100 gymnasia in Russia; by 1998, there were 1,013. In 1999, some 15 percent of the school population was attending specialist schools. Not surprisingly, the most able students and the most skilled teachers gravitate to these well-resourced schools. Many specialist schools require entry examinations and admit only top scorers.

The result is polarization: Although attendance at institutes and universities has increased, so have dropout rates among secondary students. Students for whom learning is a struggle and who find themselves in unfashionable schools have become increasingly alienated. Increasing disenchantment with schooling appears to be partially due to student concern that school curricula have changed too little to prepare them for the new economic pressures that will mark their passage into adulthood. Alienation is exacerbated by massive curriculum overload that leaves many students exhausted and allows little time for socialization and leisure (Andriushina 2000; Fillipov 2001).

Vladimir Lisovskii (1999) notes that under socialism, one could feel socially protected, education was free, and employment was guaranteed. Honest poverty and concern for country and one's collective traditionally underpinned much Russian behavior (van der Wolf and Roeser 2000). Opportunities for advancement and remuneration were made available irrespective of the individual's level of education (Kopytov 2000). Many now worry that the highly unstable economic situation, in which entrepreneurial skills can bring about immense wealth, has resulted in a shift from the traditional regard for education as intrinsically valuable to a focus on education as a means for achieving the individualistic goals of success and prosperity (Nikandrov 1995).

This value shift is seen in higher education. For some, further study is a means to avoid conscription in the army, whereas for the majority it is primarily a means to economic security. Because not all academic disciplines are well-rewarded and high levels of education do not necessarily result in material gain (Zubok 1999), the most popular courses are those that promise the greatest financial rewards such as economics, finance, law, and foreign languages (Rutkevich 2000). Those who have graduated in other subjects are increasingly turning their backs on their disciplines in the search for greater income.

In a study of fourteen- and fifteen-year-olds in two cities, Moscow and Ivanovo, Irina Shurygina (2000) identified three categories of adolescent attitudes toward higher education. The traditional Soviet model was one whereby success was primarily related to having a higher education and an "intellectual" profession. Families that are relatively impoverished but that have a history of high educational performance still tend to reflect this model. The second model is that of the entrepreneur, where high earnings are seen to have little or no connection to one's education or the intellectual demands of one's career. Here, one might anticipate finding a high proportion of less educated, but comparatively more affluent, families. A third model, new to Russian society, involves the assimilation of both the above involving a combination of education and money and power.

Russia has long enjoyed a reputation for high educational standards, something echoed both by the World Bank (Canning, Moock, and Heleniak 1999) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1998). Several international comparisons in mathematics and science indicate performance largely superior to that of the United States, particularly for the most able graduates, where Russian students perform close to the top of the international league. Despite their many economic and social difficulties, massive cuts in spending on education throughout the 1990s (falling five-fold between 1991 and 1995), and growing concern within the country about a perceived decline in educational standards (e.g., Dolzhenko 1998), levels of educational performance, classroom behavior, academic engagement, and motivation continue to impress Western educationalists (cf. Hufton and Elliott 2000; Alexander 2000; Bucur and Eklof 1999). Their observations have tended to take place in larger cosmopolitan cities, however, and it is likely that educational standards are declining in more poorly resourced small town and rural areas (Sinagatullin 2001; Tarasov 2000).

Child Homelessness and Orphanage Care

One outcome of the economic upheavals of the post-Soviet period is a great increase in the number of homeless children. The Russian government and UNESCO estimate that in 2001, there were up to three million homeless children in Russia (Harrigan 2001; Tretyak 2001). Some are children of parents who have died or been imprisoned, some are abandoned, and some have run away from conflict-, abuse-, and alcohol-ridden homes. To survive, many become involved in begging, petty crime, and prostitution. Drug use and suicide are also serious problems. Russian children's charities and organizations such as the U.S.-based Love's Bridge and the Red Cross are working to provide shelters and other services to homeless children, but the need still far outweighs available help.

Approximately 1.5 percent of all Russian children are orphaned (Facts and Figures 2001). Between 600,000 and 700,000 children (90% of whom have a living parent) live in orphanages. Concern about orphanage conditions came to a head when Human Rights Watch (1998) published reports describing inhumane care in understaffed and under-funded institutions. Although the quality of care varies from orphanage to orphanage, the report exposed poor living and learning conditions and stigmatization based on notions about the heritability of mental deficiencies and social incompetence. A network of smaller family-like homes for orphans is in its infancy but holds promise of higher quality care. A significant proportion of children are now adopted by foreigners, many of whom are resident in the United States.

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jean m. ispa

julian g. elliott

Russia

Official name: Russian Federation

Area: 17,075,200 square kilometers (6,592,771 square miles)

Highest point on mainland: Mount El'brus (5,633 meters/18,481 feet)

Lowest point on land: Caspian Sea (28 meters/92 feet below sea level)

Hemispheres: Northern, Eastern, and Western

Time zones: 3 p.m. Moscow = noon GMT; 12 a.m. Anadyr = noon GMT

Longest distances: 4,000 kilometers (2,400 miles) from north to south; 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles) from east to west

Coastline: 37,653 kilometers (23,396 miles)

Land boundaries: 19,961 kilometers (12,403 miles) total boundary length; Azerbaijan 284 kilometers (176 miles); Belarus 959 kilometers (596 miles); China 3,605 kilometers (2,265 miles); Estonia 294 kilometers (183 miles); Finland 1,313 kilometers (816 miles); Georgia 723 kilometers (449 miles); Kazakhstan 6,846 kilometers (4,254 miles); Latvia 217 kilometers (135 miles); Lithuania 227 kilometers (141 miles); Mongolia 3,485 kilometers (2,165 miles); North Korea 19 kilometers (12 miles); Norway 167 kilometers (104 miles); Poland 206 kilometers (128 miles); and Ukraine 1,576 kilometers (979 miles)

Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles)

1 LOCATION AND SIZE

Russia is the largest country in the world, spreading from northeastern Europe across the entire northern width of the Asian continent. It shares borders with fourteen other countries and has coastlines on the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. With a total area of about 17,075,200 square kilometers (6,592,771 square miles), it is nearly twice the size of the United States. Russia is administratively divided into forty-nine oblasts, twenty-one republics, ten autonomous okrugs, six krays, two federal cities, and one autonomous oblast.

2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES

A small portion of Russia, the Kaliningrad Oblast, is located in Eastern Europe between Poland and Lithuania. There are no overseas dependencies of Russia.

3 CLIMATE

It is said that Russia has only two seasons: summer and winter. Though this is a slight exaggeration, the statement accurately characterizes the country's harsh climate with its long, cold winters and short, cool summers. These conditions are owing to Russia's location in the high northerly latitudes. More than half the country lies above 60° north latitude, with only relatively small areas below 50° north. Furthermore, the high mountains that form Russia's southern border effectively block out warm air masses. The predominant movement of the country's weather systems from east to west essentially nullifies any moderating influence the warm waters of the Pacific Ocean might have on the climate. In winter, Siberia lies under a vast high-pressure cell centered in Mongolia, which keeps the region enveloped in frigid air. The magnitude of this cold is not easy to grasp. Soil in the far northern permafrost can be frozen several hundred meters deep. Even into southern Siberia, the land is covered by snow for more than six months. The annual average temperature for most of Siberia is below freezing. For the majority of European Russia, the average is only somewhat higher.

In summer, warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean is able to push east to central Siberia, under the influence of a prevailing low-pressure system. That area thus receives moisture-bearing air that delivers fairly high amounts of precipitation. Russia's short growing season relies heavily upon this rainfall to water its crops; unfortunately, distribution of the moisture in many areas is often irregular and unpredictable. Droughts are not uncommon, especially in early summer. On the other hand, heavy rains in middle and late summer may compromise harvesting. In the east, late-summer Pacific air can bring monsoon-like rainfall, with disastrous effects.

Overall, lack of sunshine characterizes the Russian climate. Overcast skies are the rule, especially in winter. In December, for example, Moscow typically experiences twenty-three days of cloud cover. Sunless winter days are the rule throughout the nation.

Russia's climate zones lie in easily distinguishable belts that run from east to west across the whole country. In the far north, Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, and numerous smaller Arctic islands experience a polar desert climate. Below this, a tundra climate predominates for at least 100 kilometers (60 miles) south, extending up into the steep mountain slopes far to the east. Next, a broad subarctic zone passes southward as far as St. Petersburg in the west, crosses the Urals, and takes in nearly all the rest of Siberia. Last is a wide belt of cold, dry steppe climate starting at the Black Sea, crossing the North Caucasian Plain, moving through the lower Volga Valley and the southern Urals into Siberia.

Most of Russia experiences only modest precipitation, but the averages vary by region. On the Great European Plain, averages decrease from more than 80 centimeters (30 inches) in the west to less than 40 centimeters (16 inches) on the Caspian Sea shoreline. Siberia uniformly sees annual precipitation ranging from 50 to 80 centimeters (20 to 32 inches), although amounts are generally less than 30 centimeters (12 inches) in extreme northeastern Siberia. At high elevations, precipitation totals may reach 100 centimeters (40 inches) or more, but in the valleys they average less than 30 centimeters (12 inches).

4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS

Russia can be categorized into several large regions. From west to east, they are the Great European Plain; the Ural Mountains; the mountain systems and ranges along much of Russia's southern border; and Siberia, which includes the West Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, and the mountain ranges of northeastern Siberia and the Kamchatka Peninsula.

Most of Russia is located on the Eurasian Tectonic Plate, but eastern Russia is on the North American Plate. The exact boundary between the two plates is uncertain. The Pacific Plate is located off of Russia's eastern coastline. The movement of these three plates against each other is a cause of significant earthquakes and volcanoes in this region, especially on Kamchatka. Seismic activity is also common in the Caucasus Mountains in the southwest.

5 OCEANS AND SEAS

Seacoast and Undersea Features

The majority of Russia's coastline is on the Arctic Ocean and its seas, including the White Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, and the Chukchi Sea. Located almost entirely north of the Arctic Circle, much of the water here remains frozen for the better part of the year. One exception is the area in the far west, where the Gulf Stream current warms the waters of the Barents Sea near the Kola Peninsula, allowing the port of Murmansk to function year-round. The eastern coastline of Russia lies on the Pacific Ocean and its seas, including the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, and a portion of the Sea of Japan. Western Russia has short coastlines along the Baltic Sea (in northern Europe) and the Black Sea (an inland sea between southeastern Europe and Asia), both of which are seas of the Atlantic Ocean.

Sea Inlets and Straits

The Gulf of Ob' and the estuary of the Yenisey River are inlets of the coastline of the Kara Sea. A channel called the Proliv Dmitrya Lapteva connects the Laptev Sea to the East Siberian Sea. Long Strait near the northeast coast connects the East Siberian Sea to the Chukchi Sea and separates the mainland from Wrangel Island. The Bering Strait separates Siberia and Alaska by a mere 86 kilometers (53 miles) and connects the Chukchi Sea to the Bering Sea. Shelikhova Bay is a deep inlet of the Sea of Okhotsk. The Gulf of Anadyr, near the northeastern tip of Russia, is an inlet of the Bering Sea. Russia's principal Pacific Ocean port, Vladivostok, is found on Peter the Great Bay, within the Sea of Japan. The Tatar Strait connects the Sea of Okhotsk to the Sea of Japan. The Gulf of Finland in the west is an inlet of the Baltic Sea. St. Petersburg is located at its apex. The Sea of Azov is an inlet of the Black Sea, located at the southwestern Russian border.

Islands and Archipelagos

Many islands lie within the Arctic and Pacific Oceans off the shores of Russia. Franz Josef Land is comprised of about one hundred small islands in the Arctic Ocean; it is the northern-most part of Russia and is among the north-ernmost lands on Earth. Other large Arctic islands are Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach Island, Wrangel Island, and the Severnaya Zemlya and New Siberian Islands groups. Many small islands and island chains are scattered among these larger groups.

In the Pacific, the Kuril Islands curve southwest from the Kamchatka Peninsula to Japan. Although the Kuril Islands are under Russian administration, Japan and Russia dispute ownership of the four southernmost islands. Also lying in the Pacific is Sakhalin, a large island that separates the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan.

Coastal Features

No country in the world can surpass Russia's 37,653 kilometers (23,396 miles) of coastline. Yet most of this coastline is so far north that it is frozen for much of the year. Despite the fact that frozen harbors mean Russia has very few outlets to the ocean that remain open all year, Russian shipping and fishing thrives on all its seas.

The coastlines contain many peninsulas and capes. Gydan Peninsula lies between the Gulf of Ob' and the estuary of the Yenisey River. Continuing to the east, the Taymyr Peninsula extends north, reaching mainland Russia's northernmost point at Cape Chelyuskin.

The Chukchi Peninsula stretches out to become Russia's easternmost point, with the Chukchi Sea of the Arctic Ocean to the north and the Bering Sea of the Pacific Ocean to the south. Further south is the large Kamchatka Peninsula. Kamchatka encloses the Sea of Okhotsk to the west.

DID YOU KNOW?

Russia was even larger in the past than it is today. Russia controlled Finland, Alaska, and parts of modern-day Poland at various times in history. After World War I (1914–18), Russia technically ceased to be an independent country, instead becoming part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R., or the Soviet Union). Russia was by far the largest of the republics that made up the Soviet Union, however, and was considered to be the ruling power of that nation. The Soviet Union started to dissolve in 1991. Eventually, many nations within the Soviet Union became independent of Russia.

6 INLAND LAKES

The Caspian Sea, on Russia's southern border between Europe and Asia, is not a true sea; it is actually a saltwater lake and the largest inland body of water in the world. The Caspian is held in a vast land depression with no outlet to any ocean. Although many rivers drain into it, water escapes only through evaporation. The Caspian's salinity results from accumulated salts. The sea extends approximately 1,210 kilometers (750 miles) from north to south and 210 to 436 kilometers (130 to 271 miles) from east to west. Its area is 371,000 square kilometers (143,000 square miles). Its mean depth is about 170 meters (550 feet), with the deepest areas in the south.

Most other Russian lakes were formed by glaciation. The largest such lakes in European Russia are Ladoga (17,703 square kilometers/ 6,835 square miles) and Onega (9,609 square kilometers/3,701 square miles), northeast of St. Petersburg. They are also the two largest lakes in all of Europe (since the Caspian Sea is generally not counted as a lake). Other large lakes in western Russia include Lake Peipus on the Estonian border and the reservoirs of the Volga River.

Lake Baikal in southern Siberia is the largest lake in Russia and the largest lake in Asia (excluding the Caspian Sea). It is 632 kilometers (392 miles) long and 59 kilometers (32 miles) wide, with a surface area of 30,510 square kilometers (11,870 square miles). It has a maximum depth of 1,742 meters (5,715 feet), making it the deepest body of freshwater on Earth. Due to its great depth, Lake Baikal also has the greatest volume of any freshwater lake. It is said to contain one-fifth of Earth's fresh surface water. Other large Siberian lakes include Lakes Taymyr, Chany, and Khanka and the Novosibirsk, Bratsk, and Zeya Reservoirs. There also are many smaller lakes.

7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS

Most of Russia's urban population lives along the banks of the nation's many rivers. The most important commercial river in Russia is the Volga, which is also the longest river in Europe. The Volga begins in the hills west of Moscow and flows southeastward for 3,689 kilometers (2,293 miles) to the Caspian Sea. Four of Russia's largest cities are located on its banks: Nizhniy Novgorod, Samara, Kazan', and Volgograd. The Kama River flows west out of the southern Urals and into the Volga. This also is a major waterway for both Russia and Europe.

Also located in European Russia are the Dnieper and the Don Rivers. Although the Dnieper flows mainly through Belarus and Ukraine, it has headwaters in the hills west of Moscow. The Don flows from its origins in the Central Russian Upland south of Moscow for 1,860 kilometers (1,153 miles) before emptying into the Sea of Azov at Rostov-na-Donu.

Further east is the Ural River, which flows south from the Ural Mountains into Kazakhstan before reaching the Caspian Sea. The Ural River is traditionally considered part of the boundary between Europe and Asia.

A number of major rivers drain into the Pacific and Arctic Oceans from the Siberian plateau and mountain areas in the east. The Irtysh-Ob' river system flows through the West Siberian Plain, emptying into the Arctic at the Gulf of Ob'. The Irtysh is the longer of the two rivers, but is a tributary to the Ob'. Together they have a length of 5,380 kilometers (3,335 miles), making them the longest river system in Russia.

On the far side of the Central Siberian Plateau is the Lena, the longest individual river in Russia at 4,400 kilometers (2,700 miles). It too empties into the Arctic, and it has many large tributaries including the Aldan, Vitim, and Vilyui. The third great Arctic river, the Yenisey (4,000 kilometers/2,480 miles), flows across the Central Siberian Plateau. Its largest tributary, the Lower Tunguska, is itself roughly 3,226 kilometers (2,000 miles) long. Other major tributaries include the Stony Tunguska and Angara.

The same river systems that account for such an enormous flow of water into the Arctic Ocean are also responsible for creating vast swamps in the West Siberian Plain. Snow and ice in the warmer regions, where the rivers have their sources, thaw well before the northern regions, causing great flooding to the north. The Vasyugan'ye Swamp in the center of the West Siberian Plain, for example, covers 48,000 square kilometers (18,500 square feet). The same effect can be observed with other Siberian river systems.

The Amur River (2,874 kilometers/1,768 miles) is the most important Siberian river flowing into the Pacific Ocean. Its major tributaries are the Argun, Ussuri, and Shilka. The Amur River, with its primary tributary the Ussuri River, comprises a significant section of the boundary between Russia and China.

8 DESERTS

There are no desert regions in Russia.

9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN

In all nearly 10 percent of Russian territory can be classified as swampland. Much of this is concentrated in the West Siberian Plain, which lies between the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey River. This plain is a vast area of lowlands, probably the largest expanse of flat land anywhere in the world. It stretches from the steppes of Central Asia in the south to the Arctic Ocean in the north, covering a region nearly 1,800 kilometers (1,100 miles) wide. Flat and poorly drained, these lowlands feature many swamps, marshes, and peat bogs, with significant oil and natural gas deposits in their central and northern regions.

DID YOU KNOW?

The areas now known as Siberia and Alaska were once connected by a stretch of land that surfaced during the Ice Ages, an area that researchers have called the Bering Land Bridge or Beringia. Archaeologists believe that the first ancestors of the Native Americans crossed this bridge from Asia into North America more than thirteen thousand years ago. Over time, as the Bering and Chukchi Seas rose, they covered Beringia. Remnants of the region can still be seen at the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve on Seward Peninsula in Alaska.

The Ural Mountains separate two vast plains: the Great European Plain and the even larger West Siberian Plain. Both of these so-called plains contain a wide variety of terrain, including vast forests, swamps, and stretches of tundra. The plains also contain many areas of grassland and farmland, however, especially the Great European Plain.

The central portion of the Great European Plain between St. Petersburg and the Ukrainian border features a mixed forest of both conifers and deciduous trees. Oak, beech, maple, and hornbeam are the primary broad-leaf tree species. Moving south, the mixed forest passes through a narrow zone of forest steppe, which is 150 kilometers (95 miles) wide, on average, before giving way to a zone of true steppe.

The steppe is a broad band of nearly treeless, grassy plains that extends across Hungary, Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan before ending in Manchuria. Although historically presented as the typical Russian landscape, the steppe in Russia proper is in fact quite small, located mainly northwest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains and stretching across the southern Volga Valley, the southern Urals, and parts of western Siberia.

Isolated pockets of steppe can also be found in the mountain valleys of southeastern Siberia. Moderate temperatures and normally adequate levels of sunshine and moisture give the steppe zone relatively favorable conditions for agriculture, although precipitation here can be unpredictable, sometimes even catastrophically dry.

Tundra makes up about 10 percent of Russian land, a treeless and marshy plain that lies along Russia's northernmost zone. The tundra stretches from the Finnish border to the Bering Strait, then extends south along the Pacific coast to the Kamchatka Peninsula. The North Siberian and Kolyma lowlands are entirely made up of tundra. Only mosses, lichens, dwarf willows and shrubs can grow on the permafrost and survive the long, harsh, sunless winters. In summer, dusk comes at midnight and dawn follows within minutes. The powerful Siberian rivers that cut across the tundra toward the Arctic Ocean do a poor job of draining the region, due to partial and intermittent thawing. The most important physical process at work in the tundra is frost weathering, a vestige of the glaciation that shaped it during the last Ice Age.

DID YOU KNOW?

The areas now known as Siberia and Alaska were once connected by a stretch of land that surfaced during the Ice Ages, an area that researchers have called the Bering Land Bridge or Beringia. Archaeologists believe that the first ancestors of the Native Americans crossed this bridge from Asia into North America more than thirteen thousand years ago. Over time, as the Bering and Chukchi Seas rose, they covered Beringia. Remnants of the region can still be seen at the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve on Seward Peninsula in Alaska.

There are many regions of hills and uplands in Russia. The Valdai Hills are the most noteworthy. Although not particularly tall (from 182 to 304 meters/600 to 1000 feet in elevation), they are among the highest summits located in the Great European Plain of western Russia. Many important rivers have their source there, including the Volga.

10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES

With nine major mountain ranges, Russia can be considered among the most mountainous countries in the world. Eastern Russia is by far more mountainous than the west, while the center section of the country is primarily low plains.

The Urals are perhaps the best known of Russia's mountain ranges, as they define the boundary between Asia to the east and Europe to the west. A lengthy range, the Urals extend 2,100 kilometers (1,300 miles) from the northern border of Kazakhstan all the way to the Arctic Ocean. The highest peak, Mount Narodnaya, is only 1,894 meters (6,212 feet) in elevation, however. The Urals have never offered any significant barrier to travel.

Located between the Black and Caspian Seas, the Caucasus Mountains consist of two major chains separated by lowlands. The northern Greater Caucasus range forms most of the border between Russia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, as well as marking the boundary between Asia to the south and Europe to the north. These mountain systems are made up of granite, other crystalline rocks, and some volcanic formations. Elevations in the Greater Caucasus reach a maximum of 5,633 meters (18,481 feet) at the extinct volcano Mount El'brus, the highest peak both in Russia and on the continent of Europe.

Russia's other mountains are far to the east. The Altay Shan and Sayan Mountains are found in the area north of Mongolia, west of Lake Baikal. Further east are the Yablonovyy Range and Stanovoy Mountains. They follow much of the southern border of central and eastern Siberia on toward the Pacific Ocean, where they join the other eastern ranges. The Altay Shan are the tallest of these; they include Mount Pelukha (4,619 meters/15,157 feet). The other ranges average less than 3,048 meters (10,000 feet) in height.

The topography east of the Lena River is predominantly mountainous, with the elevations becoming higher and more rugged farther to the east. Major ranges in this region are Verkhoyanskiy, Cherskiy, Kolyma, Koryak, and Sredinnyy. The easternmost ranges feature live volcanoes. As many as 120 volcanoes dot the Kamchatka Peninsula, and no fewer than 23 are active. Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest of these, reaches 4,750 meters (15,584 feet).

Moving offshore, these same mountains form the Kuril Islands, where thirty of one hundred volcanoes are active. Across the Sea of Okhotsk, in Russia's southeasternmost area, there are several low mountain ranges, including the Sikhote-Alin' Mountains and the mountains of Sakhalin Island.

11 CANYONS AND CAVES

Though there are many caves throughout the country of Russia, geological information or maps concerning them are not easy to obtain. One of the most famous of the many caves is Kapova Cave, which is known for its Paleolithic paintings of mammoths, rhinos, horses, and bison. Excavations from the two-level cavern uncovered human remains as well as animal bones and charcoal, indicating that people once lived there.

DID YOU KNOW?

In an area known as the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, near Ukraine, vast iron-ore deposits affect Earth's magnetic field.

Another famous site is the Kungur Ice Cave, located near the town of Kungur, southeast of Perm. It contains over 6,000 meters (19,685 feet) of passageways. The entire depth of the cavern, however, has not been completely explored. The cave features many large columns of stalagmites and huge icicle stalactites.

12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS

The Central Siberian Plateau is an enormous stretch of rolling land between the Yenisey and the Lena Rivers. Heights of this vast plateau range from 500 to 700 meters (1,600 to 2,300 feet) on average. Its surface is eroded by the many rivers, some forming deep canyons. Layers of sedimentary rock, subsequently intruded by volcanic lava, were deposited long ago on top of igneous and metamorphic rock. Within the layers of sedimentary rock are rich deposits of coal.

13 MAN-MADE FEATURES

Several canals connect most of European Russia's rivers. These rivers provide a vital transportation system, carrying fully two-thirds of the nation's inland water traffic. Because of one series of canals, it is possible to travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow entirely by boat.

Russia's many rivers give the nation a great potential for hydroelectric power. In fact, Russia already has four of the ten largest hydroelectric plants in the world. The SayanoShushensk Dam on the Yenisey River is part of the fourth-largest plant and is also the twelfth-highest dam in the world, with a height of 242 meters (794 feet). The Krasnoyarsk Dam belongs to the fifth-largest hydroelectric plant in the world, while the Bratsk Dam and the Ust-Ilim Dam are eighth and tenth, respectively. The Saratov Dam on the Volga River is also listed as one of the world's largest dams.

14 FURTHER READING

Books and Periodicals

Clark, Miles. "A Russian Voyage." National Geographic, June 1994, 114-138.

Edwards, Mike. "Siberia: In from the Cold." National Geographic, March 1990, 2-39.

Jacobsen, Karen. The Russian Federation. Chicago: Children's Press, 1994.

Lydolph, Paul E. Geography of the U.S.S.R. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964.

Torchinsky, Oleg. Russia. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1994

Web Site

Russian National Tourism Office. http://www.russia-travel.com (accessed June 13, 2003).

Russians

ETHNONYMS: Russkiy, Velikorusskiy; formerly, Rus', Ross

Orientation

Identification. Russians are the largest subdivision of the Eastern Slavs, the other members of which are Ukrainians and Belarussians. The Russian language emerged from the common East Slavic tongue, Ancient Russian or Old Church Slavonic, by the fourteenth century a.d. in the Rostov-Suzdal' area of central Russia.

Location. In 1979 eight administrative provinces (oblasts) of central Russia were over 97 percent Russian; in addition, over 90 percent of the population in a north' south ellipse encompassed by St. Petersburg, Arkhangel'sk, Gorki, Volgograd, Rostov-na-Donu, Belgorod, and Smolensk was Russian. Three areas in the Urals and western Siberia—Kurgan, Novosibirsk, and Kemerovo oblasts—likewise were over 90 percent Russian.

These Russian areas are flat or rolling, with a mix of forests and steppes, mostly glaciated in European Russia and loessial in western Siberia. They have cold, snowy winters and summers ranging from cool to very hot. Soils are podzolic in the north and chernozemic in the south. The Russian lands are transected by important rivers, the Oka, Volga, Don, Donets, and Severnaya Dvina in Europe and the Ob system in western Siberia. Peripheral waters include Lakes Ladoga and Onega, the White Sea, and the Gulf of Finland in the European North and the Sea of Azov in the south.

Natural conditions in the Russian environment have been profoundly altered by agriculture, which has left only residual forests south of Moscow; by extensive water development, especially on the Volga and Don; and especially by urbanization. In 1989 only fourteen of thirty primarily Russian oblasts were under 70 percent urban. Tambov, 56 percent urban, was the most rural Russian area in Europe. Conversely, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Ivanovo, and Yaroslavl in Europe and Kemerovo in Siberia were over 80 percent urban. The largest primarily Russian cities were Moscow (9.0 million), St. Petersburg (5.0 million), Nizhny Novgorod (1.4 million), and Novosibirsk (1.4 million).

Despite the degree of urbanization, Russians remain deeply attached to their natural environment. A dacha in the countryside, even if it is a humble cabin, is much sought after and often obtained. Russian poetry, which remains a highly esteemed expressive form (and a mainstay of education), often celebrates the beauty of the land. Contrast Pushkin's "Winter Evening" and Yesenin's "The Golden Grove Has Ceased to Speak." Although these poems were written years ago, the environment to which they refer—birches, oaks, pines, feather grass, nightingales and cranes, and the Russian rivers—has deep and pervasive meaning to this day.

Demography. Expanding with the rise of Muscovy, the Russian people numbered more than 8 million by 1678. Concentrated in central and northern Russia and thinly settled in the Urals and Siberia, they formed about 40 percent of the population of the Russian Empire of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. By 1917 their numbers had grown to about 76 million, with somewhat less than half of these in their ancient core area but only 10 percent outside the boundaries of today's Russia. Prior to World War II the Russian population was characterized by high fertility and mortality—a crude birth rate of 33 per 1,000, a death rate of 23.6 per 1,000, and a life expectancy of about 44 years. World War II and its aftermaths had disastrous effects: the 1959 census reported that, for the ages 35 and over, there were only 54 men for 100 women, the absolute deficiency of men in these ages coming to 12.2 million. By 1979-1980 the Russian population had reached 137.4 million, with 25 percent of the gain between 1939 and 1979 coming from Russification, but the natural increase rate, with dropping fertility, averaged only about 6 per 1,000 over the same period. Recent Russian life expectancies at birth are among the lowest for any urbanized population: the 1988 figures were 69.9 years for both sexes, 64.8 years for men, and 74.4 years for women. Infant mortality for the Russian Republic in that year was 18.9 per 1,000 births (three-quarters of the USSR average). By 1979 one-third of the Russian population of 137 million lived in the old core area, another half elsewhere in the Russian Republic, and only 17 percent in the other parts of the USSR, where, however, they often constituted a large minority or a near majority (Estonia). Today the population is 150 million. The Russian population has grown at a historic rate of 0.9 percent annually.

Cardiovascular stress associated with smoking, alcoholism, the workplace, and family life is the major cause of death today. For women, the combination of heavy domestic work loads and full-time employment contributes to the death rate. This, as well as poor housing, spouse abuse (associated with alcoholism), and unplanned pregnancies partly account for a lifetime average of five abortions per woman—more than twice the number of live births. Fewer than 60 percent of Russian women practice a contraceptive method other than withdrawal or the rhythm method; the total number of women suffering from the consequences of abortions and related medical practices is hard to assess but certainly high.

Migration, particularly to and from Siberia, has had a marked effect on the population, with only 10 to 20 percent of the migrants remaining in their adopted homes after five years. Such movements of population are of course associated with social and political stress.

Linguistic Affiliation. Speakers of Russian form the largest East Slavic speech community, the other members being Ukrainian and Belarussian. After the Common Slavic, Common East Slavic, and Old Russian stages, the Russian language emerged in about the fourteenth century in central Russia (centered on Rostov-Suzdal'). The Russian language has historically been divided among northern, cental, and southern dialects and by marked differences between the popular, administrative, and ecclesiastical styles, which are still evident in vocabulary and syntax. Russian has also been influenced by other languages, notably Finno-Ugric in its early stages, Germanic, Turkic, Greek, Polish, and, above all, French and, most recently, English.

History and Cultural Relations

Since the fifteenth century, the Russian state has been distinguished by centralized, generally autocratic rule, strongly dependent upon a service class (oprichnina, dvoryanstvo, Communist party). This was particularly developed by Peter I. Even in 1987 a party monograph stated that "it is important that not only directors, but rank and file workmen, collective farmers, and intellectuals understand their place and role in perestroyka" (Laptev, ed., 1987, 22). Although alternative foci of power (the Orthodox church, the National Assembly Zemskiy Sobor, the high aristocracy, the local Zemstva) have emerged from time to time, they have been repeatedly co-opted and controlled. Only the widely dispersed, deeply devoted, and secretive Old Believers have resisted control despite persecution since the seventeenth century.

The rise and expansion of the Russian state, in a context of hostile states and peoples, has been at enormous cost in wars and rebellions, famines and epidemics. The Tatar raids, the Time of Troubles (a period of dynastic conflict, 1598-1613), the Swedish War, the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War, the Russo-Japanese War, and world wars I and II brought great misery. For 150 years, the drafting of serfs for 25 years of military service was deeply mourned in every village. Peter I instituted a modest vehicle for military and civilian upward mobility, through the system of progressively earned ranks. A modern-day parallel was the nomenklatura, a system of specified ranks in the former USSR.

Autocratic, often capricious, political power has combined with other elements of Russian social culture to limit the extent and stability of social stratification. In earlier times, estates were constantly being dispersed because of falls from favor and the equal inheritance rights of all sons (as opposed to primogeniture). Although there were many merchant families, some of them extremely wealthy, trade was in general not highly valued and was prohibited for those of noble descent. Modest alternative avenues of social ascent (as defined in the Tables of Rank) were open even to Jews, who were otherwise a persecuted minority confined to the western Pale.

Serfdom, which began during the medieval period, reached its nadir in the eighteenth century when Aleksandr Radishchev's A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow disclosed appalling abuses. Conditions on the great estates, particularly for household serfs, were those of true slavery, although they were better for the land-working serfs, particularly those under the quitrent (obrok ) system (the other system being to work on shares). Because, as in other frontier lands, there was no serfdom in Siberia, it provided an escape and some relief—hence the continuing stream of fugitive serfs, who settled these regions and often became Cossacks.

From the 1930s in the former USSR, the collective farmer represented a dispossessed class lacking the internal passport needed for urban residence. Only collective-farm chairmen—party appointees after 1956—were in a position to control farm resources and incomes. Virtually the only area of collective-farm freedom was the de facto possession of small private plots that produced an extraordinary share of Russian foodstuffs, including meat, dairy products, and vegetables. This is increasingly the case today. Within this rural domain, incidentally, elements of customary law have persisted with remarkable vitality. Despite the partial privatization of land and various programs and projects, many Russian peasants are primarily interested in more effective production (e.g., by working together) than they are in private ownership of land as a matter of principle.

Russian industrialization has varied between periods of intensive development and those of prolonged stagnation. In the Kievan period, the cities, as archaeology shows, were centers of local and even international trade and of production through many sophisticated crafts. By the sixteenth century Muscovy's trade with England and other parts of Europe had stimulated technological development. But it was not until Peter I that a strategically oriented program of industrialization was initiated and pushed forward with considerable success. Its central and continuing weaknesses were the dependence on facilities granted to court favorites and on serf (i.e., slave) labor. Despite these weaknesses, there was, in the eighteenth century, phenomenal growth in many areas, the opening of mines and factories, and, among central and northern peasants, the growth of large cottage industries with an enormous inventory of goods such as wooden spoons for export to Asia via Kazan. By the nineteenth century steam power was used, especially in the growing textile industry; during the latter part of the nineteenth and first part of the twentieth centuries, Russia experienced the most rapid industrial growth in modern world history. In general, though, government efforts failed to help rising small entrepreneurs, and the subsidization of inefficient favorites went on. By the eve of World War I, Russia had become an industrial world power, comparable to France, Germany, and the other Western powers that had aided it with their capital.

Although permanent urbanization encompassed barely 10 percent of the Russian population in 1913, a great part of the central and northern Russian population was engaged in migratory industrial labor as well as crafts. This permitted very rapid economic growth in the 1920s. With the rise of German and Japanese militarism, Soviet industrialization took a strategic direction, stressing widely dispersed heavy industrial production, which has continued to dominate to this day. Vast numbers of workers were essential for the huge tasks, and forced labor was a basic recruitment mechanism from 1933 to 1957. In addition, between 1940 and 1957, the State Labor Reserves drafted millions of young people, whose barracks life greatly depressed family formation, induced cultural discontinuity, and encouraged alcoholism and violence.

Generally, the new cities built standardized housing—apartment blocks with central play areas for children. But housing rarely approached real needs, nor did it provide the desired privacy. In 1984 in Kemerovo, about 40 percent of the population lived in apartment blocks, another 40 percent resided in traditional wooden houses without running water or plumbing but with electricity, and the remainder were in dormitories.

The class of intellectuals, despite attrition through oppression, censorship, and internal conflicts, has been of great significance in modern times. With its origins mainly in the educational reforms of the eighteenth century, and drastically enlarged through the intellectual explosion and political tensions of the nineteenth century, the intelligentsia, defined partly by intellectual and partly by political criteria, became a decisive factor in the revolutions of the twentieth century and remains peculiarly powerful in the chaotic scene of the early 1990s.

Economy

In 1985 the Russian Republic had about 83.8 million persons of working age (men reckoned from 16 to 59 years of age; women from 16 to 54). The number employed as workers and service personnel was about 63 million, whereas collective farmers numbered 4.5 million. Fifty-two percent of this civilian employment was female. Eighty-one percent of the working-age population was working. Nonworkers, unemployed, and people working exclusively in the private sector composed the remainder—or somewhat more, since a fair proportion of older men were still employed. The total labor force, including that concerned with private agricultural plots, was divided as follows: industry and construction, 42 percent; agriculture and forestry, 14 percent; transport and communications, 10 percent; trade and food services, 8 percent; health, physical education, social security, and science, 18 percent: governmental administration, 3 percent; housing and miscellaneous, 5 percent.

Economic returns included pay and entitlements, which depended on the place of employment, party status, and other determinants. In 1985 pay averaged 210 rubles per month, running highest in water transport (287 rubles) and lowest in "cultural work" (123 rubles). Service in remote areas, such as the Arctic, led to large bonuses; all Siberians get "northern percentages" (but prices are higher in Siberia). Entitlements covered housing, health care, day care, vacation sites, and even the right to purchase luxuries such as Volga cars, but these benefits were all but absent for the "unorganized" population, which included children not attending nurseries and schools, the unemployed, and the retired, particularly in rural areas.

The state and cooperative retail trade, including food services, provide only a partial picture of consumption; the unofficial shadow economy is not measured in the official statistics, although it involves a large part of the economy; nor are the large price differences for various social groups included. Official figures for 1985 indicate that 51 percent of the total volume of sales was for foodstuffs, including 5 percent on meat and fowl and 3 percent on bologna. Dairy products took about 3 percent; fats, 2.4 percent; eggs, almost 2 percent. Bread, heavily subsidized, accounted for 2.6 percent; vegetables and fruits, for 3.5 percent. Potatoes continue to be a mainstay of the diet, and most families seem to have a supply of them. Of nonfood items, clothes, footwear, and cloth were the largest component at 21.4 percent. Consumer durables (i.e., cars, furniture, carpets, bicycles, and motorcycles) came to 8.4 percent, whereas soap, detergents, and perfume took 1.6 percent. Printed matter—Russians are avid readers—was 1.4 percent. All else came to 15.7 percent.

These statistics reflect the austere way of life of the majority of the Russian population. Only occasionally can an average Russian enjoy traditional foods such as pirozhk i (meator cabbage-filled turnovers) or go to the circus, enjoy tapes or concerts, or travel freely by car or motorcycle to escape overcrowded housing. This context gives rise to high rates of alcoholism and family violence.

Kinship, Marriage, and Family

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the bilateral kindred was the basic Russian social unit among both peasants and aristocrats (such as the Aksakov family on the Ural frontier). This kindred was delimited in Russian kinship terminology by the exogamic units set by churchly canon: four "links" for consanguinai kin, two for affinal; only the archaic term dyadina (father's brother's wife, mother's brother's wife) extended further. The terminology is isolating, except that no distinction is made among consanguinal kin between male and female lines of descent; cousin terms derive from sibling terms; gender suffixes distinguish the sexes among the consanguinai kin of ascending generations and among affinal kin (except daughter's husband and son's wife); and the terms for daughter's husband and sister's husband are merged. Within the kindred, patterns of behavior other than exogamy were largely determined by the specific coresidence patterns of each household. The nuclear family, often supplemented by a grandmother or aunt, was particularly important in the south, but in the central regions patrilocally or fraternally extended families were common, and in the north the large extended family, often numbering more than twenty persons in the household, was typical. Within these households, whatever their size, parental, especially paternal, authority prevailed. To this day on the collective farms, and to a lesser extent in the cities, various joint household budgets persist. Christenings, reverence of icons, and parental blessings of various kinds strengthen human relations. A basic, endearing term for all types of kin is rodnoy or rodnaya (kinsman, kinswoman), from rod (clan). Until recently, at least, godparenthood (kum, kuma ), often by a relative, constituted a lifelong tie of central importance.

Although premarital sex and single parenthood were always common among Russian peasants and workers, marriage continues to be a major socioreligious act. Traditionally it was mainly an economic contract between the heads of two households, reinforced by the payment of the wedding costs by the groom's household and the provision of a substantial dowry by the mother of the bride. Both patrilocal and matrilocal marriage were practiced, although the former was preferred and more frequent. In matrilocal marriages, parents without sons adopted a son-in-law under a contract that stipulated that he support them for the remainder of their lives and give them a decent burial. Although marriages today are individual commitments, they are often associated with obligations to older female relatives. In Kemerovo, for example, families can gain prized housing rights by means of a coresident grandmother, real or adopted, who is thus protected and in turn helps with child care and household tasks. (This "structural babushka" may be a grandparent's sister or other older female relative.)

Sociopolitical Organization

In contrast to the abundance of pre-Revolutionary data, recent materials on Russian social structure are fragmentary. Clearly much has changed since 1985. It may be surmised, however, that traditional kin groups, informal networks, and elements of customary law have persisted to a considerable extent in areas least disturbed by migration (e.g., Ryazan and Tambov provinces). The pervasive social controls of the Communist party, designed to suppress alternative sources and processes of power, seem to have had major limitations and were often mitigated by kindred and friends acting in a "handshake all around" (krugovaya poruka )—that is, exchanging and sharing food and other commodities in informal networks.

Religion

The Christianization of Russia in a.d. 988 was a formal royal act that signified the continuing closeness of church and state. Even during Mongol domination, the church was exempt from taxation and enjoyed vast possessions. Through ritual, saintly example, and legal innovations, the church promoted such values as the cardinal importance of love, the respect due to parents, the obligation to give alms, and the abhorrence of suicide. Much of the customary law, including aspects of women's rights, came from the church. The veneration of icons (e.g., in the "red corner" in peasant homes) was adopted in various figurative ways by the Communist party for its own sacred imagery. Prayers and blessings by family elders on important occasions, religious processions, and fasting as a major expression of religious devotion became deeply embedded in peasant and worker culture. Christening and burial in consecrated ground have retained much of their significance, even though priests as ritualists were never very close to peasant or worker life. Such non-Christian practices as soothsaying on New Year's have persisted. Today over half of all Russians, particularly in Europe, appear to be active religious believers, their Orthodox dogma and ritual having changed very little. Weddings and other rituals still have a traditional character; Easter ritual trappings such as painted eggs and kulich cake are retained in a quasi-secular setting. The revitalization of Orthodoxy has gone hand in hand with the rapid growth of various Eastern religions, mysticisms, parapsychology, and belief in "paranormal phenomena" (some of the latter being regarded as "scientific").

See also Don Cossacks; Old Believers; Russian Peasants; Siberiaki

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DIMITRI SHIMKIN

Russians

PRONUNCIATION: RUSH-ens

LOCATION: Russian Federation

POPULATION: 150 million [total population of country: 80 percent are ethnic Russians]

LANGUAGE: Russian

RELIGION: Russian Orthodox; Baptist; Seventh-Day Adventist; Jehovah's Witness

1 • INTRODUCTION

Ethnic Russians account for about 80 percent of the Russian Federation's population, but the country is very diverse. There are many language groups represented by over one hundred different ethnic groups. Besides the Russians, this article also contains profiles on five other ethnic groups, each from different linguistic, geographic, and cultural backgrounds: the Chechens (a Caucasian group), the Chukchi (Paleo-Siberian), the Mordvins (Finno-Ugric), the Nentsy (Samoyedic), and the Tatars (Turkic).

The Russians are primarily eastern Slavs, but many also have a Finnish, Siberian, Turkish, or Baltic heritage. Since the Russians have spread over such a large territory, many culturally distinct subgroups have developed because of ethnic mixing or isolation.

The Slavic ancestors of the Russians may have first settled in the area north of the Black Sea. The culture and religion of this early Russian state was influenced by the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman) empire. During the Mongol occupation (c. 1240–1480), the Mongols made the Russians pay them tribute and taxes, but the Mongols let the ruling princes and the Russian Orthodox Church remain in power. The period of Mongol rule disrupted cultural links with the rest of Europe and is part of the reason why Russia was not influenced by the Renaissance, Reformation, or Industrial Revolution when those events occurred in Western Europe.

After a dozen years of power struggles, in 1613 the Russian nobility elected Michael Romanov as the new tsar (emperor—the empress was called tsarina ). The Romanov dynasty produced Tsar Peter I (1672–1725, better known as Peter the Great), considered the greatest tsar in Russian history. During the reign of the Tsarina Catherine II (who ruled 1762–96, also known as Catherine the Great), the Russian Empire added substantial territory through conquest.

For centuries, serfdom was a way of life for most Russian peasants who did not own any land. Serfdom was a form of bonded labor similar to slavery, except that a serf belonged to the master's land. Whenever land was sold, the serfs who worked on that land became the property of the new owner. After the Russians defeated Napoleon's army in the War of 1812, Tsar Alexander I (who ruled 1801–25) eventually abolished serfdom in a few small areas near the Baltic Sea.

In 1825, a group of army officers called the Decembrists organized the first revolt against the imperial government. Although the revolt failed, its memory served to rally the people in later years. In 1861 Tsar Alexander II (ruled 1855–81) freed the serfs, but in 1881 he was assassinated by terrorists. Industrialization helped improve the economy, but a financial crisis in 1899, crop failures, and an embarrassing defeat in the 1905 war with Japan led to more civil unrest and strikes by organized labor. Millions of Russian peasants were moving from the country into cities, which made it possible for them to get politically organized. At the start of the twentieth century, many Russians had come to believe that the imperial government was incapable of properly running the country.

During World War I (1914–18), the Russians found themselves fighting in a useless war that plunged the nation into deeper economic and social problems. Tsar Nicholas II (who ruled 1894–1917) gave up the throne, and a temporary government briefly had loose control. Then the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin (governed 1917–24), took over the government. In 1918, Lenin had the entire royal family executed. Russia was called the Soviet Union after that time.

The Soviet era lasted from 1917 to 1991. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Soviet government under Josef Stalin (governed 1924–53) instituted policies of terror and persecution to keep its power. The government wanted to control all property and information in order to keep people in line. Millions of Russians were eventually imprisoned, exiled, or executed on made-up charges and suspicion. An estimated 20 million Soviet citizens died during 1928–38 from Stalin's reign of terror and from preventable famine.

The most profound event during the Soviet years was World War II (1939–45), which Russians call "the Great Patriotic War." An estimated 27 million Soviet citizens died in the war, half of whom were civilians or prisoners. After World War II, the Soviet Union quickly rebuilt its military and became a rival of the United States. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union, under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev (governed 1953–64), and the United States began building nuclear weapons to use against each other in the event of warfare.

During the 1970s, there was political and economic stagnation (lack of movement or progress) in the Soviet Union. In the mid-1980s, widespread reforms began under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev (governed 1985–91), and those reforms brought a new optimism to the Russian people. However, the Soviet administration had always relied on a strong central government to control the people, and the reforms and the economic problems eventually caused the Soviet Union to split apart.

When the Soviet Union ceased to exist in 1991, the Russian people were filled with hope for a bright future. They had their first chance in history to freely choose their own leadership through democratic elections. During the 1990s, however, the people realized that the transition from central planning (socialism) to a market economy (capitalism) would not be quick and painless.

2 • LOCATION

By 1800, Russia extended into much of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and even had territorial claims in North America. At that point, Russia was the largest country in the world to cover a single land mass. Russia is still the largest country in the world, covering about 12 percent of the world's land surface. Today, many of the country's eighty-nine administrative regions are considered ethnic homelands and have various degrees of independence and control over their own affairs. For this reason, the country as a whole is known as the "Russian Federation."

During the Soviet years, most Russians were not allowed to leave the Soviet Union. But many did settle outside of Russia in the other republics of the Soviet Union, especially in urban or industrial areas. Since the end of the Soviet era, there has been a massive movement of Russians to and from the Russian Federation. Many ethnic Russians in the other former Soviet republics have moved to Russia because some of those new governments have pressured them to leave. Some Russians have left the homeland altogether since now they are free to emigrate.

3 • LANGUAGE

Modern Russian is an Eastern Slavic language. During the tenth century, two Orthodox monks, Cyril and Methodius, created a new alphabet in order to translate the Bible into the Russians' native language. The Cyrillic alphabet, as it is called, is used in Russian and some other Slavic languages.

Common male first names include Aleksander, Boris, Dmitri, Ivan, Leonid, Mikhail, Sergei, and Vladimir. First names for women typically end with an "a" or "ya" sound and include Anastasia, Maria, Natalya, Olga, Sophia, Svetlana, Tatyana, and Valentina.

Examples of everyday Russian words include Kak delah? (How's it going?), da (yes), nyet (no), pozhaluistah (please), spaseebo (thank you), and do sveedanniya (goodbye).

4 • FOLKLORE

Traditional Russian fairy tales are just as likely to have a sad ending as a happy one. A fairy tale hero is usually a prince or a simpleton, such as Ivanushka Durak. Famous evil figures in Russian fairy tales include Baba Yaga, a witch who lives in a house supported by chicken legs; and Koshchey the Immortal, a dragon that can only be killed if the egg that holds the essence of its death is found. Animal tales deal with funny encounters between animals that have human qualities.

The origin of one of the world's most famous Christmas traditions began with St. Nicholas of Myra, a patron saint of Russia. According to legend, Prince Vladimir (who declared Christianity the official religion of Russia in ad 988) personally selected the generous Nicholas to be the advocate of the people and protect the oppressed. From Russia, the fame of St. Nicholas spread to other peoples.

5 • RELIGION

In ad 988, Prince Vladimir proclaimed Christianity as the religion of his realm in order to ally his kingdom with the powerful Byzantine Empire. Russian Orthodoxy grew out of this Byzantine influence. A typical Russian Orthodox church usually has many icons (images of persons who are revered as holy). Magnificent ceremonies on holy days are a well-known part of the Russian Orthodox tradition. The congregation typically stands during the service (many churches have no pews) and move to various stations around the sanctuary.

During the Soviet era, religious intolerance became official policy, and some 85 percent of all churches were shut down and the property seized. This was because the communists were atheists who saw the Russian Orthodox Church as a player in the corrupt imperial system of the tsars. The tsars claimed that their authority was God-given and they were supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. The Soviet government encouraged discrimination against those with spiritual beliefs, and Russians were even imprisoned and killed for their faith. Many religious activities were conducted secretly during that time.

Since the end of the Soviet Union, many of the closed churches have begun to reopen. For many, Russian Orthodoxy is a cultural as well as a religious institution, and it serves as a link to a pre-Soviet heritage. The Russian Orthodox Church survived the Soviet era and for many Russians is a symbol of the Russian national spirit and identity. There has also been a recent interest among Russians in faiths more common in the West (such as Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, and Jehovah's Witness).

Superstition and mysticism have also long been a part of Russian spiritual culture. Russians today are often very open to the possibility of psychic phenomena, mental telepathy, and UFOs (unidentified flying objects).

6 • MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Orthodox Christmas occurs on January 7 (the Russian Orthodox Church still follows the old Julian calendar, which differs from the modern Gregorian calendar by thirteen days). Epiphany, which occurs twelve days after Christmas, is a major holy day in the Russian Orthodox Church. Easter (in March or April) is the most important religious holiday and is highly revered by the Russian Orthodox Church with elaborate rituals and extravagance.

Russians also celebrate holidays that became prominent during the Soviet era. New Year's Day is a major holiday among modern Russians, and usually the week preceding January 1 is full of festivals. Women's Day is celebrated on March 8, and women usually get gifts and do not work on that day. May Day, on May 1, is no longer International Workers' Solidarity Day as it was during the Soviet era, but is now a festival known as Labor and Spring Day. Victory Day on May 9 commemorates the end of World War II in Europe and is usually observed as a time to solemnly honor those who died during that war.

7 • RITES OF PASSAGE

Completion of high school or university are important moments that mark the passage into adulthood. Entrance into military service was also revered in the same way. Weddings are usually followed by a trip in a special black limousine (marked with two large interlinked rings on the top) to pay respect and leave flowers at a local memorial.

8 • RELATIONSHIPS

In public situations, Russians can be very reserved and formal. In private and informal settings, they are very friendly and sincere. Russians use patronymics (where the father's first name forms the root of the child's middle name) in formal and business situations. For example, the patronymic for the son of Pavel (Paul) is "Pavlovich," and "Pavlovna" for a daughter. Adult acquaintances and casual friends usually talk to each other using the first name combined with the patronymic.

Veterans are highly honored in Russia, particularly anyone who defended or aided the Soviet Union during World War II.

9 • LIVING CONDITIONS

During the Soviet years, Russians received health care from a large state-run system that provided services free of charge. In theory, the socialist system was supposed to serve everyone fairly, use the most recent technology, promote preventive medicine, and be open to recommendations from the public. In reality, however, resources were distributed unequally. Political leaders received the best care and rural areas got poor equipment and inexperienced personnel. Although medical care was free, many health care professionals moonlighted to make extra money because official health care usually involved long lines and waiting lists. Although the number of doctors doubled from the 1960s to the 1980s, health indicators such as illness rates and life expectancy worsened during that time.

10 • FAMILY LIFE

Russian women typically get married between the ages of nineteen and twenty-two, while men are usually between twenty and twenty-four years old at marriage. During the Soviet era, nonreligious marriages became common, and new Soviet marriage customs developed. Couples who decided to marry would have to register at a local office, where they would be assigned a wedding date that allowed them enough time to reconsider.

Although Russian society favors large families, the birth rate among Russians has been low since the 1970s, due to economic uncertainty and a high frequency of abortions among Russian women. This was especially true during the Soviet years, when contraceptives were often unavailable. Most urban Russian families have only one or two children, but rural families frequently have more.

Russian adults typically do not hesitate to assist any child in need, and parents will often make tremendous personal sacrifices for their children. It is also common for Russian adults to scold any misbehaving child, regardless of relation. Since so many households have only a single child, Russian parents are often accused of raising a generation of spoiled children.

11 • CLOTHING

Most Russians wear Western-style clothing on a daily basis and for special occasions. Jeans and other types of practical work clothes are often worn as well. Russians usually try to appear as neatly groomed and dressed as possible when out in public. Many Russians do not possess a large wardrobe, but will often try to have just a few garments of high quality.

Traditional costumes are usually only seen during cultural performances or sometimes in the country. Young Russian girls often wear huge bows in their hair. Older women often wear a large kerchief or scarf over the head and tied under the chin. This headcovering is often referred to as a babushka, named after the Russian word for "grandmother." Men and women wear fur hats to keep warm during the frigid winter months.

12 • FOOD

Russians typically drink chai (hot tea). A typical Russian meal has four courses: zakuski (appetizers), pervoye (first), vtoroye (second), and sladkoe (dessert). Zakuski usually include fish, cold cuts, or salads. Alcoholic drinks such as pivo (beer), vodka, konyak (brandy), or kvass (made from rye) are customarily served during a formal meal. Ikra (caviar), a famous Russian appetizer made from harvested sturgeon eggs, is also a part of formal Russian cuisine. Borshch (borscht) is a traditional everyday Russian soup, made with red beets and beef, usually served with a dollop of sour cream. Blini are small crepes served with different types of fillings; pirozhki are fried rolls that usually have a meat or vegetable filling. Morozhenoye (ice cream) is a popular year-round treat. Kartoshki (potatoes) are often served at meals, either boiled, mashed, as pancakes, or as a kugel (baked pudding).

13 • EDUCATION

After Russian children are about one year old, they go to a day nursery called a yasli until they are about three years old. From age three to age six or seven, Russians attend detski sad (kindergarten). Elementary school (grades one to four) is called nachalnaya shkola. At age eleven, Russian children enter the fifth grade and stay in srednaya shkola (high school) through the tenth grade, usually at age seventeen. After the ninth grade, a student may follow one of three educational paths: vocational school, professional training at a tekhnikum (secondary specialized school), or two years of general high school as preparation for university studies. In order to go to a high school, students need to pass an exam in language and mathematics at the end of the ninth grade.

Attending a university or science institute is difficult because there is much competition just to get in. There is a series of special examinations, and many students will spend a whole year studying for those tests. A program of college takes five years for a master's degree (there is no equivalent to a bachelor's degree in Russian universities) or six years for a medical degree.

Children are exposed at an early age to systems that stress or value collective efforts. Students in schools often perform in groups and are graded as a team rather than as individuals. Teachers often tell students their grades out loud, so that each person knows what grade the others received.

14 • CULTURAL HERITAGE

Russian epic songs, known as byliny, were traditionally sung by peasants and date back to before the sixteenth century. Some of the byliny are probably over a thousand years old. One of the typical Yuletide observances by Russians is the singing of kolyadi, carols that have their roots in pagan culture. The verses typically come from old songs about the sun, moon, and stars.

The most well-known folk instruments are probably the balalaika (a triangular guitar with three strings) and the garmon' (concertina). Some instruments, such as the gusli (psaltery), gudok (similar to a rebec, a primitive violin), and rog (horn) have been a part of Russian folk music for over a thousand years.

Classical Russian literature is an important part of Russian culture. Poetry recitals, going to plays, and discussing novels are all popular activities for Russians. These activities are enjoyed by Russians of all social levels, not just by an educated few. Russians often revere their poets, playwrights, and authors as popular celebrities.

15 • EMPLOYMENT

During the Soviet years, the government controlled labor by setting wages and terms of employment. The problems that came with government control over the labor market, however, were huge. Production goals were set by the state and were supposed to replace profit as a motive. Consumer goods were often given a low priority for production, which meant that there were often shortages of everyday items. Workers had no incentive to be productive, while factory managers had little motivation to operate efficiently. A popular saying by workers during the Soviet years summarizes the situation: "We pretend to work, and they pretend to pay us."

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, many workers found themselves unemployed. As a result, unemployment and homelessness became visible in post-Soviet society. However, private businesses and money-making opportunities have also risen out of this situation.

16 • SPORTS

Soccer and hockey are popular team sports that Russians enjoy playing as well as watching. Sports societies and organizations were prominent in the Soviet years, and the government promoted participation in a wide variety of sports. The role of sports in Russian life makes international competitions, such as the Olympics, very important social rallying events.

Skiing and ice skating are popular recreational activities. Tennis has become increasingly more popular since the mid-1950s. Gymnastics and acrobatics are also prominent, perhaps due to the influence of ballet and the circus on popular culture. Baseball, basketball, and golf have been growing in popularity as well.

Russian society reveres shakhmahty (chess) as a sport. During the Soviet years, chess masters became highly respected members of society and often received special privileges and honors. Chess instruction starts in kindergarten, and children study the strategies and techniques of champions before they begin serious competition at around age ten. There are thousands of Russian children who have achieved the International Chess Federation's rank of chess master.

17 • RECREATION

Russians are fond of outdoor activities. It is not unusual to see people outdoors playing chess or musical instruments and singing, even during the cold winters. The circus is traditionally a popular form of entertainment among Russians.

Russians also have a strong ballet tradition, which started in 1738 and was patterned after the classical French style. During the 1800s, many new ballets were choreographed using traditional Russian themes and compositions. Russian ballet is known for its elaborate choreography and stages.

18 • CRAFTS AND HOBBIES

Traditional Russian folk art often uses elaborate designs on everyday objects. The designs are sometimes simply spirals or other patterns, but they might also be scenes from fairy tales or of famous people or places. Perhaps the best-known lacquered Russian folk art piece is the matryoshka, a series of wooden dolls that nest inside each other. The dolls usually show a woman in traditional dress, but in recent years other themes have included modern political figures, celebrities, and holiday designs.

19 • SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russians have been confronted with many of the old social problems that existed during the Soviet era, as well as with a new set of problems brought about by the rapid changes in society. The change to private ownership created new opportunities but also resulted in high unemployment in many areas. Because of high inflation and economic instability, many elderly persons who live on a government pension are now very poor. Life expectancy and health rates have plunged as well.

Ethnic hostilities have flared up in some parts of Russia that were conquered either by the Soviet government or during the imperial Russian era. When the Soviet government collapsed, there was enough instability for some areas to gain partial independence or even try to break away completely from the Russian government. The fiercest fighting of this type occurred in Chechnya, a region in the Caucasus Mountains near Georgia. Between 1994 and 1996, thousands of Russian troops were sent into the area, and many people on both sides were killed.

Alcohol abuse has traditionally been a problem for the Russians. Alcoholism was prevalent during the Soviet years and is still a problem today. Family violence is often a consequence of alcoholism.

Crime rates have risen rapidly in Russia since the end of the Soviet Union, which has made the economic situation even worse. Much of the crime problem is due to the threats and violence caused by organized crime, which has gained considerable power in some areas. Organized crime is also aided in some places because of corruption among local officials. Russians often look down on the "new rich," who are assumed to be criminals.

Unemployment is high for women, and prostitution has become a popular way for women to make money. Many teenage girls believe that a career in prostitution will pay more than most legitimate professions ever would, regardless of education. About one-fourth of Russia's prostitutes have received some sort of higher education.

20 • BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, Helen. Russia. Austin, Tex.: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1996.

Bickman, Connie. Russia. Edina, Minn.: Abdo & Daughters, 1994.

Brown, Archie, Michael Kaser, and Gerald S. Smith, ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union. Cambridge: University Press, 1994.

Murrell, Kathleen Berton. Russia. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998.

Schomp, Virginia. Russia: New Freedoms, New Challenges. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Benchmark Books, 1996.

Streissguth, Thomas. A Ticket to Russia. Minneapolis, Minn.: CarolRhoda Books, 1997.

WEBSITES

Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C. Russia. [Online]Available http://www.russianembassy.org/, 1998.

Interknowledge Corp. and Russian National Tourist Office. Russia. [Online] Available http://www.interknowledge.com/russia/, 1998.

World Travel Guide. Russia. [Online] Available http://www.wtgonline.com/country/ru/gen.html, 1998.

RUSSIANS

The earliest origins of Russian culture are in dispute. Some believe that the ancestors of the modern Russians were seventh- or ninth-century migrants from the Vistula River valley (now Poland). Other archaeological evidence suggests that Slavic pastoralists may have spread across the central plains of Eurasia as much as a thousand years earlier, coexisting alongside northern Finnic and Lithuanian tribes. Whatever their prehistory, people sharing the same language, beliefs, social practices, and religion have occupied what is now Russia for at least a millennium. By the tenth century c.e., Eastern Slavic society was culturally distinct and highly developed in terms of agriculture, technology, commerce, and governance. Prince Vladimir I brought Byzantine Christianity to Kiev in 988 and sponsored the baptism of the peoples of Rus, a gradual process that blended Slavic pre-Christian practices with Eastern Orthodoxy.

The Russian Empire grew steadily from the eighteenth to the twentieth century through colonization of Siberia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. The Soviet era brought further territorial expansion. Population density also grew throughout the millennium. By 1991, the year of the end of the Soviet Union, the population of the Russian Federation was 146,393,000. Ethnic Russians comprised 81 percent of this number, with more than one hundred other ethnic nationalities, many of them culturally Russified, making up the rest. There is a recognizably Russian culture among the population of the Russian Federation and strong cultural continuity among the Russians living in the newly independent republics of Central Asia, the Baltic region, and the Caucasus.

Russia's cultural history is multifaceted, encompassing both the distinct patterns of the rural peasantry and the intricate social rituals of the aristocracy, the mercantile caste, the bureaucracy, and other groups. Russia's thousand-year history of class stratification, imperial growth and contraction, political consolidation and disintegration, repression and relaxation, messianism and self-examination, and socioeconomic and cultural interconnections with other nations has had far-reaching effects on every aspect of Russian national culture.

For many centuries, the question of whether Russian culture was more "eastern" or "western" was a burning issue. Situated at the crossroads of major civilizations and empires—Scandinavian, Byzantine, Persian, Chinese, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, British—the peoples of Russia have profoundly influenced and been influenced by them all in terms of trade, technology, language, religion, politics, and the arts.

Since at least the time of Peter the Great, Russian writers, artists, politicians, and philosophers, as well as ordinary people in everyday discourse, have engaged in intensive cultural self-examination. Ethnic Russians have struggled to redefine their national identity in the wake of the Soviet collapse and the turmoil that accompanied the end of communism.

The northern climate has influenced cultural, social, and political institutions, settlement patterns, household configurations, village politics, agricultural systems, and technologies. Defiance of the natural limitations of this harsh environment is seen throughout Russian history and plays a significant role in local identity.

country and city

In 1917 the population of Russia was more than 80 percent rural. The disruptions of the Soviet period—civil war, rural collectivization, world war—brought a massive migration to the cities. By 1996, 73 percent of the population was urban. Although there are still tens of thousands of small villages, many are simply disappearing as older people die and the younger generation departs. But despite the demise of rural communities, much of the urban population retains strong material and psychological ties to the countryside. Many own modest dachas within an hour or two of their city apartments and spend their weekends and summers gardening, hiking, hunting, gathering mushrooms and berries, and swimming in lakes and rivers. Some people maintain ties to their natal villages or those of their parents or grandparents and travel there to mark significant family events.

In the years since the collapse of the Soviet Union, a tiny minority has accrued enough wealth to build private homes and estates on the outskirts of the cities, but most people live in small apartments in apartment blocks. Space in flats can be tight, so a single room may serve as living room, bedroom, and dining room. Domestic furnishing is fairly consistent, for reasons of both cultural style and limited purchasing power. The range of consumer décor choices has become enormous in the largest cities but elsewhere only slightly better than it was during the Soviet period, when state stores offered little design variation. Architectural and domestic styles are changing gradually with growing consumer opportunities and increased attention to global fashions.

At home, people spend much time in the kitchen, eating and drinking tea (or something stronger), talking, reading, watching television, cooking, or working on crafts. When guests come, people sit at the table for the entire gathering. Public spaces around apartment blocks are often decayed and dirty, so the threshold to a family's apartment marks a transition to private, clean space. Everyone removes shoes just inside the doorway to prevent dirt being brought inside, and slippers are worn at home.

Urban parks are an important space of everyday life. People spend leisure time strolling or sitting on benches to talk, smoke, play chess, or read. Smaller urban parks may center on a statue of a writer or political leader, and these squares are popular meeting places. Public plazas in urban centers have played a role in political and social life for centuries. The most famous of all, Moscow's Red Square, is a historical site of government ritual, revolutionary protest, and rebellion. The central sites where parades, concerts, and state funerals are held also provide a place for festivals, family outings, and commemorations.

gender relations, family, and kinship

Russian society has always been structured around gendered divisions of labor. Prerevolutionary rural communities were patrilocal; newly married women moved in with their husband's family and were fully subservient to his parents until they had borne sons. The details of household management were codified in texts such as the Domostroi that addressed even intimate practices of family life and patriarchal authority, influencing both the peasantry and the aristocracy. Around the turn of the twentieth century, rural and urban women of all classes experienced the loosening of gender norms,

and many women pushed the boundaries of their social options.

After the 1917 revolution, communist ideology promoted the liberation of women and families from oppressive norms and structures. Women engaged in what had been male-only work in agriculture, construction, and manufacturing. During the Soviet period, they played increasingly significant roles in medicine, engineering, the sciences, and other fields. By the 1980s, one-third of the deputies in the Supreme Soviet were female, and women accounted for more than 50 percent of the students in higher education. But though "liberated" to work in the public sphere, women often retained the burden of household labor. Moreover, their equal employment status was not fully reflected in the workplace, where gender discrimination was common.

Some of the hard-earned status of women eroded after 1991. Unemployment increased in the 1990s, and women were frequently the first discharged. Managerial jobs in the new commercial sectors were largely held by men, and a traditionalist view of work and family reasserted itself throughout society. The devaluation of women's labor contributions has been devastating for women who need to work. Some women became entrepreneurs, but they faced stiff gender prejudice in starting businesses. The percentage of women holding political office has declined, and women's participation in high levels of industry, the sciences, the arts, and the government has shrunk. Some young women turn to prostitution, or work in bars and nightclubs, which may seem to be a way to escape poverty.

Despite Soviet indoctrination, traditional gender ideologies never vanished: Men are not supposed to be able to cook, clean, or perform child care, whereas women are seen as driving cars, supervising others, and engaging in politics poorly. Women are held in high regard as mothers, nurturers, and bearers of culture. Although feminists have challenged these dichotomous gender norms, and few families can afford to divide labor along strict gender lines, such ideas are widespread. Students receive equal education, but some school activities and expectations are divided by gender.

Romantic love is the standard motivation for marriage, and cultural tradition idealizes the passion of lovers, often in a tragic form. People meet partners at school or university, at work, or at clubs or music venues. Premarital sex is generally tolerated. With little variation over the decades, twenty-three has been the average age at marriage. Almost half of all marriages end in divorce, with economic hardship and alcohol abuse being contributing factors. Ethnic intermarriage became fairly common in Soviet times.

The nuclear family is the fundamental domestic unit, and married couples crave apartments of their own. Since the housing shortage and the high price of new apartments make this difficult, family units are often multigenerational. Many couples with children live with a widowed parent, often a grandmother, who provides child care and cooking. A grandparent's monthly pension may be a crucial part of family income.

Kinship is reckoned bilaterally (counting both parents' sides), but naming is patrilineal. Until the mid-nineteenth century, kin terms for more than sixty relations were in use; since then the number of terms has greatly decreased. Even across distances, people maintain strong relations with their siblings, grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, and nieces and nephews, and many are close with even more distant relatives. Among the social factors that support such ties are the low level of geographic mobility, the importance of networks of mutual aid, and regular visits to relatives in ancestral villages for summer rest and gardening.

Childbirth practices reflect traditional ideas. Women stay in the hospital for at least a week after a birth, during which time fathers are allowed to see mother and baby only briefly. Infants used to be swaddled at birth and continue to be bundled tightly, especially when venturing outside. Many customary beliefs about medical or supernatural dangers surround pregnancy, birthing, and new babies.

Academic standards are high, and students are well trained in world history, foreign languages, music, mathematics, and science. Although the figures have gradually dropped since the Soviet years, more than 90 percent of the population completes secondary education, and around 12 percent go on for higher education. The literacy rate is one of the world's highest. Post-secondary education confers social prestige and is more and more essential for economic success.

religious beliefs and practices

Most Russians identify themselves as Orthodox Christians. Not all are active church members, but observance of major holidays is increasing. The state has returned thousands of churches, icons, and religious objects appropriated during the Soviet period to local religious communities. Orthodox practice hinges on the emotive experience of liturgy and the veneration of icons, and the faithful light candles, pray, and bow before sacred images of the Virgin Mary and the saints. Rural houses feature a special corner where the family's icon hangs, and many apartments have an icon shelf. Religious practices were proscribed during the Soviet era but continued anyway.

Pre-Christian practices and beliefs have persisted over a millennium of Orthodoxy. Traditional beliefs about forest and house spirits, the evil eye, and metaphysical healing are found everywhere—and are especially strong in rural areas. Certain prohibitions stem from them; for example, evil intentions are attracted by bragging about good fortune or health, and can be cured only by metaphysical intervention of some kind.

Folk medicine is highly developed. Herbal remedies are used for everyday maladies. Professional practitioners advertise their services for treating serious illnesses and life problems. Homeopathy, the application of leeches, mineral baths, light therapy, and other treatments are popular. Physicians may also prescribe herbal teas, tinctures, and plasters.

Proper treatment and remembrance of the dead is important. The dead are prevented from staying among the living by covering mirrors with black cloth, laying out the body in ways that help usher out the spirit, and accompanying the deceased from home to church and from church to cemetery in elaborate processions. In the church or hall where the body is displayed, mourners circle the open coffin counterclockwise and kiss the body or put flowers on it. After burial, mourners gather to share vodka and food while remembering the deceased with stories and anecdotes. The soul remains on earth for forty days, when a second gathering is held to bid it farewell as it departs for heaven. The anniversary of a death is memorialized every year; some people travel long distances to visit the graves of their loved ones.

calendrical ritual

Holidays fill the calendar. Some are Orthodox or pre-Christian, some mark historical events, some are secular, and a few, like Valentine's Day, are post-Soviet imports. March 8, International Women's Day, is a legal holiday. Men bring flowers to the women in their lives and congratulate female friends, coworkers, and relatives. May Day, commemorating international labor solidarity, heralds the coming of spring. Victory Day on May 9 celebrates the Soviet capture of Berlin and the end of World War II in Europe. This holiday is sacred to older people, who gather to remember family, friends, and comrades lost in the war. Russia Day, June 12, marks independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 with parades and fireworks. October Revolution Day, November 7, is celebrated mostly by communists nostalgic for Soviet power. New Year's Eve is the most lavish secular holiday. Grandfather Frost and the Snow Maiden leave gifts under a decorated New Year's Tree, and people gather for song, feasting, vodka, and champagne. The party may last all night. The observance of Christmas and Easter and other Orthodox holidays has grown since the end of Soviet religious repression.

food

Bead and potatoes are the basic everyday foods. Cabbage, carrots, and beets are staple vegetables; onions and garlic are used liberally. Russians generally love meat. Sausage, salami, pork, beef, mutton, chicken, and dried or salted fish are widely available and inexpensive.

Breakfast is a quick snack of coffee or tea with bread and sausage or cheese. Lunch is a hot meal, with soup, potatoes, macaroni, rice or buckwheat kasha, ground meat cutlets, and peas or grated cabbage (or, for business people, a quick meal in one of the increasing number of fast-food cafés). A later supper may consist of boiled potatoes, soured cabbage, and bread or simply bread and sausage or cheese. There is a huge array of cakes, pies, and chocolates.

Russian cuisine features many dairy products, such as tvorog, a local version of cottage cheese, and many hard cheeses and fermented milk products. These items can be purchased from large shops or farmers' markets or made at home. In provincial towns, fresh milk is sold from trucks, although bottles and cartons of pasteurized milk are available everywhere. Russians are great tea drinkers.

Fruits are widely cultivated in home gardens. Fruits and berries are made into preserves, compotes, cordials, and concentrates for the winter months. Mushroom picking is an art, and many people salt, dry, or pickle them. Cabbage, cucumbers, garlic, and tomatoes are salted or pickled. The chronic shortages of the Soviet era led many people to produce food for themselves. The impoverishment of the post-socialist era means that a significant portion of the population continues to depend on their own produce. Some estimates hold that 80 percent of the vegetables consumed in Russia are grown in small family plots.

Coffee has grown in popularity and is often served thick and strong. Although wine, beer, cognac, and champagne are popular, vodka reigns among alcoholic beverages.

Ceremonial occasions highlight food customs. Communal feasting marks birthdays, weddings, anniversaries, the achievement of a goal, important purchases, and major holidays. Tables are laden with salads, appetizers, sausage and cheese, and pickled foods, followed by meat and potatoes, and meat or cabbage pies. Vodka and wine are drunk throughout the meal, which may continue for many hours. Toasting is elaborate and can be sentimental, humorous, poetic, ribald, or reverential. Vodka is always drunk straight, accompanied by a pickled or salty food.

A growing number of people observe Lenten fasts during which they consume no meat, butter, eggs, or vodka. Easter provides an opportunity for a fast-breaking celebration with special foods.

everyday etiquette

Language rules play a significant part in good manners. When addressing elders, except for parents and grandparents, persons of higher status, strangers, and acquaintances, people use the second-person plural pronoun. The informal second-person singular is used only among friends, within the family, and among close coworkers of equal status. Addressing someone formally entails using the person's full name and patronymic. Misuse of the informal mode is insulting.

Table rituals are also important. Hosts and hostesses try to show unfailing generosity, and guests must accept hospitality with a willingness to be served, pampered, and stuffed full of food and drink.

Sitting on the floor or putting one's shoes on a table is prohibited. Proper femininity requires that clothes be immaculately clean and pressed, grooming fastidious, and comportment elegant and reserved. By contrast, in crowds, on lines, and on public transport, active shoving and pushing are the norm. In Soviet times, demure, nonflashy dress was valued, but this norm has changed with the explosion of fashion and the growth of subcultural identity.

The word uncultured is used by older people against family or strangers as a reprimand for inappropriate behavior. The public use of this reprimand diminished as the social status of elders fell after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and as aggressive behavior in the cities became a mark of the coolness of youth.

cultural symbols and arts

The cupolas of Moscow's St. Basil's Cathedral are a popular visual symbol of Russia both within the country and abroad. Photographs of St. Basil's and many other churches and cathedrals adorn homes, offices, and media images.

Bread symbolizes central aspects of the national self-image. It is the mark of hospitality, as in the ritual of khleb-sol ("bread and salt"), welcoming visitors with a round loaf with a salt cellar on top. In broader terms, bread is the symbol of life. Other foods are also cultural symbols: black caviar, which signifies luxury; mushrooms and berries, the gifts of forest and dacha; pancakes served before Lent; the potato, symbol of survival in hard times, and vodka, symbolizing camaraderie and mischief-making.

Forest plants, animals, and objects are also important symbols. Birches conjure up the romance of the countryside; wolf, bear, and fox, are ubiquitous in folktales and modern cartoons; the peasant cottage signifies the intimate world of the past. Inside the cottage are other cultural symbols: the huge clay stove, the samovar, and the Orthodox icon in its corner. Although most Russians live in urban apartments, images of traditional rural life are still meaningful.

Conversation is rich with metaphors and proverbs, summarizing a complex view of shared identity. Russians think of the soul (dusha ) as an internal spiritual conjunction of heart, mind, and culture. Friendship depends on a meeting of souls, accomplished through shared suffering or joy—or by feasting and drinking. Soul is said to be one of the metaphysical mechanisms that unite Russians into a people (narod ). Stemming from the ancient Slavic for "kin" and "birth," and meaning "citizens of a nation," "ethnic group," or "crowd," narod refers to the composite identity of the people through history and is often invoked by politicians. People speak in terms of belonging by "blood"; a person is thought of as having Russian blood, Jewish blood, Armenian blood, or some other ethnic blood, and culture is supposedly transmitted through the blood.

Cultural symbols abound in folk art. Animal, bird, plant, solar, and goddess motifs, and a palette of reds and golden yellows with traces of black and green prevail in painted wooden objects and embroidered textiles. Soviet state studios kept many folk media alive, and the postsocialist period has seen independent craftspersons return to traditional mythological motifs. Folk art objects are popular and are found in homes everywhere.

The end of Soviet power meant an explosive opening of Russia to the world, with all of the changes for better and worse that come with globalization. Popular culture in Russia has become characterized by the vibrant and fertile mixing of local and international styles in music, art, literature, and film. Obsessions with mafia criminals, the new wealthy (so-called New Russians), biznismeny, and modern technology fill the media. Yet alongside this, indigenous artistic genres, shared symbols and values, and social practices hold their own and continue to shape the world of meaning and identity.

See also: feminism; folklore; marriage and family life; nationalism in the arts; nationalities policy, soviet; nationalities policy, tsarist; nation and nationality; orthodoxy; peasantry; slavophiles

bibliography

Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam. (1992). Russian Traditional Culture: Religion, Gender, and Customary Law. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Billington, James H. (1970). The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture. New York: Vintage Books.

Boutenko, Irene A., and Razlogov, Kirill E., eds. (1997). Recent Social Trends in Russia, 1960–1995. Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press.

Boym, Svetlana. (1994). Common Places: Mythologies of Everyday Life in Russia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Dunn, Stephen P., and Dunn, Ethel. (1988). The Peasants of Central Russia. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Hilton, Alison. (1995). Russian Folk Art. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Hubbs, Joanna. (1988). Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Ivanits, Linda. (1989). Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Kingston-Mann, Esther, and Mixter, Timothy, eds. (1991). Peasant Economy, Culture and Politics of European Russia, 1800–1921. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Laitin, David D. (1998). Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Ledeneva, Alena V. (1998). Russia's Economy of Favours: Blat, Networking, and Informal Exchange. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Millar, James R., and Wolchik, Sharon L., eds. (1994). The Social Legacy of Communism. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.

Pesmen, Dale. (2000). Russia and Soul: An Exploration. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Pilkington, Hilary. (1998). Migration, Displacement, and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia. London: Routledge.

Ries, Nancy. (1997). Russian Talk: Culture and Conversation During Perestroika. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Rzhevsky, Nicholas, ed. (1998). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Shalin, Dmitri N., ed. (1996). Russian Culture at the Crossroads: Paradoxes of Post-Communist Consciousness. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Sokolov, Yuri M. (1971). Russian Folklore, tr. Catherine Ruth Smith. Detroit: Folklore Associates.

Nancy Ries

Russia

Recipes

1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT

Russia is the largest country in Europe, with 6.6 million square miles (17 million square kilometers). It is 1.8 times the size of the United States. Russian land extends to the Arctic Ocean in the north. Russia shares borders with China and Mongolia to the south, and Ukraine, Latvia, Belarus, Lithuania, and Finland to the west. About three-fourths of the land is arable (able to be farmed), although the output from farms decreased during the 1980s and 1990s. After the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) broke apart in 1991, the Russian government started a program to encourage small farmers. From 1991 to 2001 about 150,000 new small farms were established.

2 HISTORY AND FOOD

Russia has a history of a diet based on crops that can thrive in cold climates, such as grains (rye, barley, buckwheat, and wheat), root vegetables (beets, turnips, potatoes, onions), and cabbage. Ivan III (ruled 1462–1505) brought Italian craftsmen to Russia to build public buildings. These craftsmen introduced pasta, frozen desserts (gelato and sherbet), and pastries to the Russian diet.

Peter I (ruled 1682–1725), known as "The Great," included a French chef in his court. It was during his reign that Russians began to serve meals in courses, rather than to serve all the food at once. From that time until the Russian Revolution in 1917, many wealthy Russian families employed French chefs. When French chefs returned home to France, they introduced popular Russian dishes to the people of Europe. The Salade Russe, known in Russia as Salat Olivier or Salad Rusky was created during the era of Nicholas II (in power until 1917) by a French chef.

Salat Olivier (Russian Salad)

Ingredients

• 3 large potatoes
• 2 carrots, boiled and diced
• 4 hardboiled eggs; 3 should be chopped and 1 cut into quarters for garnish
• ½ onion, finely chopped
• 2 dill pickles, chopped
• ½ cup canned or frozen peas, drained
• ¼ pound bologna, chopped
• 2 to 4 Tablespoons mayonnaise
• 4 to 6 large lettuce leaves

Procedure

1. Peel the potatoes, cut them in half, and place them in a saucepan. Cover the potatoes with water, heat over high heat until the water boils, and simmer until the potatoes can be pierced with a fork (about 15 to 20 minutes). Drain and allow to cool.
2. Repeat the same process with the two carrots.
3. When both are cooled, cut into cubes and place in a large mixing bowl.
4. Add remaining ingredients (except mayonnaise) and toss gently to combine.
5. Stir in 2 Tablespoons of mayonnaise, or enough mayonnaise to hold ingredients together.
6. Arrange clean, dry lettuce leaves on a platter, and mound the salad in a pyramid shape in the center.
7. Spread more mayonnaise over the top of the salad like frosting.
8. Garnish with hardboiled egg slices.

Serves 6 to 8.

From the time of the Russian Revolution in 1917 until 1981, all of the restaurants in Russia (then part of the USSR) were owned and operated by the government. Most stores were run by the government, too. Due to food shortages and inefficient store management, families had to stand in long lines to buy bread, meat, and other basic food items. In 1981 President Mikhail Gorbachev began reforms that culminated in the 1991 breakup of the USSR and the beginnings of a democracy. But the sale and purchase of food was still regulated by the government as of the end of the twentieth century.

3 FOOD OF THE RUSSIANS

Traditional Russian cooking relied on a pech' or oven, rather than a burner as a heat source. The oven had two compartments—one for slow cooking and the other for quick baking. The pech' also heated the homes of the peasants, and therefore occupied a central spot in the main room of the house. Traditional dishes include roasted meats, vegetables, soups, and stews. A staple of the Russian diet is dark, heavy bread. It is not uncommon for a family of four to eat three or four loaves of bread a day. Also popular are bliny (thin pancakes), and a variety of savory and sweet pies called either piroghi (large pies) orpirozhki (small pies). They are usually filled with fish, cheese, jam, cabbage, mushrooms, chopped hard-cooked eggs, or meat. The possibilities are unlimited. These pies are served alone or with soup at lunch. Hot sweetened tea, called chai, is served frequently from a samovar (large brass boiler) that heats water and steeps the tea leaves to form a concentrated mixture.

Russians eat more fish than most other cultures because, under the Russian Orthodox Church, many days of the year were fasting days and fish was the only meat allowed. Sturgeon is the favorite fish of the Russians, from which black caviar (fish eggs) is collected. Kissel, a piece of stewed fruit thickened with cornstarch with milk poured over it, is a traditional dessert.

Bliny is a traditional Russian dish that is eaten in great quantity during Maslyanitsa (Butter Week, the Russian equivalent of Mardi Gras), the last week before Lent. Good bliny must be very thin, the thinner the better. Bliny may be served with sweet or savory filling or with butter, sour cream, caviar, fresh fruit, or smoked fish.

Bliny (Russian Pancakes)

Ingredients

• 3 eggs
• 2 Tablespoons sugar
• ½ teaspoon salt
• 1½ cups milk
• 1 cup flour (buckwheat flour is traditional)
• ½ teaspoon vanilla
• Vegetable oil

Procedure

1. Beat eggs until foamy in a medium mixing bowl. Add sugar, salt, and milk.
2. Add flour and mix well until no lumps remain. Add vanilla.
3. Pour a little vegetable oil into a small frying pan. Heat the pan over medium heat.
4. Using a ladle, pour a very thin layer of batter into the pan.
5. Cook until edges begin to curl and brown, and then carefully turn to brown the other side.
6. Serve with filling (recipe follows). May also be served with butter, jam, sour cream, or fresh fruit.

Bliny Filling

Ingredients

• 1 package frozen berries (strawberries, raspberries, or blueberries)
• ¼ cup water
• 2 Tablespoons cornstarch.

Procedure

1. Thaw frozen berries, and place into a saucepan.
2. In a measuring cup or drinking glass, dissolve cornstarch completely in ¼ cup water.
3. Stir cornstarch mixture into berries and heat slowly until the berry mixture thickens.

Cabbage Pirozhki or Piroghi

This recipe involves three steps: making the dough, making the filling, and assembling the pies.

Ingredients for dough

• 2½ cups sifted flour
• 1½ teaspoons baking powder
• 1 teaspoon salt
• ½ cup vegetable shortening
• 2 Tablespoons butter
• 1 egg
• Ice water

Ingredients for filling

• 5 cups chopped cabbage (2 small heads of cabbage)
• 2 Tablespoons salt
• 4 cups boiling water
• 2 chopped onions
• 4 Tablespoons butter
• 1 Tablespoon dill or parsley, minced
• 2 hard-boiled eggs

Procedure

1. Make dough: Sift dry ingredients together. Add shortening and butter into dry mixture, mixing with a pastry blender or a fork until the mixture looks like oatmeal.
2. Beat the egg slightly in a measuring cup and add enough ice water to make ½ cup fluid. Pour egg and water into the flour mixture and mix well.
3. Roll out the dough on a board or countertop dusted with more flour. If the dough seems sticky, sprinkle the surface of the dough and the rolling surface with more flour.
4. To make piroghi (large pie): Roll dough into a rectangle approximately 24 inches x 16 inches. It is ready for stuffing.
5. To make pirozhki (small pies): Take eggsized balls of dough, flatten, and roll out. Repeat with remaining dough. The small pies are now ready for stuffing.
6. Make filling: Remove the tough outer leaves from 2 heads of cabbage, and cut the heads into quarters, removing the tough core. Chop the cabbage leaves finely.
7. Mix cabbage with salt in a bowl and let stand for 15 minutes. Pour the cabbage into a colander in the sink and drain.
8. Heat 4 cups of water to boiling and carefully pour boiling water over the cabbage in the colander. Let drain.
9. Next, melt the butter in a large skillet and add the chopped onion. Sauté until softened (about 5 minutes).
10. Add the drained cabbage to the skillet and continue cooking, stirring frequently with a wooden spoon, until the cabbage is soft (about 30 minutes).
11. While the cabbage is cooking, remove the shells from the hard-boiled eggs and chop the eggs.
12. Add dill or parsley and chopped eggs to the cooked cabbage and cook for 2 or 3 minutes longer. Remove from heat.
13. Preheat oven to 375°F.
14. To assemble piroghi: Transfer the dough rectangle to the greased cookie sheet.
15. Spread the cabbage mixture over ½ the dough, fold the dough over and pinch the edges together.
16. To assemble pirozhki: Fill each pirozhki with about 1½ Tablespoons of the cabbage mixture.
17. Pinch edges together and place on a greased cookie sheet with the seamless edge up.
18. Bake the piroghi for about 30 minutes, until golden.
19. Bake the pirozhkis for about 15 minutes.

Serves 8 to 10.

4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS

The Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the New Year on January 1, Christmas on January 7 and Epiphany on January 19. At New Year's, Ded Moroz (Grandfather Frost), a character from folklore, may be seen at holiday events distributing pryaniki, a sweet cookie to signify wishes for a sweet new year. The Russian equivalent for Mardi Gras happens during Maslyanitsa (Butter-week) when bliny are eaten nonstop. For Easter, Orthodox Russian women bake cakes and decorate them elaborately to resemble the rounded domes of the Orthodox churches. The cakes are given either to the priest on Easter Sunday, or served at home. The Easter bread is always cut lengthwise instead of in vertical slices. Pashka, a cold mixture of soft cheese (tvorog ), butter, almonds, and currants, is formed in a special mold shaped like a pyramid with the top cut off to represent the tomb of Jesus. Russian Easter eggs are often colored red to signify the resurrection of Jesus. This is done by hard-boiling eggs with either red onion peel or beets. Roast pork is served for the main meal at Easter. A roast goose is traditional at Christmas.

Pashka

Ingredients

• 2 packages (8-ounces each) cream cheese
• 1 cup (2 sticks) butter at room temperature
• 1¾ cup confectioners' sugar
• 2 teaspoons vanilla
• 1 cup currants
• 1 cup toasted almonds

Optional: Clean new flowerpot and clean muslin fabric (or clean fabric from a sheet or pillowcase) to mold pashka

Procedure

1. Put cream cheese into a large mixing bowl and beat until very smooth.
2. Add butter and continue beating until well mixed and very smooth and creamy.
3. Add sugar, a little at a time, beating well. Add vanilla.
4. Add currants and toasted almonds and stir gently to combine.
5. If flowerpot is not being used to mold pashka, pour cheese mixture into a pie pan, cake pan, or other serving dish. Smooth the top surface, cover with plastic wrap, and refrigerate at least two hours, until ready to serve.
6. To use flowerpot mold: Line the flowerpot with the fabric, smoothing it to line the surface of the pot. Transfer the cheese mixture to the flowerpot, pushing the mixture down to remove air pockets. Fold the fabric over the top, and place a small saucer on the top to weight down the mixture. Refrigerate on a plate (some liquid may leak out of the hole in the bottom of the flowerpot) for at least two hours. To serve, remove saucer, unwrap fabric, and put a serving plate over the flowerpot and turn it upside down to unmold. Carefully remove the fabric.

Serves 10 to 12.

Sbiten (Russian National Winter Beverage)

Ingredients

• 10 cups water
• 1 pound berry jam (16 ounces)
• ½ cup honey
• 1 teaspoon ginger
• 1 teaspoon cloves
• ½ teaspoon cinnamon

Procedure

1. Measure the water into a large pot and heat until the water boils.
2. Stir in jam, honey, ginger, cloves, and cinnamon.
3. Simmer, stirring constantly, for 5 minutes. Ladle into mugs and serve hot.

Serves 10 to 12.

5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS

Russians eat four meals a day, starting with zavtrak or "morning coffee." Lunch, or obyed, is a small two-dish meal lasting from 12 noon until 1 p.m. Usually kasha, or baked buckwheat, is served at lunch. Dinner, or uzhin, is the most elaborate meal beginning at 6 p.m. and typically featuring four courses. The first course is zakuski or "little bite." Zakuski may feature a few simple appetizers (such as bread and cheese or herbed butter) to twenty or more elaborate creations requiring hours of preparation. Selodka, or herring with a vinegar and oil dressing, is the best-known appetizer, and it almost always makes an appearance during the zakuski. The first course is often soup, although soup may also be the entrée. Favorite soups include borscht (beet soup traditionally served with sour cream); shchyee (cabbage soup); and solyanka (a tomato-based chowder). The main course may be roast meat, with potatoes and root vegetables. Dessert may be ice cream or cheesecake. A few hours after dinner, usually around 9 or 10 p.m., Russians have their fourth and final meal of the day, centered on the samovar (ornate urn for serving coffee or tea) for tea and cakes, such as Sharlotka (Apple Cake). Visitors are encouraged to drop in for tea at night, sometimes staying until midnight. Restaurants often end the meal with Klyukva S Sakharom (Frosted Cranberries).

Borscht (Beet Soup)

Ingredients

• 3 cans (14 ounce) beef broth
• 2 medium beets
• 1 carrot
• 1 onion
• 3 potatoes
• ¼ head of cabbage
• 1 Tablespoon tomato paste
• ½ green pepper
• ½ fresh parsley
• Salt
• Pepper
• 1 teaspoon lemon juice
• 2 cloves garlic, chopped
• Vegetable or olive oil
• Sour cream as garnish
• Sugar, to taste

Procedure

1. Prepare onions and carrots by chopping them.
2. Pour a little vegetable oil into a skillet and add the carrots and onions. Cook until softened, and set aside.
3. Peel the beets and chop or slice both into small bite-sized pieces.
4. Remove the seeds from the green pepper and chop.
5. Put the chopped beets and green pepper into a small saucepan and add about ½ cup of broth and the tomato paste. Cover the pot and simmer the vegetables for about 30 minutes until the beets are tender.
6. While the beets and peppers are cooking, pour the remaining broth into a large saucepan and heat it almost to boiling.
7. Chop the cabbage and add it to the broth.
8. Peel the potatoes, cut them into bite-size pieces and add to broth.
9. Add cooked onions and carrots to broth. Simmer the soup for about 20 minutes.
10. When the beets are tender, add them to the broth. Add lemon juice, salt, sugar, parsley, and garlic cloves.
11. Simmer 10 more minutes, and serve hot, with a dollop of sour cream in each bowl.

Serves 10 to 12.

Sharlotka (Apple Cake)

Ingredients

• 1 cup flour
• 1 cup sugar
• 3 eggs
• 3 tart apples, such as Granny Smith

Procedure

1. Preheat oven to 350°F.
2. Combine flour, sugar, and eggs, beating well to completely dissolve the sugar.
3. Wash the apples, cut them into quarters, and cut away the core and seeds.
4. Cut the apples into thin slices.
5. Grease a round cake pan and dust it lightly with flour or plain, unseasoned white bread crumbs to prevent the cake from sticking.
6. Arrange all apple slices on the bottom of the pan.
7. Pour the batter mixture over the apples, spreading it gently with a rubber spatula.
8. Bake for 25 minutes until a toothpick, inserted into the center of the cake, comes out dry and the cake is beginning to pull away from the edges of the pan.
9. Cool 10 minutes on a wire rack. Run a knife around the edges of the pan, and place a serving plate over the pan. Invert the pan (turn the pan upside-down) onto the serving plate. May be served warm or at room temperature.

Serves 10 to 12.

Klyukva S Sakharom (Frosted Cranberries)

Ingredients

• 1 pound bag of fresh cranberries
• 1 egg white
• 1½ cups sugar
• 2-foot long piece of wax paper

Procedure

1. Preheat the oven to 150°F (lowest setting possible).
2. Beat the egg white with an electric mixer or wire whisk until foamy but not stiff.
3. Rinse the cranberries in a colander, discarding any shriveled or spoiled berries.
4. Pour the cranberries into the egg white, stirring gently until the berries are all completely coated.
5. Measure the sugar into another large bowl. Add the cranberries, and toss until the berries are completely covered with sugar.
6. Spread the cranberries on a shallow baking pan, such as a cookie sheet, with edges.
7. Bake for about 12 minutes until the sugar has melted.
8. Spread a 2-foot long piece of wax paper out on the counter or table.
9. Spread the cranberries out on the paper, separating them, to dry.
10. Leave them undisturbed overnight. The frosted cranberries will keep in an airtight container or plastic bag for 2 weeks.

Historically, when guests first arrived at a Russian home, the hostess welcomed them with a loaf of bread and a small amount of salt. The guest was expected to take a piece of the bread, dip it in the salt, and eat it. This explains the Russian word for hospitality, khlebosol'stvo (khleb "bread" and sol "salt"). The hostess sits at the head of the table with the most respected guest at her right. Her husband sits where he wants to sit.

Semechki (Toasted Sunflower Seeds)

Ingredients

• 1 cup sunflower seeds in the hull
• 2 Tablespoons butter
• Salt, to taste (optional)

Procedure

1. Preheat oven to 325°F.
2. Melt the butter in a bowl in the microwave or in a skillet over low heat on the stove.
3. Toss the seeds in the butter, coating them well.
4. Spread the seed on a cookie sheet.
5. Bake for 15 to 20 minutes, until just golden. Sprinkle with salt. (Seeds may be shelled first, and then sprinkled with salt if preferred.)

Chai Po-Russki (Tea, Russian-Style)

Chai Po-Russki (tea) is usually served with a variety of cakes and candies.

Ingredients

• 1 teaspoon loose black tea per person, plus 1 teaspoon "for the pot"
• 1 cup water per person
• 1 whole cardamom pod or ½ teaspoon cardamom
• 1 lemon, sliced
• Cream

Procedure

1. Measure tea into a saucepan. Add water and cardamom and bring to a boil.
2. Remove from heat and allow to steep for 2 minutes. Pour tea through a strainer into cups.
3. Add slices of lemon or cream to taste. (Do not use lemon and cream together, as the lemon will curdle the cream.)

A meal might consist of borscht (beet soup) with bread and pickles, or could be more elaborate. The soup must be served very hot. All dishes are served at the table from large serving dishes. It is proper for the hostess to encourage her guests to eat more than they really want to eat.

Lining many city streets are vending machines selling gazirovannaya voda (sparkling water), not in cans or bottles, but dispensed into a glass. The machine includes a scrubbing brush with cold water for the customer to use to clean the glass before using it. Also readily available are sunflower seeds sold by vendors at open stalls from large burlap sacks. Many Russians snack on sunflower seeds daily.

6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION

At the beginning of 2001, Russians continued to struggle with shortages of some food items. According to a World Bank report, about 3 percent of children under age five are underweight, and about 13 percent have not grown to the appropriate height for their age. These are both signs that a small percentage of young children in Russia are not receiving adequate nutrition from their daily diet.

7 FURTHER STUDY

Books

Goldstein, Darra. A La Russe: A Cookbook of Russian Hospitality. 2nd ed. Montpelier, VT: Russian Life Books, 1999.

Kropotkin, Alexandra. The Best of Russian Cooking. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1997.

Toomre, Joyce. Classic Russian Cooking: Elena Molokhovets' A 'Gift to Young Housewives.' Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992.

Visson, Lynn. The Russian Heritage Cookbook. Dana Point, CA: Casa Dana Books, 1998.

Volokh, Anne with Mavis Manus. The Art of Russian Cuisine. New York: MacMillan, 1983.

Web Sites

Russian Foods. [Online] Available http://www.russianfoods.com/ (accessed January 31, 2001).

Zina's Cookbook. [Online] Available http://www.russophile.com/cook/index.html (accessed August 17, 2001).

RUSSIA

Spiritualism was first introduced in Russia by people who had been introduced to the subject abroad, witnessing manifestations of psychic phenomena and acquaintance with the works of Allan Kardec, the French exponent of Spiritism.

The new doctrine found its followers chiefly among the members of the professions and the aristocracy, finally including the reigning monarch of that time, Alexander II. Members of his family and entourage also became devoted adherents. Because of the immense influence of such converts, the progress of Spiritualism in Russia was made smoother.

Much of the spiritualist propaganda, manifestations, and publications were conducted under various ruses and deceptions such as the circulation of a paper entitled "The Rebus," professedly devoted to innocent rebuses and charades and only incidentally mentioning Spiritualism, the real object of its being.

Among the distinguished devotees of the subject was Prince Wittgenstein, aide-de-camp and trusted friend of Alexander II, who not only avowed his beliefs openly but arranged for various mediums, including D. D. Home, to give séances before the emperor. The Czar was impressed, and, from that time onward he consulted mediums and their prophetic powers as to the advisability of any contemplated change or step in his life.

Another Russian of high position socially and officially was Alexander N. Aksakof, who interested himself in Spiritualism, arranging séances to which he invited the scientific men of the University, editing a paper Psychische Studien, translating into Russian the works of Emanuel Swedenborg and various French, American, and English writers of the same subject, thus becoming a leader in the movement.

Later, with his friends Boutlerof and Wagner, professors respectively of chemistry and zoology at the University of St. Petersburg, he specially commenced a series of séances for the investigation of the phenomena in an experimental manner and a scientific committee was formed under the leadership of Professor Mendeleyef, who afterward issued an adverse report on the matter. This accused the mediums of trickery and their followers of easy credulity and the usual warfare proceeded between the scientific investigators and spiritual enthusiasts.

At the other extreme of the social scale, among the peasantry and uneducated classes generally, the grossest superstition existed, a profound belief in supernatural agencies and cases were often reported in the columns of Russian papers. Stories abounded of wonder-working, obsession and various miraculous happenings, all ascribed to demoniac or angelic influence, or in districts where the inhabitants were still pagan to local deities and witchcraft.

The final years of the Romanov dynasty were dominated by the strange charismatic figure of the monk Rasputin, murdered shortly before the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Grigory Yefimovich, was a Siberian peasant who had entered a monastery at 18, but left, married and had 4 children. He became absorbed in a peculiar sect that promoted licentious behavior—"Rasputin" was the nickname he was given because it means, "debauched one." Rasputin entered the royal circle in 1903 in the height of the popularity of the occult among the socially elite. He did not meet the royal family until 1905, but quickly gained favor particularly with the Czarina because he was able to help control the young Alexander's bleeding due to his hemophilia. Evidence suggests that Rasputin engaged his hypnotic prowess to calm the child which resulted in easing the bleeding.

During the same period, Russian philosopher and mystic, Peter Demianovitch Ouspensky, (1878-1947) who was a disciple of Georgei Ivanovitch Gurdijeff in connection with the Theosophy movement of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky began to rise to prominence in small elite circles of Europe. According to Peter Washington in his 1993 book, Madame Blavatsky's Baboon, "The self-taught Ouspensky was tempted more by Luciferean visions of self-transcendance, dreaming of a humanity remade in the image of gods by its own strenuous efforts." Ouspensky was never officially a member of the Theosophical Society, which was banned in Russia until 1908. By 1914 when World War I began and the revolution in Russia became imminent, Ouspensky moved away from Theosophy. He was in an ongoing search to raise consciousness—his own and others—in order to understand why, as was his belief, humans continued to relive past lives, and past mistakes.

In the modern era, especially during the 1960s, there was widespread modern interest in parapsychology in the USSR. Its popularity emerged again after the ultraconservative science of the Stalin era. One of the pioneers in this psychic renaissance was Leonid L. Vasiliev (1891-1966), who helped to establish the first parapsychology laboratory in the Soviet Union, at Leningrad. His book Mysterious Manifestations of the Human Psyche (1959) was published in the United States under the title Mysterious Phenomena of the Human Psyche (University Books, 1965).

One possible stimulus for Soviet interest in extrasensory perception (ESP) was the belief that ESP might have military significance. In 1959, a story was leaked in the French press that the United States Navy had experimented with telepathic communication between the atomic submarine Nautilus and a shore base.

Another surprising Soviet interest was disclosed in the readiness of the authorities to permit lectures and demonstrations by Hindu hatha yogis. This had nothing to do with prerevolutionary bourgeois cults of mysticism, but rather indicated willingness to learn about the alleged paranormal physical feats claimed for yoga. Russians have always placed great importance on physical training and sport. In addition, any system of physical culture that promised unusual feats of endurance or control of automatic nervous functions might also have relevance to the physical stresses involved in space travel.

By 1966 the Soviet Union was financing more than twenty centers for the scientific study of the paranormal, involving an annual budget of around 12 to 20 million rubles ($13 to $21 million). Soviet parapsychologists studied reports of such American psychics as Edgar Cayce, Jeane Dixon, and Ted Serios, as well as the parapsychological research of J. B. Rhine and his colleagues.

Throughout the 1960s, Soviet parapsychologists investigated the phenomena of their own sensitives in such fields as dowsings, psychokinesis, telepathy, psychic healing, and eyeless sight. Soviet individuals such as Nina Kulagina in psychokinesis and Rosa Kuleshova who claimed abilities such as fingertip vision (eyeless sight) became widely known and discussed even outside the Soviet Union.

Perhaps because of such international publicity, Soviet authorities sporadically suppressed information on parapsychological research, while a backlash of dogmatic conservatism impeded parapsychology studies. The essentially practical investigations into paranormal faculties by Soviet scientists did hold out hope through the 1970s that they might achieve a real breakthrough in such fields of study.

In his book Psychic Warfare: Threat or Illusion? (1983), Martin Ebon claims that in the early 1970s the KGB took over extensive parapsychological research to attempt to identify psi particles in order to discover unknown communication channels in living cells for the transfer of information and to conduct follow-up studies on such subjects as hypnosis at a distance. On a popular level, interest has grown in such areas as thoughtography and UFOs.

In the book Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain (1970), Sheila Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder revealed the wide range of Soviet research in parapsychology. Much of their book was based on firsthand interviews and observations during visits to the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries. The book is useful as a record of information on individuals and organizations at the peak of Communist psychic research.

Eyeless Sight and Psychokinesis

Rosa Kuleshova, exponent of fingertip vision or eyeless sight, reportedly suffered from overexposure of her talent and for a time was accused of cheating before her strange abilities were reasserted. Meanwhile, Abram Novemeisky at the Nizhnig Tagil Pedagogical Institute in the Urals experimented with graphic arts students; he claimed that one in six individuals could distinguish between two colors by fingertip vision.

Yakov Fishelev of the Sverdlovsk Pedagogical Institute confirmed such findings and also experimented with subjects at the Pyshma school for the blind, starting with fingertip color recognition and then developing the ability to distinguish shapes of letters. S. N. Dobronravov of Sverdlovsk reported that he had found "skin sight" potential in 72 percent of children, mostly between the ages of 7 and 12.

At the Filatov Institute Laboratory of the Physiology of Vision, in Odessa, an experiment was conducted by Dr. Andrei Shevalev. His subject was Vania Dubrovich, an eight-year-old boy blind from early childhood, whose eyes and optical nerves had been removed. Shevalev attached a lens to Vania's forehead, and the boy learned to distinguish degrees of light through the lens. This experiment claimed to open up new possibilities of "skin glasses."

In the field of psychokinesis (PK), the unusual ability of Nina Kulagina to move small objects at a distance without contact was first discovered by L. L. Vasiliev, after Kulagina had demonstrated a talent for "skin vision." Vasiliev found that she could influence a compass needle by holding her hands over it. In further PK tests it was discovered that she could disturb or move objects at a distance. Film records were made demonstrating her PK ability. Among other feats Kulagina apparently changed the flow of sand in an hourglass and made letters appear on photographic paper by mental force. In early reports, her identity was at first hidden under the pseudonym Nelya Mikhailovna.

In March 1988 Kulagina won a libel action against the magazine Man and Law, published by the Soviet Justice Ministry. Two articles by Vyacheslav Strelkov published in the magazine described her as "a swindler and a crook." The Moscow court ruled that Strelkov had no firm evidence on which to base his allegations, and the magazine was ordered to publish an apology. In a subsequent appeal to the Moscow city court, the district court's ruling was upheld: "the articles published by Man and Law besmirch the honor and dignity of Nina Kulagina and…it must publish an apology."

Recent Developments

In the freer atmosphere of public debate and expression of opinion arising from the Mikhail Gorbachev policy of glasnost, public support and discussion of psychic matters increased. Psychic healing received much attention, and the healer Barbara Ivanova treated many prominent officials. She has also undertaken distant healing through the telephone.

In the field of dowsing and radiesthesia, Soviet scientists like G. Bogomolov and Nikolai Sochevanov have collected data to support the reality of such phenomena. With recently developed techniques and apparatus, dowsers have been used to locate damaged cables, water pipes, and electrical lines, as well as underground minerals and water. One series of dowsing tests suggested that women dowsers have a higher ability than men. Dowsing and radiesthetic work is now reported as the "biophysical effect."

Soviet experiments in telepathy are well advanced. Vasiliev studied spontaneous telepathy for nearly 40 years and collected hundreds of circumstantial accounts. In 1967 Yuri Kamensky in Moscow claimed to successfully relayed a telepathic message to Karl Nikolaiev in Leningrad; the message was in a form of Morse code. Other telepathy experiments involved the transmission of emotions, monitored by EEG records. A number of experiments were conducted to ascertain optimum conditions for telepathic transmission, involving a complex of touch, visualization, and thought.

Sometimes a biological sympathy between sender and receiver (heartbeat, brain wave, and similar synchronism) was found to facilitate transmission. Even the influence of highfrequency electromagnetic waves on telepathy was studied, while the neurologist Vladimir Bekhterev experimented with telepathy between human beings and animals.

One development in Soviet parapsychology claiming a significant amount of attention in the 1970s was Kirlian photography, developed by Semyon D. Kirlian and Valentina C. Kirlian, as a method of photographing a corona discharge in human beings and other objects both living and inanimate. It was hoped that an auralike phenomena had been discovered, but the effects reported early in experimentation were later shown to be an effect of differential pressure placed on the film by objects being photographed.

In 1960 the Soviet Academy of Sciences declared that the search for UFOs was "unscientific." However it seems that reports of UFOs were closely studied, a matter of control of Soviet air space, and some Soviet researchers were prepared to consider the possibility of extraterrestrial intelligences.

Over the past two or three decades, there have been many reports of UFO phenomena from the USSR. On October 9, 1989, the Soviet news agency, TASS, astonished the world by reporting claims that a UFO had landed on the evening of September 27, 1989, in a park at Voronezh, a city of 900,000 inhabitants some three hundred miles southeast of Moscow, and that the UFO occupants had walked about and been seen by many people (cf. Flying Saucer Review, vol. 34, no. 4, 1898).

The practical and scientific investigations of Soviet scientists into every major aspect of the paranormal was in sharp contrast to the more romantic interest of Western countries, where psychics demonstrate for entertainment. The down-to-earth Soviet approach into the how and why of the paranormal appeared to be yielding results with clearly practical applications.

The strong, and long-held folk traditions of the Russian people are expected to emerge as the country re-shapes its identity. In his book, The Russian Challenge and the Year 2000, Russian ex-patriate Alexander Yanov, living in the United States since 1975, discussed the issues facing the country since the fall of the Soviet Empire. He noted that, "Orthodox marxisim has been exhausted as an ideological resource for the system, just as the ideology of tsarism was exhausted at the beginning of the twentieth century. Alternative ideological resources are needed to enable the empire to survive a 'systemic' crisis." Published two years before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Yanov's book offered an interesting perspective while reform was anticipated. As Russians continue to pursue a free, elective government as a commonwealth, political reform will begin to shape other apsects of Russian life, as well. The curiosity that they have demonstrated for centuries regarding the inner workings of their consciousness—throughout artistic, cultural and religious pursuit especially—could evolve dramatically in the area of parapsychology, as well. While continuing in the economically stressed atmosphere of the demise of the USSR and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States, parapsychology has suffered and its future is as yet not discernible.

(See also Slavs )

Sources:

[Note: For an authoritative survey of Soviet research in parapsychology and psychotronics, see the journal Psi Research, edited by Larissa Vilenskaya, published quarterly by Washington Research Institute and Parapsychology Research Group, San Francisco, California.]

Berger, Arthur S., and Joyce Berger. The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research. New York: Paragon House, 1991.

Ebon, Martin. Psychic Discoveries by the Russians. New York: Parapsychology Foundation, 1963. Reprint, New York: New American Library, 1971.

——. Psychic Warfare: Threat or Illusion? New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.

Hobana, Ion, and J. Weverbergh. Unidentified Flying Objects from Behind the Iron Curtain. London: Souvenir Press, 1974. Reprint, London: Corgi, 1975.

Ostrander, Sheila, and Lynn Schroeder. Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Reprint, New York: Bantam, 1971. Washington, Peter. Madame Blavatsky's Baboon. New York: Schocken Books, 1993.

Yanov, Alexander. The Russian Challenge and the Year 2000. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987.

Russia

Country statistics

Climate and Vegetation

The climate varies from n to s and also from w to e. Moscow has a continental climate with cold, snowy winters and warm summers. Siberia has a much harsher and drier climate. In Northern Siberia, winter temperatures often fall below −46°C (−51°F). The far n is tundra. Mosses and lichens grow during the short summer, but the subsoil is permafrost. To the s is the taiga, a vast region of coniferous forest. In the w and e are mixed forests of conifer, oak, and beech. South-central Russia contains large areas of former steppe, most of which is now under the plough; its dark, chernozem soils are among the world's most fertile. The semi-desert lowlands around the Caspian Sea are hardy grassland. The Caucasus Mountains have lush forests of oak and beech.

History and Politics

According to tradition, the Varangian king, Rurik, established the first Russian state in c.ad 862. His successor, Oleg, made Kiev, his capital and the state became known as Kievan Rus. Vladimir I adopted Greek Orthodox Christianity as the state religion in 988. Vladimir and Kiev vied for political supremacy. In 1237–40, the Mongol Tatars conquered Russia and established the Golden Horde. Saint Alexander Nevski became Great Khan of Kiev. In the 14th century, Moscow gradually grew in importance, and the Grand Duchy of Moscow was established in 1380. Ivan III (the Great) greatly extended the power of Moscow, began the construction of the Kremlin, and completed the conquest of the Golden Horde in 1480.

In 1547, Ivan IV (the Terrible) was crowned Tsar of all Russia. Ivan the Terrible conquered the Tatar khanates of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556), gaining control of the River Volga, and began the conquest of Siberia. Following the death of Boris Godunov (1605), Russia was subject to foreign incursions and ruled by a series of usurpers. In 1613, Michael founded the Romanov tsarist dynasty which ruled Russia until 1917. The reign (1696–1725) of Peter I (the Great) marked the start of the westernization and modernization of Russia: central governmental institutions emerged, and the Church became subordinate to the monarchy. Centralization was achieved at the expense of increasing the number of serfs. Russia expanded w to the Baltic Sea, and St Petersburg was born in 1703. Peter made it his capital in 1712.

In 1762, Catherine II (the Great) became Empress. Under her authoritarian government, Russia became the greatest power in continental Europe, acquiring much of Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine. Alexander I's territorial gains led him into direct conflict with the imperial ambitions of Napoleon I. Napoleon captured Moscow in 1812, but the harsh Russian winter devastated his army. The Decembrist Conspiracy (1825) unsuccessfully tried to prevent the accession of Nicholas I. Nicholas' reign was characterized by the battle against liberalization. At the end of his reign, Russia became embroiled in the disastrous Crimean War (1853–56). Alexander II undertook much-needed reforms, such as the emancipation of the serfs. Alexander III's rule was more reactionary, but continued Russia's industrialization, helped by the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Alexander was succeeded by the last Romanov tsar, Nicholas II.In the 1890s, drought caused famine in rural areas and there was much discontent in the cities. Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) precipitated the Russian Revolution of 1905. Nicholas II was forced to adopt a new constitution and establish an elected Duma (parliament). Democratic reforms were soon reversed, revolutionary groups brutally suppressed, and pogroms encouraged. The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was secretly founded in 1898, supported primarily by industrial workers. In 1912, the Party split into Bolshevik and Menshevik factions. Russia's support of a Greater Slavic state contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Russia was ill-prepared for war, and suffered great hardship. The Russian Revolution (1917) had two main phases. In March, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate (he and his family were executed in July 1918), and a provisional government was formed. In July, Kerensky became prime minister, but failed to satisfy the radical hunger of the soviets.

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power and proclaimed Russia a Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. In 1918, the capital transferred to Moscow. Under the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), Russia withdrew from World War I, but was forced to cede much territory to the Central Powers. For the next five years, civil war raged between the Reds and Whites (monarchists and anti-communists), complicated by foreign intervention. The Bolsheviks emerged victorious, but Russia was left devastated. In 1922, Russia united with Ukraine, Belarus, and Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (for history 1922–91, see Soviet Union).

In June 1991 Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Republic. In August 1991, communist hardliners arrested the Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev and attempted to capture the Russian parliament in Moscow. Democratic forces rallied behind Yeltsin, and the coup was defeated. Yeltsin emerged as the major power player. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR, and on December 31, the Soviet Union was dissolved. The Russian Federation became a co-founder of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), composed of former Soviet Republics. In March 1992, the central government in Moscow agreed a new Federal Treaty with the autonomous republics within the Russian Federation. Chechenia refused to sign, and declared independence. Institutional forces frustrated Yeltsin's reforms, leading him to dissolve Parliament in September 1993. Parliamentary leaders formed a rival government, but the coup failed. In December 1993, a new democratic constitution was adopted. Yeltsin's made slow progress in the democratization of political institutions and reform of the social economy. A central political problem was the representation of Russia's diverse minorities. Many ethnic groups demanded greater autonomy within the Federation. In 1992, direct rule was imposed in Ingush and North Ossetia. From 1994 to 1996, Russia was embroiled in a costly civil war in the secessionist state of Chechenia. In 1996, despite concern about his ill-health, Yeltsin was re-elected. In 1998, the financial crisis in Southeast Asia devastated the Russian economy and Yeltsin dismissed the entire cabinet, including the Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin. In August 1998, the stock market collapsed and the rouble devalued by 50%. Yeltsin again dismissed the entire cabinet and was forced to appoint Yevgeni Primakov as prime minister.

In 1999 Yeltsin resigned in favour of Vladimir Putin, who relaunched the war in Chechenia. Putin won the 2000 elections. The continuing conflict in Chechenia has lead to hundreds of deaths in Russia in a series of major terrorist attacks, such as the attack on a Moscow theatre (2002), the bombing of two passenger flights (2004), and the attack on a school in Beslan (2004).

Economy

Under Soviet rule, Russia transformed from an agrarian economy into the world's second greatest industrial power. By the 1970s, concentration on the military-industrial complex and a bloated bureaucracy caused the economy to stagnate. Gorbachev's policy of perestroika was an attempt to correct this weakness. Yeltsin sped up the pace of reform. In 1993, the command economy was abolished, private ownership was re-introduced, and mass privitization began. Industry employs 46% of the workforce and contributes 48% of GDP (2000 GDP per capita, US$7700). Mining is the most valuable activity. Russia is the world's leading producer of natural gas and nickel, and the world's third-largest producer of crude oil, lignite, and brown coal. It is the world's second-largest manufacturer of aluminium and phosphates. Light industries are growing in importance. Most farmland is still government-owned or run as collectives. Russia is the world's largest producer of barley, oats, rye, and potatoes. It is the world's second-largest producer of beef and veal.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.russianembassy.org; http://www.russianet.ru/~oldrn/history.html

RUSSIA

The fur trade involved exploiting a finite resource (fur-bearing animals) and cultivating new populations when supplies were depleted below sustainable numbers. Russians served as middlemen between fur-producing northern boreal zones and the main markets for furs, which were situated along the rim of Eurasia (Europe and the Middle East). Novgorod played a critical role in the medieval fur trade, but by the fifteenth century Moscow began to displace Novgorod and competed with Kazan' for trade routes and supplies of furs.

The heyday of the fur trade began in the sixteenth century with the conquest of Siberia. The Stroganov family established trading posts across the Ural Mountains and sent their agents into Siberia to purchase furs with European wares and iron goods. The Stroganovs marketed their furs to English and Dutch merchants and also acted as purchasing agents for the Russian court. In 1574 they were granted a charter to develop the Tura and Tobol river basins extending into Siberia and were authorized to build forts, use cannons, and outfit a private army. As a result of increasing friction with the native peoples and the Khanate of Siberia, the Stroganovs hired a band of Cossacks from the Don to defend and expand their holdings. Yermak Timofeyevich and his men set out in 1582 and soon conquered Sibir' (or Isker), the capital of the Khanate. Word of Yermak's conquest reached Moscow, and reinforcements were sent to complete the conquest.

After establishing a garrison and provisioning system at Tobol'sk, small bands of Russians with firearms and small artillery advanced across the river systems of Siberia in lightweight boats to set up forts at portages and other strategic points. Much of the subsequent conquest of Siberia was carried out by private entrepreneurs and small armed bands who took oaths from natives, imposed tribute, and sent reports and furs back to forts and administrative centers. Rivalries among indigenous populations also facilitated conquest, as native peoples under Russian jurisdiction expanded control over more distant groups. In only a few decades almost all of Siberia came under Russian control.

The fur trade was linked to the yasak system of tribute collected from native tribes of Siberia. Although the Russian government preferred to extract tribute in furs, it also accepted reindeer skins, grain, walrus ivory, etc. Native populations (termed inozemtsy ) were divided into districts and assigned annual tribute quotas, usually five to ten sables (or an equivalent in other goods) per male. In order to keep natives from simply picking up and leaving, the Russians procured hostages from native chieftains. While sedentary groups were recorded in meticulous tribute books according to households or tribal units, tribute was only collected irregularly from mobile, non-settled groups. Native elites were coopted into Russian service through regular gifts and supplies of liquor.

The Russian government espoused paternalistic policies in order to maintain the ability of natives to pay tribute. Russian hunters and trappers were ordered not to enter native hunting grounds. The forced baptism of natives, sale of alcohol to them, and the buying and selling of native women and children were prohibited. Officials were admonished not to extort more furs than established by the quotas, and they were banned from engaging in private trade. In reality none of these policies was strictly enforced. Degradation of native social structures and endemic corruption resulted from the trade.

To secure for itself the lion's share of the profits from the trade in luxury furs, the Russian government set up a purchasing system to acquire the best furs for the state coffers. In addition to a generous markup on high-quality furs destined for export, the government also made money on the differential between fur prices in Siberia and Moscow. While European merchants were generally shut out of Siberia, Tatar and Bukharan traders were allowed to participate in the trade. In order to tax and monitor the flow of goods between Siberia and central provinces, the government set up checkpoints along main routes to examine cargo and travel documents.

In the seventeenth century well over a thousand Russian entrepreneurs and trappers journeyed to Siberia annually. Many of them settled permanently, and their numbers were supplemented by soldiers, exiles, and forced migrants sent by the government. In the late seventeenth century there were over 25,000 Russian households in Siberia. By the early eighteenth century settlements in Siberia began to produce enough grain for subsistence and in many areas mining and manufacturing surpassed the fur trade in economic importance.

Market demand and local greed fueled intensive hunting, which resulted in the exhaustion of animal breeding populations. Russian innovations in traps, nets, and hunting dogs also contributed to a rapid depletion of fur supplies. In a good year Russian and native hunters harvested more than half a million squirrels, 100,000 sables, and more than tens of thousands of black foxes. Government income from the fur trade peaked in the 1640s and amounted to over 100,000 rubles, about 10 percent of state revenue. By the early eighteenth century revenues had declined to less than half of their peak. As supplies became rare in the vicinity of the major river basins of Siberia, hunters and trappers began exploiting more distant sources of furs, eventually reaching Alaska and the North American coast.

See also Black Sea Steppe ; Imperial Expansion, Russia .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fisher, Raymond H. The Russian Fur Trade, 1550–1700. Berkeley, 1943.

Martin, Janet. Treasure of the Land of Darkness: The Fur Trade and Its Significance for Medieval Russia. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1986.

Pavlov, P. N. Pushnoi promysel v Sibiri XVII v. Krasnoyarsk, 1972.

Brian Boeck

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The Russian Federation (formerly the RSFSR, one of the fifteen republics of the USSR) covers almost twice the area of the United States of America, or 17,075,200 square kilometers (6,591,100 square miles). It is divided into eighty-nine separate territories. The country reaches from Moscow in the west over the Urals and the vast Siberian plains to the Sea of Okhotsk in the east. The Russian Federation is bounded by Norway and Finland in the northwest; by Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, and Ukraine in the west; by Georgia and Azerbaijan in the southwest; and by Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China along the southern land border. The Kaliningrad region is a Russian exclave on the Baltic Sea and is bordered by Lithuania and Poland.

The Russian Federation was established in 1991, when the USSR disintegrated and the former RSFSR became an independent state. A declaration of state sovereignty was adopted on June 12, 1991 (now a national holiday), and official independence from the USSR was established on August 24,1991. The Russian Federation replaced the USSR as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The term Russia has been applied loosely to the Russian Empire until 1917, to the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR) from 1917 to 1991, to the Russian Federation since 1991, or even (incorrectly) to mean the whole of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The term has also been used to designate the area inhabited by the Russian people, as distinguished from other Eastern Slavs and from non-Slavic peoples.

Moscow, the ninth largest city in the world, the largest Russian city, and the capital of the Russian Federation, was founded in 1147. The city's focal point is Red Square, bound on one side by the Kremlin and its thick red fortress wall containing twenty towers. The tsars were crowned there; in fact, Ivan the Terrible's throne is situated near the entrance. The second largest city, St. Petersburg, is situated northwest of Moscow and was known as a cultural center with elegant palaces. The city is spread over forty-two islands in the delta of the Neva River.

The terrain of the Russian Federation consists of broad plains with low hills west of the Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; and uplands and mountains along the southern border regions. Although the largest country in the world in terms of area, the Russian Federation is unfavorably located in relation to the major sea lanes of the world. Despite its size, much of the country lacks proper soils and climates (either too cold or too dry) for agriculture. It does, however, have enormous resources of oil and gas, as well as numerous trace metals.

Since 1991, Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a democratic political system and market economy to replace the strict social, political, and economic controls of the Communist period. The country adopted a constitution on December 12, 1993, and established a bicameral Federal Assembly (Federalnoye Sobraniye). Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin was elected to the office of president of the Federation on May 7, 2000, with 52.9 percent of the vote, as opposed to 29.2 percent for the Communist representative, Gennady Zyuganov, and5.8 percent for the democratic centrist, Grigory Yavlinsky.

See also: gorbachev, mikhail sergeyevich; putin, vladimir vladimirovich; russian soviet federated socialist republic; yeltsin, boris nikolayevich

bibliography

Brown, Archie, ed. (2001). Gorbachev, Yeltsin, and Putin: Political Leadership in Russia's Transition. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Herspring, Dale R., ed. (2003). Putin's Russia: Past Imperfect, Future Uncertain. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Kotkin, Stephen. (2001). Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Malia, Martin. (1999). Russia under Western Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum. Cambridge, MA: Belnap Press.

Satter, David. (2003). Darkness at Dawn: The Rise of the Russian Criminal State. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Shevtsova, Lilia. (2003). Putin's Russia. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Sunlop, John B. (1993). The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Johanna Granville

Russia The world's largest country by area, it expanded from the fifteenth century to include the sparsely populated areas towards the east and, from the seventeenth century, to include the more fertile and densely populated areas towards the south and west. By the beginning of the twentieth century, it comprised well over 100 peoples, and was able to hold on to its peripheral areas (notably Poland and the Caucasian peoples) only with difficulty. Ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, it was engaged in rapid industrialization, though this still affected only the major towns. Nevertheless, this did create a significant working population, as well as a burgeoning urban commercial middle class. It was still autocratically ruled by the Tsar, who refused to allow any political participation except in local government. The country's increasing backwardness relative to other countries was highlighted by humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–5). Economic hardship and the lack of civil liberties and political rights led to the Russian Revolution of 1905. As the state gathered its forces, it was ultimately able to crush the rebellion. Despite some reform under Stolypin, the government's failure to address the root causes of the 1905 Revolution, and the economic and military collapse of World War I, led to the Russian Revolutions of 1917, which ultimately led to the establishment of a Bolshevik government under Lenin.

Subsequently, Russia became a constituent part of the Soviet Union, albeit the most important one by size, economic performance, and participation in the armed forces. Thus, while the end of the Soviet Union was desired by several other republics (e.g. the Baltic republics), ultimately its breakup on 31 December 1991 could only come about because it was desired by Russia itself as the linchpin of the USSR. Indeed, Russia succeeded to the USSR's permanent seat in the UN Security Council, as well as in other diplomatic forums.

Under the leadership of Yeltsin, drastic economic reforms led to further reductions in living standards, as inflation soared to 930 per cent in 1993, while GDP declined by a total of 15 per cent in 1994 alone. According to official estimates, almost one-third of the population lived below the poverty line. The economy was further burdened by a long and costly war in Chechnya, which also turned out to be a humiliation for Yeltsin and the Russian elite forces there. These factors naturally led to growing discontent with Yeltsin, and the rise of extremist opposition groups, particularly of right-wing nationalist parties and reformed Communists. These attempted to depose the President in the October Putsch of 1993, whereupon Yeltsin created vast presidential powers for himself in the 1993 constitution. The latter sought to address the country's diversity through the creation of a complex web of altogether 89 administrative districts with differing degrees of autonomy: 21 limited republics with extensive legislative autonomy, ten autonomous districts (Okrug), one autonomous territory, six regions (Krai), 49 areas (Oblasti), and two cities with special status (Moscow and St Petersburg). At an economic level, Yeltsin's reluctance to confront entrenched economic elites led to the decline of the state's economic authority. The state became increasingly unable to collect its personal and corporate tax revenue, which in turn allowed too many inefficient businesses to survive.

The insolvency of the state produced a deep economic crisis in 1998, leading to a sharp reduction in national income in general, and state salaries and pensions in particular. After appointing and then firing a succession of Prime Ministers, Yeltsin handed over power to Vladimir Putin, who became interim President until he was confirmed in that office in general elections. Helped by rising oil revenues, the economy recovered, but Putin's reluctance to engage in fundamental structural reforms coupled with the Chechen War made long-term recovery a difficult prospect.

Russia

The Russian state traces its foundations back to the realm of Kievan Rus, established by Scandinavian Vikings in the ninth century a.d. This state controlled trade in honey, wax, timber, and slaves along the rivers running through the plains and forests of Russia and the Ukraine. Russian culture was heavily influenced by the Byzantine Empire and the Eastern (Greek) Orthodox Church after the Kievan ruler Vladimir I forced the baptism of Kiev's nobles into the new religion in 988.

Kiev eventually weakened through struggles among its ruling dynasty, and power over the Slavic peoples of the steppes and river valleys passed to more northerly cities such as Novgorod, Vladimir, and Suzdal. The process was completed in the thirteenth century, when a wave of “Tatar” (Mongol) horsemen overran Kiev and the Russian princely states. Novgorod survived the onslaught and prospered through trade with the west through the Baltic Sea and northern Europe. The Russian princes paid heavy tributes to the Tatar realm, known as the Golden Horde, and its rulers at the city of Sarai, near the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, until the late fifteenth century. The Tatar princes allowed the princes and the Russian Orthodox Church to remain in authority over Russian economic and cultural life. Russia was cut off from the political and cultural influence of the west. In the thirteenth century, Alexander Nevsky, a prince of Novgorod, successfully defended his domains against a hostile force of Scandinavians and German Teutonic Knights.

The principality of Moscow, founded by a son of Alexander Nevsky, gained considerable power when the Tatars recognized the authority of its rulers over the rest of Russia. When the patriarch (head) of the Russian church made the city his capital, Moscow gained further status and influence. In 1380, the Tatars suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Kulikovo, after which their influence on the northern princes and on Russia began to wane. The Moscow prince Ivan III “the Great” defied the Tatars by ending Russian tribute, absorbed several rival principalities into his state, and declared himself emperor of all the Russians. His successor Ivan IV “the Terrible” took the title of “tsar,” or emperor. He destroyed the last remnants of the Golden Horde at Kazan and Astrakhan, after which the Russian Empire emerged as the largest and most powerful state in eastern Europe. Ivan codified the laws of Russia, expanded its territory to the west, and ruthlessly subordinated the Russian boyars (nobles) to his will. He also established trade links with western Europe.

Through this time, Russian contacts with the innovations and scholarship of the Renaissance was limited. By its ties to the eastern church, Russia also took no part in the struggle between the western (Catholic) church and the Protestant Reformation. In the early seventeenth century, after a lengthy civil conflict known as the Time of Troubles, the Romanov dynasty emerged. Under the Romanov tsar Peter the Great, a new city was established at Saint Petersburg, on an arm of the Baltic Sea. Peter's intention was to open his state to trade and exchange with the west. Through the seventeenth and eighteenth century artists and architects arrived from western Europe. The Romanov leaders had enormous palaces and country mansions built in imitation of the classically inspired buildings of Renaissance Europe, and began collecting the works of western painters and sculptors.

See Also: Fall of Constantinople

Russia. Strictly speaking the term Russia refers only to the RSFSR, the largest of the sixteen republics which made up the USSR at the time of the Second World War. By the same token, ‘the Russians’, whose native language is Russian, were but one of the USSR's 70 recognized nationalities.

During the Second World War, however, it was normal practice among westerners to use ‘Russia’ as a synonym for the USSR, and to talk of ‘the Russians’ in reference to all Soviet citizens. This was probably a hangover from The First World War when the Russian Empire had been an ally of the western powers, and when all subjects of the tsar had commonly been called Russians irrespective of their national or ethnic identity. It also coincided with the demands of Stalinist ideology, which regarded the USSR as a simple continuation of the Russian Empire, and which treated the Russian nation as the ‘elder brother’ of all other Soviet nationalities. Although Soviet sources usually make the proper distinction between ‘Soviet’ and ‘Russian’, western practice inevitably served the official policy of restricting the free expression of the non-Russian nationalities, and of bolstering the fiction of a new Russian-based ‘Soviet Man’. In this, it matched entrenched German habits, where old imperial ideas of ‘Russland’ frequently survived.

The resultant misunderstandings were legion.

In institutional terms, many important nuances were lost. There could be little awareness of the separate structures of the central Soviet government or of the all-Union Communist Party and those of the constituent republics. Although the Red Army changed its official name to Soviet Army in 1944, it was universally referred to in the West as the Russian Army.

In geographical terms, few outside commentators saw the difference between the ‘Soviet frontier’ and the ‘Russian frontier’. When the German Wehrmacht crossed the Soviet frontier in June 1941 (see BARBAROSSA), almost all western comment said that it had invaded ‘Russia’. In reality, it had invaded the republics of Lithuania, Belorussia, and Ukraine, that is, from the legal standpoint, the territory of the Soviet-occupied Baltic States and of Soviet-occupied Poland. The zone of German occupation in the USSR never went beyond the outer fringes of Russia proper.

In the realm of statistics, there are endless imprecisions. For example, the phrase ‘20 million Russian war dead’ has become very widespread in western literature. It conceals the fact that, though Russians probably made up the greater part of military casualties, the majority of Soviet civilians who perished during the war were neither Russian by nationality nor victims of military action. See also Baltic States, Belorussia,Caucasus and Ukraine.

Norman Davies

Russia (Rossiya) Rus′, Soviet Russia The Russian Federation (Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) since December 1993. Rossiyskaya indicates that the Russian Federation is not a nation state (otherwise it would have been Russkaya) but a state that includes many nations. Previously the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, by far the largest of the fifteen union republics comprising the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, commonly known as the Soviet Union (1936). Due to a change in ideological emphasis this title was adopted in place of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1918). Following the Revolution in February 1917 a Soviet ‘Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies’ was formed in Petrograd (now St Petersburg). The Provisional Government, also set up in February 1917, was overthrown in October (the October Revolution) and power seized by the Bolsheviks in the name of the Soviets. The country's name was changed to Soviet Russia. The Latinate Rossiya was not formally adopted until Peter I the Great^† did so when he changed the name of the Tsardom of Muscovy to the Empire of All Russia in 1721. According to one theory, Rus′ was the name given to the non‐Slav Vikings (the Varangians) in Scandinavia, who migrated into the Slav‐populated northern river valleys of Russia in the 9th century; The Primary Chronicle suggests that they were invited by the quarrelling Slav tribes to come south and rule over them. The Rus′ agreed and established themselves around Novgorod in 862. The Rus' gave their name to the area in which they settled. By the beginning of the 10th century Kiev (now in Ukraine) had become the centre of the first Russian state. However, The Primary Chronicle is considered to be unreliable by many Russian scholars; they have suggested that the Rus′ were a Slav tribe from the south‐east who founded the state of Kievan Rus′; its existence, however, was brought to an end when it was almost completely destroyed by the Mongols in 1240. Gradually various principalities emerged of which the most important were Muscovy, Novgorod, and Galich (Galicia). They expanded to encompass what is now western Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus—the Land of the Rus′ from which Russia takes its name. The meaning of the word Rus' has evoked considerable discussion. It has been suggested that it comes from Ruotsi, the Finnish word for the Swedes, and therefore means ‘Swedish Vikings’; or that it is a Viking word meaning ‘oarsman’. Both have been disputed. See soviet union.

357. Russia

See also 94. COMMUNISM .

Decembrist

one of those who conspired to overthrow Russian Czar Nicholas I in December, 1825. Also Dekebrist .

Kremlinology

study of the policies, doctrines, programs, etc., of the government of the Soviet Union. —Kremlinologist, n.

Russianism

something characteristic of or influenced by Russia, its people, customs, language, etc.

Russomania

an obsession with Russia and things Russian.

Russophilism

great fondness for or interest in Russia, its people, customs, language, art, etc. — Russophile, n., adj.

Russophobism

Russophobia.

Slavicist

one who specializes in the study of Slavic languages, literatures, or other aspects of Slavic culture. Also Slavist .

Slavophilism

enthusiasm for or admiration of things Slavic, as Slavic literature, language, culture, customs, etc. —Slavophil, Slavophile, n., adj.

Slavophobia

fear or hatred of things Slavic, especially of real or imagined Soviet political influence. —Slavophobe , n. —Slavophobic, adj.

Sovietism, sovietism

1. the soviet system of government and the principles and practices of such a government.

2. a policy, action, etc., typical of the Soviet Union. —Sovietist, sovietist , n., adj.

Sovietology

study of the Soviet Union, especially its government, policies, etc. —Sovietologist, n.

Russia

Culture Name

Russian

Orientation

Identification. "Rus" may derive from the name of a tribe that gained political ascendancy in Kiev and other Slavic towns and lent its name to the language, culture, and state. Some scholars believe this to have been a Varangian (Viking) clan from Scandinavia, and others hold that it was a Slavic tribe. Some historians believe that "Rus" derives from an ancient name for the Volga River.

People ethnically identified as Russians have been politically and culturally dominant in a vast area for five hundred years of tsarist and Soviet imperial expansion. However, despite repression of their cultural autonomy, minority cultures have survived within the Russian Federation; including the peoples of the North Caucasus, numerous indigenous groups in Siberia, the Tatars in the Volga region, and the East Slavic Ukrainians and Belorusians. The last three groups are widely dispersed throughout the federation. All but the youngest citizens share a Soviet cultural experience, since under Communist Party rule the state shaped and controlled daily life and social practice. Much of that experience is being rejected by Russians and non-Russians who are reclaiming or reinventing their ethnic or traditional pasts; many communities are asserting a specific local identity in terms of language and culture. There is a broad cultural continuity throughout the federation and among the millions of Russians in the newly independent republics of Central Asia, the Baltic region, and the Caucasus.

Location and Geography. In addition to being the largest, the Russian Federation is one of the world's northernmost countries. It encompasses 6,592,658 square miles (17,075,000 square kilometers), from its borders with Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, and Ukraine on the west to the Bering Strait in the far northeast and from its borders with Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China in the south to the Arctic Ocean in the north.

European Russia, the most densely populated, urbanized, and industrialized region, lies between the Ukraine-Belarus border and the Ural Mountains. Seventy-eight percent of the population lives in this area. Two large industrial cities are located above the Arctic Circle: Murmansk on the Kola Peninsula and Norilsk in Siberia.

The great plains are divided by six ecological bands. In the northeast, above the Arctic Circle, lies a huge expanse of frigid, occasionally marshy tundra, a nearly unpopulated region where much of the land is permanently frozen and little grows but moss and shrubs. Below that is the taiga, a vast expanse of coniferous forest, which gradually blends with a band of mixed coniferous and deciduous forest to cover half the country. The capital, Moscow, is in the center of this region, where much agriculture has been located despite the thin, poor soil. A line of mixed forest and prairie with more arable soil characterizes the central areas, followed by Russia's "breadbasket," the black earth belt that constitutes less than a tenth of the national territory. Below that, the relatively arid steppe, with grasslands and semidesert and desert regions, runs along the northern edge of the Caucasus Mountains and north of the Caspian Sea beyond the Volga River basin into Central Asia.

The climate of much of European Russia is continental, with long, cold winters and short, hot summers. In the northern areas, winter days are dark and long; in the summer, the days are long and the sun barely sets. With the exception of the black earth belt, Russia has fairly poor soil, a short growing season, low precipitation, and large arid steppe regions unfit for agriculture except with extensive irrigation. These factors limit agricultural production and account for the frequency of crop failures; what is produced requires substantial labor. The huge forests provide for foraging, hunting, and logging.

Many great rivers transect the country, such as the Dvina, Don, Oka, and Volga in the European heartland and the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena in Siberia; most of these rivers are linked by subsidiary waterways. Until the advent of railways and roads, the rivers were the only efficient way to travel, and they remain a significant form of transport for people and materials. Limited access to year-round seaports has always been a military and commercial problem. A lack of natural borders has meant vulnerability to invasion, a danger offset by the size of the country and its harsh, long winters.

These environmental factors have affected the demographic profile and shaped cultural, social, and political institutions, influencing colonizing projects, settlement patterns, household configurations, village politics, agricultural systems, and military technologies. Bold defiance of these natural limitations include Peter the Great's founding of Saint Petersburg on northern swamplands in 1703, and the twentieth-century plan to reverse the northerly flow of some of Siberia's rivers to facilitate the movement of natural resources. Equally important is the ability of rural and urban dwellers to survive challenging conditions of land, climate, and politics. Tens of millions of families depend on food they grow for themselves.

Demography. In July 1999, the population was estimated at 146,393,000, a decline of more than two million since the end of the Soviet Union in 1991. The current figure includes several million immigrants and refugees from newly independent former Soviet republics. Since 1991, a stark drop in the birthrate has combined with a dramatic rise in the mortality rate. Average life expectancy for both men and women has declined since the 1980s.

This population decline is expected to worsen in the next decade. It is largely the result of the economic and social upheavals of the postsocialist period, which have impoverished the population and caused a decay of social services. Growing unemployment, long-term nonpayment of wages and pensions, paid wages that are below the poverty line, unsafe working and road conditions, the spread of infectious diseases, and the impoverishment of public health care systems have caused stress, depression, family breakdown, and rising rates of alcoholism, suicide, homicide, and domestic violence. Circulatory diseases, accidents, and suicides attributable to alcohol abuse are the leading causes of death among men. Malnutrition, disease, industrial pollution, poor health care, and reliance on abortion for birth control have reduced fertility rates and increased maternal and infant mortality.

In 1999, Russians accounted for 81 percent of the population and were the dominant ethnic group in all but a few regions. Other major ethnic nationalities are Tatars (4 percent), Ukrainians (3 percent), Chuvash (1 percent), Bashkir (1 percent), Belarussian (1 percent), and Mordovians (1 percent). Dozens of other ethnic nationalities make up the remaining 8 percent. There has been a significant rate of intermarriage between ethnic populations.

Until the twentieth century, the population grew steadily. The population of Rus' in the twelfth century is estimated at seven million. By 1796, Russia had a population of thirty-six million, to which territorial annexation had contributed greatly. In the 1850s, the population was sixty-seven million. The abolition of serfdom, accompanied by urbanization, industrialization, and internal migration in the second half of the nineteenth century, led to significant population growth, and by 1897 the population was 125 million. By 1917, the year of the Russian Revolution, the population had grown to 170 million. Famines, largely caused by civil war and the Soviet collectivization of agriculture, decimated the rural population in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1941, the population was around two hundred million. World War II caused the deaths of more than twenty million Soviet citizens. After the 1940s, population growth was slowed by the gender disparity and devastation of infrastructure caused by war.

Linguistic Affiliation. Russian is one of three East Slavic languages of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. It is the most widely spoken Slavic language, with 1.39 million people speaking it as their native language and tens of millions more using it as a second language. Many people in non-Russian ethnic groups speak Russian as their native or only language, partly as a result of tsarist and Soviet campaigns to suppress minority languages. The collapse of the Soviet Union opened the way for linguistic revival movements in many ethnic communities.

There are three major dialects (northern, southern, and central), but they are mutually intelligible. Russian has been influenced by other languages, particularly Greek (Byzantine Christian) in the Kievan period, French in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and English in the twentieth.

The Cyrillic alphabet was brought to Kievan Rus' along with Christianity in the tenth and eleventh centuries by the followers of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, who invented the first Slavic alphabet, Glagolitic, in the ninth century. Along with Old Russian, Church Slavonic was the primary literary language until the early eighteenth century, when it was reformed as part of Peter the Great's westernization and secularization campaigns. Many important texts were written in Church Slavonic and the more vernacular Old Russian, including historical chronicles, epic poems, folklore, and liturgical and legal works.

Symbolism. A popular visual symbol is Moscow's Saint Basil's cathedral with its colorful cupolas. Images of Saint Basil's and those of hundreds of other churches and cathedrals are key symbols of the country's long Orthodox history. Calendars, posters, and postcards with images of Orthodox churches are common in apartments and offices.

Bread symbolizes key aspects of the national self-image. It is the mark of hospitality, as in khlebsol ("bread-salt"), the ancient custom of welcoming a visitor with a round loaf with a salt cellar on top. This tradition can be observed at political and diplomatic events when a host receives an important guest. In broader terms, bread is the symbol of life; in times of hardship it is the primary food, and being "without bread" signals starvation. Other foods are also important symbols: black caviar, which signifies luxury and plenty as well as the bounty of the rivers and seas; mushrooms and berries, the gifts of the forest and dacha; bliny, pancakes served before Lent; the potato, staple of the diet; and vodka, a symbol of camaraderie and communication.

Forest plants, creatures, and objects are widely used in symbolic ways. The white birch conjures the romance of the countryside; the wolf, bear, and fox are ubiquitous in folktales and modern cartoons; and the peasant hut izba signifies the cozy world of the past. Inside the izba are three other cultural symbols: the plump clay or tiled stove; the samovar, and the Orthodox icon in its corner shrine. While most people live in urban apartments images of traditional life still have great power and meaning.

Everyday conversation is filled with metaphors summarizing a highly complex view of shared cultural identity. Russians talk of soul dusha to refer to an internal spiritual domain that is the intersection point of heart, mind, and culture. True communion depends on an opening up of souls that is accomplished through shared suffering or joy. Communal feasting and drinking also can help open up the soul. Soul is said to be one of the metaphysical mechanisms that unite Russians into a "people" narod. Stemming from ancient Slavic words for clan, kin, and birth, and meaning "citizens of a nation," "ethnic group," or simply a "crowd of people," narod is used to refer to the composite identity and experience of the people through history. It often is invoked by politicians hoping to align themselves with the population. Leaders of the Soviet Union, trying to unite ethnic groups under a single multinational identity, ritualistically employed the term "Soviet people" (sovietskii narod ). People still speak in terms of belonging by "blood"; a person is seen to have Russian blood, Jewish blood, Armenian blood, or a mixture of ethnic bloods. Nationalist discourse uses this concept to stress the purity of one's own people and disparage those with "foreign" blood.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the calendar of national holidays was altered. The compulsory celebration of the Great October Revolution (7 November) was diminished in scale, although it is still officially marked. The Day of Victory (9 May), the Soviet capture of Berlin that ended World War II, still provokes strong feelings. Cemeteries, parks, and public places are filled every year with people gathering to memorialize the war, and the media celebrate the heroism of the Soviet peoples. Even though these tributes are tempered by revisionist history, a core of patriotic feeling remains. A new political holiday is Russian Independence Day (12 June), marking the establishment of the Russian Federation in 1991. New Year's Eve is the most widely observed holiday. The observance of Christmas and Easter and other Orthodox holidays has grown since the end of the Soviet repression of religious observance.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The area now called Russia has always been multicultural. The Eastern Slavic tribes, the ancestors of modern Russians, traditionally are thought to have originated in the Vistula River valley in what is now Poland and to have migrated eastward in the seventh to the ninth centuries. Other evidence suggests that Eastern Slavic pastoral peoples were widespread in the central and eastern portions of the plain that stretches across the northern half of the Eurasian continent a thousand years earlier, coexisting with Finnic and Lithuanian tribes to the north and enduring recurring waves of conquest.

For more than a millennium, people sharing cultural traits, social structures, and religious beliefs have occupied present-day Russia, Ukraine, and Belorusia. Eastern Slavic society was culturally distinct and highly developed in terms of agriculture, technology, commerce, and governance by the tenth century. By the eleventh century a huge expanse had come under the nominal rule of the Kievan princes; at that time, the city-state of Kiev on the Dniepr River in present-day Ukraine was rivaled in size and splendor only by Novgorod far to the north. Prince Vladimir I, who ruled Kievan Rus' from 980 until 1015, brought Byzantine (Orthodox) Christianity to Kiev in 988 and sponsored the widespread baptism of the peoples of Rus'. A gradual process of the melding of pre-Christian practices with those of Orthodoxy consolidated the population under one political and cultural system. An intricate written code of customary law, the Pravda Russkaia, was in place by the eleventh century.

Wars after the death of Prince Yaroslavl the Wise in 1054 caused the gradual disintegration of Kievan Rus' until 1240, when Kiev fell under the domination of the Mongol Empire. The fall of Kievan Rus' and the political fragmentation that followed divided the Eastern Slavs into three distinct cultural-linguistic groups: Ukrainian, Belorusian, and Russian. The Mongols destroyed many cities and towns, and created a complex administrative system to exact tribute from its peoples and princes; Mongol control lasted until the late fifteenth century, although with less impact after 1380. The political power and territorial control of Muscovy expanded greatly under the four-decade reign of Ivan III, who died in 1505 after routing the Mongol armies. From that time on, the Russian state developed and expanded, with Moscow at its center. Ivan IV (the Terrible) was the first to crown himself tsar in 1546. He ruled in an increasingly arbitrary and absolutist fashion, brutalizing the aristocratic boyars in a decade-long period of terror known as the oprichnina. The century's end brought the "Time of Troubles"—fifteen years of political instability and civil and class strife that resulted in widespread impoverishment and famine, enserfment of the peasantry, and waves of migration of peasants to the edges of Russian territory.

Under Peter the Great, the Romanov tsar who ruled from 1682 to 1725, Russia began a period of imperial expansion that continued into the Soviet period. Peter attempted to modernize and westernize the country militarily, administratively, economically, and culturally, often through the use of force. His reforms changed society irrevocably, particularly through his introduction of new military and agricultural technologies, a formal educational system, a tight system of class ranking and service, and the founding of the European-style city of Saint Petersburg. Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Petersburg, where it remained until after the 1917 revolution.

After Peter's reign, Russian imperial rule expanded southward into the Crimea, southeast along the Volga River, and eastward across the Siberian forests to the Pacific Ocean. Through further expansion during the Soviet period (1917–1991), Russians achieved political and demographic dominance over a territory equal to one-sixth of the world's land surface. After 1991, Russian geopolitical power declined, but the federation remains the largest country in the world.

National Identity. Russia has had a thousand-year history of growth and contraction, political consolidation and disintegration, repression and relaxation, messianism and self-definition, and varying forms of socioeconomic interdependence with other nations. This history has had far-reaching effects on the other populations of Eurasia as well as on every aspect of the national culture.

For many centuries, the question of whether Russian culture is more "eastern" or "western" has been a burning issue. Situated at the crossroads of important cultures and civilizations in every direction, the Slavic groups and other peoples of Russia have profoundly influenced and been influenced by them all in terms of trade, technology, language, religion, politics, and the arts.

Ethnic Relations. Inter-ethnic relations are fraught with tensions spawned over centuries of Russian and Soviet colonial domination and activated in the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet state. Most conflicts are multidimensional, simultaneously involving struggles for political control, rights over natural resources, migration and relocation, and the revitalization of national or ethnic cultures, religions, languages, and identities. Soviet policies—which compelled the use of the Russian language on all peoples, organized massive changes in livelihood and lifestyle for tens of millions, forcibly moved whole populations (such as Crimean Tatars and Meshketian Turks), installed ethnic Russian political elites and managers in non-Russian regions, and extracted the wealth from local production into central coffers without sufficient economic return to the peripheries—have set the stage for the conflicts of today.

Conflicts over resources are heated in parts of Siberia and the Far East. The Sakha (Yahut) are trying to claim rights to some economic benefits from the vast diamond, oil, gold, and other mineral wealth in their republic. This struggle to reap even marginal benefits from their own territories has long been blocked by Russian central control over the resource extraction industries, and by the strategic relocation of tens of thousands of Russians to Yakutia in the Soviet period. This battle over resources is associated with a growing nationalist movement. Other Siberian peoples are engaged in similar struggles over oil and gas revenues, and rights to traditional fisheries, forest products, and reindeer-grazing lands. Environmental issues play a significant role, too, as people fight to prevent or reverse the spoiling of rivers, lakes, and soils by the oil and mining industries.

Occupation of the North Caucasus has been a cause of conflict for three centuries. Russia waged devastating wars with Chechnya from the mid-1990s on, attempting to repress local independence movements, stem a pan-Islamic movement from taking hold there, and maintain access to the oil wealth of the Caspian sea. There are few signs that this conflict will be resolved peacefully, and relations are characterized by intense hatred, prejudice, and propagandizing on both sides. Roots of this conflict lie in a long history of violent repression and impoverishment in Chechnya.

Internal migration and displacement has contributed greatly to ethnic tensions and prejudice, as several million Russians have returned from newly independent states in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the Baltics, feeling themselves unwanted guests in those places, or in some cases (Tajikistan, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) escaping civil wars. Border regions between Russia and former Soviet republics, which often contain highly mixed and intermarried Russian and non-Russian populations, present a significant problem.

In general, unflattering and insulting stereo-types of Siberian natives, Koreans, Central Asians, peoples of the Caucasus, Ukrainians, Jews, and other ethnic nationalities are widely shared among Russians and circulate unimpeded in print media. One effect of the wars in Chechnya has been constant police harassment and public suspicion of the Caucasian residents of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and other cities.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

In 1851, 92 percent of the population lived in rural villages, and at the time of the 1917 revolution, the population was more than 80 percent rural. The Soviet period brought movement to the cities as people tried to escape the harsh conditions on state-run collective farms. More than half of the rural population today is over age 65, because young people continue to migrate to the cities. Although there are still tens of thousands of small villages, many are disappearing as people die or depart.

By 1996, 73 percent of the population was urban, with most people living in high-rise apartment blocks constructed after the 1950s. Much of the urban population retains strong material and psychological ties to the countryside. Many people own modest dachas within an hour or two of their apartments and on weekends or in the summer work in their gardens, hike, hunt or gather in the forests, and bathe in lakes and rivers. Many other people retain ties to their natal villages or those of their parents or grandparents.

The largest cities are Moscow, nine million people; Saint Petersburg, nearly five million, Nizhnii Novgorod and Novosibirsk, 1.4 million each; Yekaterinburg, 1.3 million; and Samara, 1.2 million. After the end of the communist era, many places were rededicated with their prerevolutionary names.

Cities such as Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, and Yaroslavl grew around the old fortresses (kremlins) and monasteries that formed their centers and near the gates where artisans and traders peddled their goods. The old cities reflect their complex and often violent histories through the coexistence of multiple styles. In the European regions, Byzantine churches from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries stand in the shadows of modernist high-rises, with Renaissance, Baroque, or Neoclassical architecture nearby. These variegated cityscapes may be covered with grime, reflecting the proximity of industrial enterprises and the lack of funds for maintenance. In the wealthiest city centers, the post-Soviet years have brought varying degrees of urban revitalization.

Other cities were built almost from scratch and reflect a passion for grandiose urban planning. Saint Petersburg was built to secure access to the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. Catherine the Great saw to it that Petersburg became a European city, with streets, avenues, and plazas, designed in an elegant Venetian style. In the Soviet era, ambitious building projects led to the founding and construction of industrial cities such as Magnitogorsk, Russia's "Steeltown," in the 1930s.

The central parts of most cities have important governmental, commercial, and religious buildings. Intermingled with these edifices are multistoried nineteenth-century town houses now used for commercial purposes or housing, and neighborhoods of walk-up apartment blocks. Farther out from the center stand rows of white apartment towers dating from the 1960s. Reaching from ten to thirty stories, these mammoth buildings house the majority of the population in small apartments. Although they are often distant from city centers and industrial areas, these apartments have provided privacy and security to millions of families. They are spacious compared to the barracks or communal apartments in which many families lived until the 1950s. Almost all the cities share this general layout, although some have avoided the fires and demolition campaigns that destroyed millions of traditional wooden structures in the past.

A modern grandiosity characterizes the state buildings constructed in Soviet cities from the 1930s to the 1950s. As the capital, Moscow was virtually transformed, but other cities were also reshaped by Stalinist architectural projects, which juxtaposed monumentalist neoclassicism with revolutionary modernism and industrial futurism. In the 1930s, subway systems were constructed beneath the largest cities, including the vast Moscow Metro.

Immensity in architecture and wide boulevards and plazas often result in inhospitable urban spaces. In the Soviet period, many amenities were unavailable or overburdened. Commercial venues were organized in a top down fashion through state planning, and shopping was a challenge. Some goods and services were located in distant neighborhoods, although day care centers and schools were always close. The commercial privatization of the post-Soviet years has brought new stores, restaurants, and cafés that offer a variety of food and manufactured goods. This has occurred to a lesser extent in provincial towns and villages, many of which have experienced a decline in public services.

An important element of urban life are the enormous public parks and forested areas within or adjacent to city boundaries. The result of this prerevolutionary and Soviet urban planning remains a source of pleasure and recreation. People spend hours strolling or sitting on benches to talk, smoke, play chess, or read. Smaller urban parks sometimes center on a statue of a writer or political leader; ten years after the end of communist rule, statues of Lenin still anchor parks and plazas. Statues often serve as meeting places, and a park may have a special identity as the gathering place for a subcultural group such as hippies, punks, gays, or literati.

The huge public plazas in many cities have been central to political life for centuries. Moscow's Red Square and Manezh are historically significant spaces used for government ritual, revolutionary protest, parades, concerts, holiday celebrations, and state funerals.

Until recently, when new wealth has allowed a small proportion of the population to build private homes and mansions on urban fringes, domestic existence has meant living in small apartments. Because of limited space, the largest room serves as living room, bedroom, and dining room for many families. Domestic furnishing is highly consistent, in part because until the 1990s all furniture was purchased from state stores, where variation was limited. Among the characteristics of Russian taste are functional furniture, of oriental-type carpets on the walls, and large wardrobes instead of closets. The bath and toilet are commonly located in small separate rooms side by side. Narrow balconies are used for storage, tools, laundry, and sitting.

Family members spend much of their time at the kitchen table, eating and drinking tea while talking, reading, watching television, cooking, or working on crafts. When guests come, all sit around one table for the entire gathering, which may continue for hours. Wedding parties usually take place at the home of the family of the bride or groom, and everyone squeezes around an extended table.

Although public spaces within and around apartment blocks are often decrepit and dirty, the threshold to a family's apartment marks a crucial transition zone to private space, which is clean and tidy. Shoes are remain just inside the doorway to keep dirt from the interior of the home.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. The most common food is bread. Potatoes, cabbage, carrots, and beets are the standard vegetables; potatoes are a staple. Onions and garlic are used liberally, especially in soups, stews, and salads.

Russians generally love meat. Starvation means having no bread, while poverty means going without hard sausage kolbasa. Sausage, pork, beef, mutton, chicken, and dried or salted fish are widely available and relatively cheap. Only some can afford to buy delicacies such as veal, duck, sturgeon, and salmon. Traditional aristocratic fare included such fancy foods, many of which are popular among the newly wealthy classes today.

For most people, breakfast is a quick snack of coffee or tea with bread and sausage or cheese. Lunch is a hot meal, with soup, potatoes, macaroni, rice or buckwheat kasha, ground meat cutlets, and peas or grated cabbage. This meal may be eaten in a workplace cafeteria at midday or after people return home from work; a later supper may consist of boiled potatoes, soured cabbage, and bread or simply bread and sausage.

People eat a wide range of dairy products, such as tvorog, a kind of cottage cheese, and riazhenka, slightly soured milk. These items can be purchased from large shops or private farmers' markets or made at home. In provincial cities and towns, unpasteurized milk is sold from tanker trucks, although bottles and cartons of pasteurized milk are available everywhere, as is sour cream. Hard and soft cheeses are also popular.

Fruits are widely loved and cultivated. In late summer, fruits and berries are harvested and made into preserves, compotes, cordials, and concentrates for the winter months. Mushroom picking is an art, and many people can identify edible local varieties, which they salt, dry or can. Cabbage, cucumbers, garlic, and tomatoes are preserved by salting or pickling.

Russians are connoisseurs of tea. Coffee has grown in popularity and is often served thick and strong. Although wine, beer, cognac, and champagne are popular, vodka is the most common drink. Home-brewed vodka is a mainstay and serves as a crucial form of currency in rural areas.

Restaurants were not highly developed under communism, but the post-Soviet period has seen an explosion of restaurants, cafés, and fast-food places in the cities. The majority of people never eat out, for economic reasons and because they feel that restaurants do not provide food as good as that prepared at home. Restaurants and cafés cater largely to the new business classes. Workplace cafeterias and buffets still serve rudimentary midday meals for workers, but even these inexpensive meals are out of reach for many people.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Communal feasting is central to marking birthdays, weddings, anniversaries, achievements, significant purchases, and major public holidays. The table is laden with salads, appetizers, sausage and cheese, and pickled foods, followed by hot meat, potatoes, and pirozhki (meat or cabbage pies). Vodka and wine are drunk throughout the meal, which may last six to ten hours. Although table manners and hosting rituals are complex, the most important concern the rituals around vodka drinking. Toasting is elaborate and can be sentimental, humorous, poetic, ribald, or reverential. Vodka is always drunk straight, accompanied by a pickled or salty food.

Many people observe Lenten fasts, at which they consume no meat, butter, or eggs and occasionally do without vodka. Easter provides an opportunity for a fast-breaking celebration with special foods.

Basic Economy. The Soviet command economy provided a secure living standard for the entire population. Production systems were highly developed, technologically specialized, and spread strategically throughout the country. Almost all consumer and industrial products were produced within the nation or in the Soviet bloc countries. With the end of state support in 1991, many production enterprises declined or collapsed, and imports of higher-quality products reduced the market for domestic goods. This is true of consumer goods such as electronics, fashion, housewares, and automobiles as well as industrial, scientific, medical, construction, and agricultural equipment. As a result of collapsing markets,poor management, and ill-conceived privatization processes, many factories sit idle, while others have been dismantled and sold off. Some sectors, such as the food processing and distribution industries, are staging a slow comeback through modernization and a commitment to providing affordable local products.

The chronic shortages of the Soviet era led many people to produce for themselves. The current impoverishment has increased the importance of this practice, with a significant portion of the population partially dependent on their own produce. Many rural people raise food products for sale, and up to 80 percent of the vegetables consumed are produced in small private plots. The major crops grown by large agricultural enterprises are grain, sunflower seeds, and sugar beets. Livestock production has declined because of reduced government subsidies for feed and falling demand.

Land Tenure and Property. Under communism, all land, enterprises, and urban housing were state property, although there were several different forms of state control and individuals could hold long-term and inheritable use rights to land and apartments. The postcommunist period has seen an ongoing struggle over privatization and the commodification of land. While family apartments can now be privatized, legal reform of land ownership has been held up in the parliament (Duma), because of opposition by communist politicians. Some regions have instituted local land reform, and there is pressure to legislate coherent federal land reform to improve agricultural efficiency. Traditional views that land and natural resources cannot be owned but are collective resources have complicated the privatization process. This view is strengthened by many people's experience of watching privatization benefit only the existing elites.

Commercial Activities. Russia still manufactures a large range of consumer products, including food, clothing, automobiles, and household durables. The construction, banking, publishing, telecommunications, transport, and computer service industries are highly developed.

The unofficial economy, which grew out of the black market of the Soviet period, is huge and intricate and may account for over 50 percent of total economic activity. This shadow economy includes whole industries owned or controlled by organized crime, unreported trading activity, wages paid under the table to avoid taxes, wages and interenterprise payments made by barter, and rent-seeking and bribery schemes on the part of government officials. Attempts to end these entrenched systems have been ineffective.

Major Industries. European Russia was semi-industrialized by 1917, and Soviet modernization campaigns fully industrialized the country and spurred the development of mining, energy production, and heavy manufacturing. The Soviet Union was a major extractor of oil, natural gas, coal, and ferrous and nonferrous metals and a large producer of steel, chemicals, and paper products. Along with the automotive industry, the Soviet aircraft, truck, shipbuilding, railway, agricultural, road-building and construction machinery, military, and space industries produced for exportation as well as domestic use, although quality was often not up to world standards and plants were inefficient. Production levels in all these industries have declined significantly since 1991 as domestic and international demand has dropped, state subsidies have diminished, and new capital investment has been scarce.

Trade. Fuel and energy products constitute the major exports. Imports of foodstuffs, machine equipment, computers and other electronics, and chemicals are substantial. Major trading partners are the countries of the CIS (former Soviet republics, especially Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan) as well as Germany, Italy, Poland, the United States, the Netherlands, Britain, and Japan.

Division of Labor. Under the Soviet system, training for professional, academic, artistic, management, and other "intelligentsia" careers was highly developed in universities. Working-class students were taught the necessary skills in specialized institutes. The system was designed to ensure an adequate supply of workers in all sectors of the economy, and one of its results was a well-trained and stable workforce. Many aspects of this system have collapsed as whole industries have declined or shifted away from Soviet-era priorities. Huge numbers of personnel have left their original fields for careers in banking and finance, advertising, marketing, commerce, tourism, telecommunications, and security. Regions that offered steady employment for millions now house outdated, stagnant industries; high levels of unemployment in these areas force people to migrate or hunt for jobs. This has led to a confusing variety of choices for young people and the challenge of retooling in an uncertain economic landscape for the older generations. The predictable structures of industries and professions have been replaced by a more flexible system with opportunities for entrepreneurs from any social background. Success can be elusive, because of imperfect commercial laws and law enforcement, the difficulty of securing capital, criminality and corruption, and cutthroat competition.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. For centuries, the aristocratic and merchant classes were nearly castelike, with endogamous marriage, a strict social hierarchy, and highly codified behaviors. Peasants and serfs constituted a largely impoverished rural population. After emancipation in 1861, as Russia developed slowly along capitalist lines, peasants migrated to factories in urban areas, where they formed an impoverished industrial working class. Strikes and protests and the radicalization of the intelligentsia led to the revolution of 1905, which prompted limited constitutional and social reform along with a reactionary crackdown on political opposition.

Widespread destitution, the ravages of World War I, and ineffective political leadership set the stage for the revolutionary activity of February 1917 in which the government was overthrown; this was followed by the political revolution of October 1917, in which the Bolsheviks took power and introduced communist ideology and social transformation. In the civil war of 1917–1921 and under Stalin in the 1930s, aristocrats, merchants, and well-off peasants were killed, imprisoned, exiled, or forced to emigrate and their property was confiscated.

The Soviet Union was supposed to be ruled by councils (Soviets) formed from the working masses. The creation of social and economic equality was the goal of early communist ideologues. However, Soviet society evolved into a class-stratified and class-conscious state where communist elites and some professionals had special access to goods, services, and housing. Bureaucratic workers and shop clerks used their control of services or goods to benefit themselves through a set of practices known as blat. However, education, health care, and other social services were available to all.

Although they had special privileges, most Communist Party officials did not accrue wealth. Postsocialist privatization has allowed many of them to build large fortunes, by parlaying their political status into direct ownership of state resources and industries. A new entrepreneurial class has developed, some of whose members have become fabulously wealthy. More slowly, a middle class is emerging in the cities, formed of intellectuals newly employed in business ventures and midlevel management and service personnel. Most of the population is impoverished, because of industrial collapse, inflation, financial crises, and privatization structures that benefit only the powerful. In 2000, 37 percent of the population lived below the minimum subsistence level of $34 per month. In some regions of Siberia and the Far East, the provision of critical services such as heating, fuel, and water has collapsed. Coal miners and industrial workers have faced severe shortages of critical supplies such as soap, long-term wage arrears, and the collapse of medical clinics and schools.

Symbols of Social Stratification. "New Russians" are all presumed to drive late-model Mercedes or Jeeps, live in fancy new red brick dachas, dress in designer clothes, speak on cell phones, and wear heavy gold chains and rings with diamonds. There is some truth to this image, which reflects a popular sense that wealth is vulgar.

Political Life

Government. The years under Boris Yeltsin (1991–1999), were characterized by the reorganization of governmental structures and functions, with conflict over the balance of power between the president and the parliament, and between central and regional powers. A constitution approved by referendum in 1993 provided for a democratic federation with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The parliament is divided into upper and lower houses. The lower house is the Duma, with 450 elected members; the upper house was to consist of local governors and legislators from the eighty-nine administrative regions, although the newly elected president, Vladimir Putin, replaced the governors with centrally appointed members, giving the president greater control over that house. Putin also changed the electoral and party system to remold the structure and power of the Duma. Economic issues have been at the heart of many political conflicts; battles over fiscal policy, privatization, control of key resources, tax collection, and social welfare provisions have been fierce and sometimes violent.

Leadership and Political Officials. The state has always been prone to authoritarian rule with censorship and strong government control over the media; oppression of political opposition, partly through the secret police; bureaucratic centralization; and legislation by decree. In the Soviet era, political purges killed millions and sent millions more to hard labor or internal exile. Although overt repression ended with Gorbachev and democratization has become a proclaimed political value, the mechanisms of democratic practice are far from universal.

With the end of communism, control over enterprises and whole industries was up for grabs, and top political leaders secured state resources for themselves, their families, and their colleagues, leading to cynicism among the public. Cronyism, bribe taking, inside deals among political and business leaders, a lack of transparency in decision making, and contradictory legislation have further alienated the populace from the political process.

There are over twenty-five registered political parties, although only five are substantial in size. Political fragmentation has been a problem, and coalitions between parties have been unstable.

Social Problems and Control. The rate of violent crimes grew steadily after the end of Stalin's repressive regime. The ubiquity of state authority in the form of the KGB, the police, the Communist Party, and the military created an atmosphere of surveillance and control. Drug abuse was relatively low because of the strong control of border regions, although it increased during the war in Afghanistan (1979–1989).

Economic crime, corruption and bribe taking, black market activity, and theft of state property were normal daily practice for many citizens and officials. An informal culture of networking facilitated the exchange of favors, access, and information and allowed many people to accrue privileges and material benefits. These activities were illegal but rarely prosecuted. One effect of widespread participation in shadow networks and black marketeering was a general disdain for legality.

The economic and social liberalization of the late 1980s set the stage for an explosion of criminal activity. Extortion through the offering of "protection" services became a fact of life for businesses and financed the expansion of mafia activity. The mafia has infiltrated every branch of industry: up to 70 percent of all banks may be mafia-owned, and organized crime plays a substantial role in raw material exports. In little more than a decade, the mafia created vast local and international networks for drug trafficking, prostitution, arms smuggling, nuclear materials smuggling, counterfeiting, money laundering, and auto theft. Mafia-organized contract killings have become common in the cities, and thousands of political leaders, businesspeople, and journalists have been murdered. Because law enforcement is weak and corrupt and because the mafia has close ties with government and business leaders, efforts to reduce its influence have been ineffective. Weak legislation, a judiciary that is underfunded, overwhelmed by cases, and plagued by corruption and overcrowded jails has created a society whose regulatory mechanisms cannot deal with the current conditions. Most people see no point in appealing to the law for assistance or protection.

Juvenile delinquency has grown substantially, along with narcotic abuse, prostitution, the spread of AIDS, and homelessness among teens and children. A number of dramatic terrorist acts have occurred—possibly connected to the war in Chechnya, which also has created opportunities for gun running, extortion, and kidnapping.

Military Activity. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia experienced a blow to its national pride and identity. Without a Cold War to legitimize a military presence in client states, few fiscal resources, and no longer the center of a superpower state, Russia's military forces contracted, and its military doctrine was revised to focus on national defense and the maintenance of political stability (particularly in border regions). Military issues today include the expansion of NATO, the need for multilateral nuclear disarmament, and separatist movements in the northern Caucasus.

Although military expenditure has decreased and the number of personnel in the armed forces has fallen, sizable forces are stationed in Georgia, Armenia, Moldova, and Tajikistan; these are nominally peacekeeping forces, but one of their functions is to protect Russian strategic interests.

Russia has waged two wars with Chechnya to repress independence movements in that republic. Russia wants to maintain access to the Caspian Sea's rich oil reserves, hopes to prevent the spread of Moslem fundamentalist movements in its territory, and fears that other ethnically based republics and autonomous regions will pursue independence if Chechnya succeeds. Russian forces invaded Chechnya in 1994 and in the following two years nearly leveled the capital city, Grozny, and killed at least thirty thousand of its citizens, including many ethnic Russians. Several thousand Russian forces were killed, and public opinion turned against the war. Russian forces began to withdraw in 1996. In 1999, Chechen rebels in Dagestan gave Russia a justification to renew its attacks; in this second war, Grozny was destroyed, thousands more were killed, and tens of thousands became refugees. Publicity about young men returning home maimed or dead spurred a movement of mothers against the war. Ferocious propaganda stimulated the populace to virulent nationalism and racism against those Russians called "blacks."

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Soviet paternalism has given way to a weak welfare state. Soviet citizens were guaranteed free schooling, free comprehensive medical care, housing, maternity leave, and annual vacations, and there was an extensive system of pensions and special subsidies for retired persons, invalids, and war veterans. Although the level of access to social provisions was not uniform, most citizens' basic needs were met and people were largely satisfied with the services they received.

Budgetary difficulties have made it increasingly difficult for the postsocialist government to provide the services mandated by law, and new legislation has expanded the range of services. The result is the overall crumbling of social welfare systems. Hospitals and schools are in bad condition, especially outside the largest urban centers. International lending agencies such as the International Monetary Fund have pressed Russia to privatize social welfare and curtail subsidies. Government officials have delayed dismantling the welfare state for political reasons and a widely held view that people should be protected from poverty.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Until Gorbachev, the only legal organizations and associations were those created and managed by the government bureaucracy and the Communist Party. The nongovernmental sector consisted of underground dissident groups, networks, and clubs. Although there was a wide range of unofficial activity, independent political and religious groups were persecuted by the KGB and legal authorities. Since the late 1980s, civil society has grown dramatically and includes organizations that span the country and cover major areas of concern. Groups in every region are dedicated to humanitarian, environmental, medical, cultural, religious, feminist, pacifist, and other causes. Groups focusing on the development and democratization of technical, commercial, legal, and political institutions are active. Scarce resources force many groups to operate on a shoe-string budget, although partnerships with international foundations have provided start-up funds and strategic support.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Traditionally, society was structured around gendered divisions of labor and authority. Rural communities were exogamous, patrilocal, and patriarchal, with newly married women subservient in the families of their husbands until they had borne sons. Among the gentry, every detail of household management was prescribed and encoded in laws that addressed even the most intimate details of family life.

A key part of communist ideology was the freeing of women from oppressive norms and structures. Women were trained for and encouraged to take up what was previously male-only labor, such as operating agricultural machinery, working in construction, and laying and maintaining roads and railbeds. Nurseries and day care centers were established to free women from child rearing. Women's increased participation in medicine, engineering, the sciences, and other fields was supported. "Liberated" to work in public jobs, women often retained the burden of all household work as people held to customary notions of domestic propriety. Also, their equal employment status was not reflected in the workplace, where women faced several forms of discrimination. Nevertheless, in a number of domains, particularly in medicine and education, Soviet women gained authority and status. By the 1980s, one-third of the deputies to the Supreme Soviet were female, and women accounted for over 50 percent of students in higher education.

Much of the hard-earned status of women has eroded. As unemployment grew in the 1990s, the first to be discharged from lifelong positions were women; management jobs in the new commercial sector were reserved for men, and a traditionalist view of work and family reasserted itself throughout society. In part, this was a backlash against the "double burden" of employment and household labor; some women whose husbands had succeeded in the new economy were glad to leave their jobs and take up full-time household and family care. For women who want or need to work, recent trends toward devaluing women's work have been demoralizing and financially devastating. Some women have become entrepreneurs, although they face gender prejudice in setting up businesses and often are not taken seriously. The percentage of women holding political office has declined, and women's participation in high levels of industry, the sciences, the arts, and the government has shrunk, especially in big cities. Significant numbers of young women have been lured into prostitution, which appears to be the only way to escape poverty for many impoverished women from provincial regions.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Many people have an inflexible image of gender roles and skills: men cannot cook, clean house, or perform child care, whereas women are bad at driving cars, managing finances, and supervising others. Men are valued for patriarchal and stern leadership, bravery, physical strength, and rationality; women are valued for beauty, intuition, emotional depth, and selfless generosity. Women are disproportionately represented among the devout, but the priesthood and hierarchy of the Orthodox Church are strictly male. Some new religious groups have women in leadership roles. Women are held in high regard as mothers, nurturers, and bearers of the most sacred dimensions of the culture. Many people value this conception of femininity and fear that it will be spoiled by feminists. Women's movement activists struggle against this viewpoint.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Romantic love is considered the only acceptable motivation for marriage, and there is a long tradition in literature, poetry, and song of idealizing lovers' passion, usually with tragic overtones, although bawdy approaches to the topic are also popular. Contemporary practice also highlights more pragmatic and cynical aspects of marital relationships, such as improving one's economic status or housing prospects. People frequently meet partners at school, university, or at work, although discotheques and clubs in the cities have become popular meeting places. Premarital sex is generally accepted, and marriages arising from unplanned pregnancies are not uncommon. Since the 1930s, twenty-three years has been the average age at marriage. Cohabitation is tolerated, but legal marriage is greatly preferred. Although economic un-certainty has led many to marry later or not at all, 97 percent of adults marry by age forty, and most before age thirty. Approximately one-half of all marriages end in divorce. Economic hardship and alcohol abuse are major contributing factors. Ethnic intermarriage became fairly common in Soviet times, and most people have at least one ancestor of a different nationality.

Domestic Unit. The multigenerational extended family living with the husband's family characterized peasant life until the twentieth century although household size varied by region. Among the aristocracy, the size and structure of the household unit was more flexible, although strict patriarchal control over the labor and behavior of the household was standard across social classes. One goal of the revolution was to replace traditional family practices with non-authoritarian communal living units. This experiment was short-lived, and after the 1930s, the values of family autonomy and privacy survived state intrusion.

The nuclear family is the most important domestic unit, and most married couples want an apartment of their own, away from their parents. The housing shortage and the high cost of new housing have made this a challenge, and families often live in apartments holding three generations, sometimes in stress-provoking conditions. Many couples with children live with a widowed parent of one spouse, most often the grandmother, who provides child care and food preparation. A grandparent's monthly pension may contribute significantly to the family budget.

Inheritance. Among the gentry, before the revolution, property was divided among all the living sons; as a result, large estates often were dissipated through fragmentation. Among the peasantry, household property included tools, clothes, and domestic items, while arable, pasture, and forest lands were held in common by the village and regularly repartitioned to provide adequate land for each family. Families with more married sons were allotted larger pieces of land. An ethos of egalitarianism with regard to property inheritance has remained strong.

In the Soviet period and for most families today, the most important real property consists of apartments and dachas. Ensuring that children have legal title to their parents' or grandparents' housing requires officially registering of the children as residents of those places before the death of the title holder. Otherwise, the title can revert to the government. With the advent of new wealth, inheritance laws are being reformulated, but there is controversy about taxes and legal procedures.

Kin Groups. Kinship is reckoned bilaterally, including consanguineal and affineal relations, although among the gentry recorded genealogies usually stressed the paternal. Until the mid-nineteenth century, kin terms for over sixty specific relations were in common use; with the social transformations of the last century, the number of terms has decreased. Even across distances, close relations are maintained between a person and his or her siblings, grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins and their families, and nieces and nephews, and many people stay in touch with more distant relatives. Among the factors that account for the sustaining of close ties are a lack of geographic mobility, the importance of networks of support in hard times, and regular visits to relatives in ancestral villages in the summer to rest, work, or visit family graves.

There has been a resurgence of interest in aristocratic roots. The exploration and celebration of one's genealogical background has become quite popular, and some members of aristocratic families abroad have returned to visit their families' former estates and re-assert their rank. Many people are intrigued by the romance and drama of the great families of the past.

Socialization

Infant Care. Most women give birth in often overcrowded and understaffed maternity hospitals. Childbirth practices reflect traditional ideologies: birthing mothers are supposed to be stoical and are criticized for crying or complaining. Women stay in the hospital for at least a week after a birth, during which time fathers are allowed to see the mother and baby only through a glass window. It is feared that fathers may spread germs or will be repulsed by the "female business" involved in birthing. After the birth, women are encouraged to nurse, although maternal malnutrition often causes failure at breast-feeding and formula is given instead. State maternity benefits and laws on maternity leave are generous, although they often are not observed by private businesses, and pregnant women may be fired. Infants used to be swaddled at birth and are still wrapped and bundled tightly except during bathing and diapering. It is thought that they will injure themselves otherwise. Many customary beliefs about the evil eye and other natural or supernatural dangers surround pregnancy, birthing, and new babies. Although they are coddled, very young babies can be spoken to as if they understood "civilized" behavior and may be scolded for crying, grabbing, or hair pulling. Babies are kept very warm but also get fresh air; it is common to see parents or grandmothers walking in a park on a frigid day with a heavily bundled infant, its face peeking out from the blankets in its carriage.

Child Rearing and Education. The Soviet state provided nurseries and preschools for children, from the smallest infants through seven-year-olds starting elementary school. There were never enough places to go around, and so mothers going back to work after maternity leave might rely on grandmothers or other female relatives. A range of methods ensured that children were inculcated with the values of communal responsibility and proper social behavior. Learning to follow instructions and rules was valued over developing creativity and initiative. Very little has changed, although funding for public child care and education has diminished, forcing teachers to provide services with reduced resources in aging and inadequate facilities. Major changes have been made in school curricula, but most schools rely on teaching materials prepared by centralized federal committees, ensuring widespread standardization of education. Progressivism in education is not highly developed. Academic standards remain high, and students are well trained in world history, foreign languages, music, mathematics, and science. In Soviet times, the values of internationalism were stressed, and the Soviet Union's role in modeling a multiethnic nation was highlighted; that has been replaced by an emphasis on the importance of citizenship and the nation's achievements in the arts and sciences.

Many nonacademic activities and expectations may be structured in terms of gender. Girls and boys are dressed in very different ways and given different responsibilities. Girls are encouraged to be quiet, friendly, and mutually supportive, while boys are expected to be noisy, boisterous, and competitive.

The school year is highly ritualized from the opening day of classes to graduation, with celebrations and performances, some of which involve parents. Many students spend their entire educational career in one school. A sense of identification with the school and lifelong friendships develop in these institutions, and students commonly keep in touch with each other and with their teachers and principals well into adulthood. Schools may commemorate the accomplishments of their graduates.

Higher Education. The Soviet Union had a world-class system of higher education, with forty universities and hundreds of institutions specializing in academic, scientific, professional, and technical disciplines. Business education, especially in management, finance, and marketing, has been developed only since 1991, but there are more than one thousand business training schools, including some at the most prestigious universities, such as Moscow State University. More than 90 percent of the population has completed secondary education, and around 12 percent have received a higher education. Ninety-nine percent of the adult population is literate, although literacy and completion rates are declining among educationally disadvantaged ethnic groups in the North Caucasus, southern Siberia, and the Far East. Higher education has come to be valued as a mark of social prestige and is regarded as critically important for economic success.

Etiquette

The most significant elements of etiquette are the verbal markers of social status. People use the second person plural pronoun when addressing elders except for parents and grandparents, persons of higher status, strangers, and acquaintances. The informal second person singular is used only among close friends, within the natal family, and among close coworkers of equal status. The more distant two people are socially, the more likely it is that they will address each other with full formality. Addressing someone formally also entails using the person's full name and patronymic. Misuse of the informal mode is extremely insulting.

Table behavior is circumscribed by a code of manners. Hosts and hostesses must show unfailing generosity, even with unexpected guests, and guests must receive that hospitality with a show of willingness to be served, fed, and pampered. Drinking together and toasting are important aspects of these rituals.

The filthiness of urban surfaces means that one never sits on the ground or puts shod feet on a table. Proper feminine behavior requires the observance of a number of specific practices: clothes must always be immaculately clean and pressed, fastidious grooming is critical, and comportment should be elegant and reserved. However, in crowds, lines, and public transport, active shoving and pushing are the norm.

In Soviet times, being demure and not drawing attention to oneself through dress or behavior were highly valued, but this norm has vanished with the explosion of fashion and attention-getting subcultural identities.

The word "uncultured" is used by grandmothers and older people as a reprimand for behavior on the part of their charges or total strangers that are considered uncouth or inappropriate. The use of this reprimand has diminished as the social status of elders has fallen and as blatantly offensive behavior in the cities has become a mark of the power and "coolness" of youthful traders and "toughs."

Religion

Religious Beliefs. Although Prince Vladimir converted the East Slavs to Orthodox Christianity in 988, pre-Christian polytheism persisted for hundreds of years among the people, alongside Christian practices and beliefs. Many animistic elements, rites, and feasts associated with the agricultural calendar have persisted. Christian practices such as the curative application of "holy water" from a church are structured along the lines of pre-Christian customs. Churches frequently were constructed on ancient sacred sites. Traditional beliefs about forest and house spirits and metaphysical healing practices still exist among urbanized intellectuals and the working classes, especially among rural populations. A number of behavioral prohibitions stem from old beliefs: whistling indoors summons ill fortune and evil spirits are attracted by bragging or calling attention to good fortune or health. Telling people they have a lovely child may cause discomfort and necessitate warding off the evil eye.

The Soviet Union promoted "scientific atheism," severely repressed all religious organizations, and destroyed or took over many religious properties and sacred objects. The recent revitalization of religious identification and practice has been swift and strong among adherents of Orthodoxy, Islam, Buddhism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism, although many Jews have emigrated. Indigenous shamanism is also being revived among many Siberian and Mongolian peoples. The state has returned thousands of churches, mosques, and temples as well as icons and other religious objects appropriated during the Soviet period to their respective communities. Monasteries and religious schools and training centers for all faiths have sprung up or reopened, and the number of religious practitioners has more than doubled since the 1970s. There has also been an explosion of alternative and New Age spiritual movements, publications, and practitioners.

A majority of ethnic Russians identify themselves as Orthodox Christians. A much smaller number are active participants in church activities, but the observance of key holidays is increasing. The Russian Orthodox Church has always been institutionally powerful, aligned with the state since Kievan times and even in the Soviet period, when it was allowed to function within strict limits. The control and reach of the state have often been secured through the administrative networks and ideological influence of the Orthodox church.

Islam has been important throughout Russian history. It has been the major religion in the northern Caucasus since the eighth century and in the Volga region since the tenth. Today, Islam is the second largest religion, after Russian Orthodoxy, with at least 19 million practitioners, and among ethnic minorities most Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Chechens, and Avars, are Sunni Muslim. Moscow is a center of Islam in Russia, with many active mosques and organizations to serve the one to two million Muslims in Moscow. There are significant populations in many other large cities as well.

Before the revolution, most of Russia's Jews were confined to rural settlements and endured constant persecution. In addition to facing both popular and official anti-Semitism in the Soviet period, Jewish populations were repressed and secularized to the point where the majority were nonpracticing and Judaism was regarded as an ethnicity but not a religious identity. From the 1970s, a slow rediscovery of Jewish tradition, both sacred and secular, has occurred, while major waves of emigration have reduced the numbers of Jews. A few synagogues functioned nominally during the Soviet period, and these have been somewhat revitalized in recent years as some of the several million Jews remaining in Russia rediscover lost traditions and rituals.

Buddhism was officially recognized in Russia in 1741. It is the primary religion of ethnic Buryats, Kalmyks, and Tuvans. Harshly persecuted under Stalin, when most temples and monasteries were destroyed and lamas murdered or sent to the Gulag, Buddhism has made a steady revival, and today claims several million adherents, among ethnic Slavs as well as traditionally Buddhist populations.

Roman Catholicism is practiced mainly be ethnic Poles, Germans, and Lithuanians. Various Protestant sects are long established, especially among ethnic Ukrainians, and in the years since perestroika foreign evangelical sects have sought adherents among nonbelievers and members of other religious groups. In 1997, the controversial "Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations" was passed, granting full rights of organization and association to only four religions: Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism. Others have to go through a complex registration process and their activities are restricted.

Religious Practitioners. The administrative head of the Russian Orthodox Church is the Moscow patriarchate. Bishops and metropolitans lead the 128 dioceses. Parish priests, who are trained in seminaries and are obliged to marry, serve the 19,000 parishes. The number of parishes and monasteries has grown substantially with the restoration of religious freedom. Islamic muftis lead the Muslim Spiritual Boards, with a variety of jurisdictions, but the hierarchical and regional structure of Islam in Russia is in flux, as numerous religious and religious-political organizations, institutes, and cultural centers vie for authority and followers. Mullahs are the local teachers and interpreters of Islam; many are hereditary, but some young mullahs are challenging existing structures of authority. Among Buddhists, lamas are the most important spiritual leaders and teachers.

Rituals and Holy Places. For most Orthodox believers, religious practice centers on the emotive experience of liturgy, which is chanted daily, on Sundays, and in long, elaborate services on holy days. Icons depicting the Virgin Mary and the saints are widely venerated, and the faithful light candles, pray, bow, and sometimes weep before these sacred images. The peasant hut of the last century always centered on the "red corner" where the family's icon hung, and many urban apartments have a table or shelf set aside for an icon. Churches and cathedrals are the most important sites of Orthodox worship. Local parishes across the country have raised funds to rebuild and restore churches destroyed by the Soviets, with some support from the Moscow patriarchate. Tens of millions of dollars are being spent to restore cathedrals in the large cities. Some, like the enormous Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, torn down in 1931, have been rebuilt from scratch and are widely venerated as symbols of the rebirth of Russian Orthodoxy.

A similar rebuilding and reclamation of older sites of worship has occurred among Russia's Islamic, Jewish, and Buddhist communities.

Death and the Afterlife. Proper care for and remembrance of the dead are considered very important. Around the time of death, it is crucial to do certain things to prevent the dead from staying or returning: mirrors are covered with black cloth, the body is laid out in ways that facilitate the ushering out of the spirit, and mourners accompany the deceased from home to church and from church to cemetery. In the church or hall where the body is displayed, mourners circle the open coffin counterclockwise and may kiss or lay flowers on the body. After burial, mourners return to the family's home, where certain foods are served with vodka and the deceased is remembered with stories and anecdotes. Food and vodka may be set at his or her place for nurturance of the soul. The soul remains on earth for forty days, at which time the family holds a second gathering to bid farewell as the soul departs for heaven. The anniversary of a death is memorialized every year; some people travel great distances to visit their loved ones' graves.

Medicine and Health Care

Socialized medicine was a cornerstone of Soviet society. The medical sciences were well developed, with particular success in cardiology, oncology, and laser surgery. However, demand for medical services was often greater than the system could handle, and many hospitals and clinics were understaffed, underequipped, and lacking in supplies. Party officials and other elites had access to worldclass, special clinics while the majority received the basic level of care available in the public clinics. Rural and provincial areas were especially ill served.

A secondary system of private medicine has developed alongside the state system. These privatized medical services are affordable by a limited proportion of the population; private insurance programs are in the early stages of development. Occasionally, private businesses pay for the medical care of their employees. Medicines and services are not available at prices all people can afford because funding for public health services have declined.

Social changes have been accompanied by the spread of communicable diseases. Tuberculosis has swept through prisons and other institutions, and the rates of venereal disease, hepatitis, and AIDS have grown. Poverty, poor living conditions, lack of adequate sanitation, drug abuse, and industrial pollution have contributed to a widespread decline in public health.

Folk medicine has traditionally been utilized, and hundreds of herbal and alternative remedies are commonly used; people grow herbs at their dachas for healing purposes. The practice of folk or alternative medicine has been legalized, and tens of thousands of practitioners advertise their services. Herbal medicine, homeopathy, the application of leeches, spiritual healing, mineral baths, light therapy, and other exotic forms of treatment are widely used. Professional physicians often prescribe folk therapies such as herbal teas or tinctures and mustard plasters.

Secular Celebrations

International Women's Day on 8 March, celebrating the contributions and role of women in social life, is a legal holiday and a day off from work; men bring flowers to the women in their lives, or call or send cards to congratulate female friends, wives, and relatives. Television features special shows dedicated to women, femininity, and the "female virtues." May Day, or Labor Day (1 May), the day of international labor solidarity, previously marked with parades, is now an occasion to celebrate the coming of spring. The Day of Victory on 9 May commemorates the Soviet capture of Berlin and the end of World War II. This holiday is taken seriously by older people, who gather to remember family members, friends, and comrades lost in the war. Television runs solemn tributes to veterans and war heroes. The Day of Russia on 12 June marks independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. It features parades and fireworks. The Day of the October Revolution, on 7 November is celebrated only by communists and people nostalgic for Soviet power. New Year's Eve is the most lavishly celebrated secular holiday. Grandfather Frost and his helper the Snow Maiden leave gifts under a decorated New Year's Tree, and people gather to await midnight with laughter, song, feasting, and vodka and champagne. These parties often last through the night.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. State support for the arts was provided by the Soviet government because literature, art, theater, and music were perceived as media through which political ideologies could be conveyed. The state nourished the production of the arts through organizations such as the Composer's Union and the Writer's Union, which provided monetary support and social services, while monitoring and guiding creative output. After 1991, federal funding diminished greatly, just as artists were experiencing creative freedom for the first time. While private publishing houses, galleries, and theaters have appeared, the public has turned away from this art to enjoy detective, romance, adventure, and horror novels and films. Popular culture has enjoyed a renaissance, and artists struggle to support themselves.

Literature. Russia has always been primarily an oral culture in which a wide range of folkloric genres and traditions has flourished and provided the primary form of entertainment. Pre-Christian epic ballads, agricultural songs, laments, and tales dating back to before the tenth century were recorded for the first time in the seventeenth century. Folktales and epic poems were carried by itinerant storytellers; riddles, jokes, and verbal games were popular in every village; and there was a broad spectrum of folk poetry, from sacred ritual verse to ribald ditties. Most great writers incorporated folkloric themes and genres in their work, and folklore is still widely known and shared.

The first written literature dates from the eleventh century, with the production of religious texts, including translations from Byzantine works, original sermons and other didactic works, and hagiographies. Chronicles such as the Russian Primary Chronicle are among the most important medieval literature in Old Russian. The Song of Igor's Campaign, a saga of the twelfth century campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, is a work of outstanding poetic beauty, metaphoric sophistication, and political commentary.

With the rise of Muscovy in the fifteenth century, a new literary tradition began to take shape with many historical, biographical, and instructional works, most with a religious character, along with ecclesiastical texts. More secular and popular literature appeared in the sixteenth century. A period of classicism in the eighteenth century saw the development of political and social satire, comedy, and romanticism.

The golden age of literature began in the early nineteenth century with the poet Aleksandr Pushkin, whose narrative poem, Eugene Onegin, transformed Russian literature with its shrewd depiction of social life and romantic love. The poetry and prose of Mikhail Lermontov; the stories, longer prose, and plays of Nikolai Gogol; and the stories and novels of Ivan Turgenev opened new paths in terms of language, psychological insight, and sociopolitical commentary. The works of the novelists Fyodor Dostoevsky and Lev Tolstoy took the novel to new levels of psychological realism, philosophical contemplation, and epic tragedy. Anton Chekhov's stories and plays were profoundly innovative. Most Russians know their national literature well.

The turn of the twentieth century ushered in a renewal of poetry, with competing schools of symbolism, acmeism, and futurism. For a brief period before and after the revolution, experimentation and utopianism in all the arts existed alongside realistic and satirical fiction. Many of the greatest literary figures of this period were imprisoned, exiled, or killed during the 1930s. A few key figures such as Boris Pasternak, Anna Akhmatova, and Marina Tsvetaeva, managed to survive but suffered great personal losses.

Socialist realism became the only officially sanctioned and supported mode of artistic production. It was supposed to present a realistic picture of workers and peasants building a socialist utopia. Thousands of paintings, sculptures, novels, plays, poems, songs, and motion pictures were created to accord with socialist realist doctrine; the vast majority were stilted and didactic. Works of art that diverged from the socialist realist mold were frequently repressed. Writers such as Aleksander Solzhenitsyn and Joseph Brodsky were hounded, and ultimately expelled. Except for the time of "the thaw" under Krushchev in the early 1960s, much creative work took place underground or was not published. Gorbachev's policy of glasnost opened the way for previously repressed work to be made public. In the late 1980s, dozens of works critical of Soviet politics or revealing the contradictions of Soviet life were openly published for the first time.

The post-Soviet years have brought writers of dark and droll social realism, such as Tatyana Tolstaya and Liudmilla Petrushevskaya, to the fore. The modern parables of Vladimir Makanin and Viktor Pelevin have become popular among literati and the young reading public.

Graphic Arts. Folk arts are ancient and varied. Animal, bird, plant, solar, and goddess motifs, and a palette of reds and golden yellows with traces of black and green favored by peasant artists prevail across a range of folk art media, particularly in painted wooden objects and embroidered textiles. There have been several periods of decline and revitalization as animist expressions were repressed under Christianization a thousand years ago and then under the Soviet regime. In both cases, peasant artists changed their output to accord with the dominant ideology. Soviet state-run studios kept many folk media alive, and the postsocialist period has seen independent craftspersons return to traditional mythological motifs, such as that of the Sirin, a bird with a woman's head and breasts.

With the adoption of Christianity in 988, Byzantine religious architecture and icon painting were brought to Russia. Several indigenous schools took root in Muscovy after ties with Byzantium were cut under the Mongols. Even though much of his work was destroyed by fire, Andrei Rublev (ca.1360–1430) is Russia's most renowned icon painter; the subtle color, harmonious composition, and spiritual serenity of his images are still revered.

After the sixteenth century, the tsar's court, the gentry, and wealthy merchants supported metalworking, jewelry, textile, and porcelain workshops. An array of these crafts is on display in the Kremlin's Armory.

Secular painting, particularly portraiture and cityscapes, developed in the eighteenth century, spurred by the Empress Elizabeth's founding of the Academy of Fine Arts in Petersburg in 1757 and the collections amassed by Catherine the Great. The nineteenth century brought romanticism and realism. Realism characterized the work of the so-called Wanderers Society, a socially progressive movement of the 1870s; Ilia Repin is the most famous of the movement's artists. A folk art movement began later in the nineteenth century. The World of Art movement in the early twentieth century produced the theater designer and ballet impresario Serge Diaghelev, the abstract impressionist Vasilii Kandinsky, and the inspiration for a Symbolist movement. Abstraction dominated after 1910, especially in the form of neoprimitivism, Cubism, Suprematism, Futurism, and Constructivism. After the revolution, the abstract works of Constructivists such as Malevich, Tatlin, and Rodchenko were supported by the head of the People's Commissariat of Enlightenment. These artists had an industrial aesthetic that valued a proletarian utilitarianism, but their art was abstract and formalistic, out of synch with the development of Socialist Realism. After 1953, pluralism in the arts grew quietly until the blossoming of unofficial art movements from the 1960s on, with artistic circles rediscovering and experimenting with abstraction, expressionism, magic realism, and other suppressed genres. Underground exhibits often were held in artists' apartments and studios and in city parks, and some were important cultural and political events.

With the relaxation of censorship in the mid-1980s, new waves of performance art, postmodernism, and minimalism occurred, but there was also a surge of both harsh and critical realism and romantic longing for a spiritually whole Russia. In the 1980s, avant-garde painting gained popularity worldwide.

Performance Arts. The performing arts include those seen as "high culture"—symphonic music, opera, ballet, and theater—and the popular forms, encompassing everything from gypsy ballads to folk choruses, rock music to raves. In the first category are the composers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, such as Piotr Tchaikovsky, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, and Dmitry Shostakovich; opera greats such as Fedor Chaliapin; the ballet impresario Sergei Diaghilev and the dancers Vaslav Nijinsky, Anna Pavlova, Rudolph Nurieyev and Mikhail Baryshnikov; and the theatrical producer and acting teacher Konstantin Stanislavsky. Russians are still foremost in many areas of music and dance. Classical music and dance performances were state-subsidized so that tickets were relatively inexpensive and attendance was very high. Ballets and orchestras toured even in remote regions in an attempt to "bring culture to the masses." The level of appreciation for and amateur performance of music remain high.

Western rock music became popular in the 1960s largely through illegal copies of albums that circulated from hand to hand. Rock flourishes today among tens of thousands of rock groups and dozens of famous bands. Estrada, an often vulgar or campy form of pop singing and performance, has been popular since the prerevolutionary period. The singer Alla Pugacheva is the most famous artist in this genre. Folk choruses sing traditional and contemporary folk songs, either a capellà or accompanied by a balalaika and other native instruments. Bard singing arose in the postwar period as a quiet mode of protest but became enormously popular, with "secret" festivals in the countryside attracting thousands of fans. No social gathering is complete without impassioned singing and guitar playing. Most people know the words to many songs. Many young people are devoted to contemporary musical forms such as techno, hip-hop, and rap. Raves and other participatory musical events are very popular in the cities.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

The Soviet Union fostered the development of the physical sciences, and although hampered by the slow development of the computer industry and outdated laboratory equipment, many of its scientists and scientific institutions did important work. Fields with potential military application, such as physics, chemistry, and mathematics, along with other disciplines, were supported. Much of the money for the sciences has vanished. Where it exists, private or foundation funding can provide only minimal resources. Dozens of prestigious institutes are nearly closed, lacking funds even for essentials such as electricity and water.

The social sciences were organized around Marxist-Leninist theory and thus were forced to frame research in terms of dialectical materialism. Until the mid-1980s, social problems were not freely discussed and research that might portray living conditions or social attitudes in a negative light was restricted. Since the era of Gorbachev's reforms, the social sciences have flourished even though financing for pure research has been limited. Applied sociology has benefited, as polling has become a mainstay of business.

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