Ireland, Republic of The southern part of Ireland, which, together with Northern Ireland, came under British rule in the sixteenth century, and became an integral part of the UK with the Act of Union in 1801. Ireland subsequently sent 100 MPs to the House of Commons, and 32 members to the House of Lords (Parliament (UK) ). Nevertheless, Ireland was treated more like a colony than like a component part of the UK, and throughout the nineteenth century there were popular demands for the recognition of Irish distinctiveness. From the third quarter of the nineteenth century, English politicians sought to alleviate Irish grievances through various Land Acts, at a time when opinion in Ireland shifted increasingly towards demands for internal autonomy, Home Rule.

The British Liberal Party accepted the need for Home Rule in 1886, though the unpopularity in England of Irish self-rule delayed the legislation until 1914. Meanwhile, in the last decade of the nineteenth century a distinctive national movement began to emerge, which led to a successful revival of Irish (Gaelic) culture in sports and cultural organizations, relatively unsuccessful attempts at reviving the Gaelic language, and a blossoming of a self-confident Irish literary movement, spearheaded by W. B. Yeats. Since then, (southern) Irish national identity and, since 1921, Irish nationhood has been marked by two central elements. The first of these has been the integrative element of the Roman Catholic Church. Contrasting with the Protestant nature of the English establishment (Anglican Communion), Catholic piety in one of Europe's most religiously observant societies has been the principal distinguishing factor of the southern Irish people, and a central underpinning of Irish nationalism. This is why the Protestant minority has found it difficult to be accepted in a national community whose self-understanding is marked by Catholicism, while it is the central reason why the Protestant majority of Northern Ireland has had no desire to become part of an Irish state dominated by Catholic nationalism.

The second major element underpinning Irish identity has been a highly ambivalent attitude towards the UK, before and after independence. Even after political independence, Ireland continued to remain heavily reliant on the British economy for its foreign trade, and thousands of Irish continued to emigrate to Britain in search for jobs. This had important cultural repercussions, as Liverpool, Manchester, and London remained a natural place for an Irish person to spend part of his or her life. At the same time, however, Irish nationalism was by its very nature anti-English, its return to an ‘Irish’ culture being a rejection of the strong English influence on Irish society. This explains why, even after independence, discussions about the nature of ‘Irishness’ and its relation to the UK remained the central issue in Irish politics. Irish politics is divided not along social or ideological lines, as in most other European, Latin American, or Australian countries. Instead, traditionally the defining difference between the two major Irish parties has been the more obstinate nationalism of the Fianna Fáil, and the more pragmatic, conciliatory stance towards the British advocated by Fine Gael.

Although Home Rule was eventually granted in 1914, it was never enacted, owing to the outbreak of World War I. While large numbers of Irish volunteered for service in the war, independence only came with the brutal British reaction to the Easter Rising, which transformed its actors into martyrs, and thus became the catalyst for widespread demands for independence. Militant nationalist groups such as the Irish Citizen Army (est. 19 November 1913) and the Irish Volunteers (est. 25 November 1913) experienced a dramatic growth in membership, while the British incensed nationalist opinion further by repeated demands for conscription in the war. Individual attacks against British targets (mainly the army and government institutions) began.

In the Coupon Elections of December 1918, the nationalist Sinn Féin received 73 out of 81 seats in southern Ireland. Its MPs refused to take up their seats in the British Parliament, and on 21 January 1919 met in Dublin instead, setting up an alternative Irish chamber named the Dáil Éireann, with de Valéra as its President. A War of Independence ensued, in which the regular British forces were supported by the Black and Tans, against the nationalist forces of the Irish Republican Army, IRA.

This war was ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 6 December 1921, which came into effect on 6 December 1922. Southern Ireland received de facto independence, though foreign policy continued to be made in London, with the British monarch remaining head of state. Most contentiously, the treaty provided for the partition of Ireland, as six Ulster provinces remained part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. These terms were bitterly opposed by the more radical nationalists led by de Valéra, but were accepted by the majority under the leadership of Griffiths and Collins as the best possible deal. After a year of civil war, de Valéra finally gave in, and accepted the status quo, albeit with much reluctance.

De Valéra founded a political party, the Fianna Fáil, which became the country's dominant political force in its dedication to rid Ireland of British influence and to bring about the unification of Ireland, on nationalist terms. The first President of the Executive Council (in effect, Prime Minister), Cosgrave (1922–32) focused on healing the wounds of the civil war and establishing effective state institutions. In 1932 he was succeeded by de Valéra, who subsequently led Irish politics until 1959 (apart from brief interludes under Costello, 1948–51, 1954–7) in the pursuit of real independence from the UK. He unleashed a six-year trade war with the UK in order to gain control over Irish ports, which he eventually won against the payment of £10 million in 1938. The real cost of this struggle was much worse, however, as British trade sanctions worsened the effects of the Great Depression, causing even greater economic hardship.

Links to the UK were further severed when the Dáil passed a new national constitution on 14 June 1937 (to come into effect on 29 December), creating the state of Éire, with a President as head of state, and the title of President of the Executive Council changed to Taoiseach (Irish Gaelic, ‘chief of the tribe’). The new constitution laid claim to legislate for the whole of Ireland, pending national unification. To emphasize its newfound sovereignty, Éire remained neutral during World War II, although it was friendly to the Allies (Allied pilots who crashed in Éire were returned safely to Britain, Germans were imprisoned). After the war, the Republic of Ireland Act was passed on 21 December 1948, removing all references to the British Commonwealth and Crown, establishing the state name, but retaining the Irish name Éire.

The Republic of Ireland was formally declared on 18 April 1949. Governments were now free to devote themselves to domestic politics, and throughout the 1950s tried to counter the economic problems and poverty that had developed with substantial capital investment. In the 1960s, under Lemass there was considerable industrial development, while Irish society developed rapidly in other directions, for example substantial educational reforms which enabled the number of pupils in post-primary education to double within fifteen years from 1965.

As civil unrest ensued in Northern Ireland, Irish unification and the Republic's relationship with the UK returned to the forefront of the political agenda. The Sunningdale Agreement of 9 December 1973 provided for some cooperation on northern affairs between Britain and the Republic. The 1980s and 1990s saw increased cooperation between Irish and British heads of state on Northern Ireland issues, under FitzGerald and Reynolds, which looked promising in the wake of the IRA ceasefire of 30 August 1994, but increased tensions followed a resumption of IRA violence on 9 February 1996.

Meanwhile, Ireland's entry into the EEC on 1 January 1973, negotiated by Lynch, proved spectacularly successful, as direct transfer payments from Brussels improved Irish infrastructure, while Ireland's relatively important (but inefficient) agricultural sector profited from guaranteed subsidies as part of the Common Agricultural Policy. In addition, successive Irish governments under the leadership of Haughey and FitzGerald managed to attract considerable investment from foreign companies eager to exploit the advantages of a highly skilled, low-cost workforce and Ireland's access to European markets. This transformed Ireland into a successful economy by the early 1990s, with a low budget deficit, a low inflation rate, and a declining unemployment rate. It also made Ireland more independent from the British economy, with important cultural repercussions. Irish surplus labour was no longer limited to Britain, but could just as well operate on the European continent.

As Ireland became a more self-confidently European nation, and less reliant on its overwhelming neighbour, its national identity became more relaxed vis-à-vis the UK. This in part made possible its more generous and constructive approach to a peaceful resolution to the violence in Northern Ireland, especially in its dialogue with the British government and the Ulster Protestant community. Finally, growing prosperity in the 1980s and early 1990s, which led to changing social and economic mobility, led to a degree of secularization and a declining influence of the Catholic Church, though its influence remained strong. While divorce was legalized in 1994, abortion continued to be illegal, and this was confirmed in two referendums in the mid-1990s and in 2002. Ireland continued to benefit from membership of the EU, and became its fastest growing economy in the late 1990s, with a GDP growth of 10.7 per cent in 2000. A member of the euro, Ireland expressed its concern about further European integration for the first time in a referendum in 2001, when it rejected the Treaty of Nice.

Table 12. Prime Ministers of the Republic of Ireland

Republic of Ireland Gaelic, Eire, republic (2005 est. pop. 4,016,000), 27,136 sq mi (70,282 sq km). It occupies all but the northeastern corner of the island of Ireland in the British Isles. (For physical geography and history to 1922, see Ireland .) From 1922 to 1937 the country was known as the Irish Free State, and from 1937 to 1949 as Eire.Dublin is the capital of the republic and by far its largest city.

Political Geography and People

The republic's 26 counties are Monaghan , Cavan , and Donegal (constituting part of the historic province of Ulster); Louth , Meath , Dublin , Kildare , Wicklow , Carlow , Wexford , Kilkenny , Laoighis , Offaly , Westmeath , and Longford (comprising Leinster); Tipperary , Waterford , Cork , Kerry , Limerick , and Clare (comprising Munster); and Leitrim , Roscommon , Galway , Mayo , and Sligo (comprising Connacht). In addition to the capital, other urban areas are Limerick , Cork , Dún Laoghaire , Waterford , Galway , and Dundalk .

The population is largely Celtic with a minority of English and more recent European and non-European immigrants drawn (since the 1990s) by the country's economic growth. The population is largely Roman Catholic (88%). Although there is no officially established church, the Roman Catholic church has historically played a dominant role in education in the Irish Republic. English and Gaelic are the official languages, with English the more widely used. Gaelic is most common in the west of the country.

Economy

Agriculture, once the most important sector of the economy, now engages only 8% of the workforce. The raising of dairy and beef cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry is the chief agricultural enterprise. Among the leading crops are flax, oats, wheat, turnips, barley, potatoes, and sugar beets. The republic's industries account for more than 45% of its gross domestic product and 80% of its exports, and employ roughly 30% of its workforce. Products include steel, foodstuffs, beer and ale, textiles, clothing, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, machinery, transportation equipment, vehicles, ships, computer and telecommunications hardware, computer software, linen and laces (for which Ireland is famous), crystal, and handicrafts. The main ports are Dublin and Cork. Around the free port of Shannon are factories producing electronic equipment, chemicals, plastics, and textiles. Copper, lead, zinc, silver, barite, and gypsum are mined, and oil and natural gas are produced offshore. Tourism is also very important. Ireland's main exports are machinery, computers, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, live animals, and animal products. Imports include data processing and other equipment, chemicals, petroleum products, textiles, and clothing. The main trading partners are Great Britain, the United States, and Germany.

Government

The republic is governed under the constitution of 1937. The president, who is the head of state, is popularly elected to a seven-year term and is eligible for a second term. The prime minister, who is the head of government, is appointed by the president, as is the cabinet. There is a bicameral Parliament, the Oireachtas. The House of Representatives or Dáil Éireann is the more powerful chamber. Its 166 members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation. Members of the 60-seat Senate or Śeanad Éireann are indirectly elected or appointed. All legislators serve five-year terms. Administratively, the country is divided into 26 counties.

History

After the establishment by treaty with Great Britain of the Irish Free State (Jan., 1922), civil war broke out between supporters of the treaty and opponents, who refused to accept the partition of Ireland and the retention of any ties with Britain. The antitreaty forces, embodied in the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and led by Eamon De Valera , were defeated, although the IRA continued as a secret terrorist organization. William Cosgrave became the first prime minister. De Valera and his followers, the Fianna Fáil party, agreed to take the oath of allegiance to the British crown and entered the Dáil in 1927.

In 1932, De Valera became prime minister, and under his administration a new constitution was promulgated (1937), establishing the sovereign nation of Ireland, or Eire, within the Commonwealth of Nations. De Valera's policies aimed at the political and economic independence and union of all of Ireland. The loyalty oath to the crown was abolished, and certain economic provisions of the 1921 treaty with England were repudiated, leading to an "economic war" (1932–38) with Britain.

During World War II, Eire remained neutral and vigorously protested Allied military activity in Northern Ireland. The British were denied the use of Irish ports, and German and Japanese agents were allowed to operate in the country. However, great numbers of Irishmen volunteered to serve with the British armed forces. The people of Eire suffered relatively little hardship during the war and even profited from increased food exports. The postwar period brought a sharp rise in the cost of living and a decline in population, due in great part to steady emigration to Northern Ireland, Great Britain, and other countries. In 1948, Prime Minister Costello demanded total independence from Great Britain and reunification with the six counties of Northern Ireland.

The Republic of Ireland was proclaimed on Apr. 18, 1949. The country withdrew from the Commonwealth and formally claimed jurisdiction over the Ulster counties. It was admitted to the United Nations in 1955. Nothing came of the claim to Ulster, and during the 1950s and 60s the republic and Northern Ireland improved their economic relations. The later decade also saw an all-time low in Irish population, 2.82 million in 1961. In the late 1960s the problem of Northern Ireland flared up again in bitter fighting between the Protestant majority and Catholic minority there, aggravated by the actions of the IRA, which was headquartered in the republic.

In 1973, Erskine H. Childers succeeded De Valera as president of Ireland, and Liam Cosgrave , at the head of a Fine Gael–Labor coalition, replaced Jack Lynch , of Fianna Fáil, as prime minister. In the same year the republic joined the European Community (now the European Union ). Childers died in 1974 and was succeeded by Cearbhal O. Dalaigh. Lynch led Fianna Fáil back into office in 1977; in 1979 fellow party member Charles Haughey replaced Lynch as prime minister. In 1981 a Fine Gael–Labor coalition headed by Garret FitzGerald defeated Fianna Fáil on an economic platform. Although ousted in 1982, the coalition was governing again six months later. Beginning in the late 1970s the republic's political situation was more fluid than it had been; there were several general elections and a variety of party schisms. In 1987, Haughey again became prime minister. As unemployment soared, especially among young people, outmigration increased, reaching a peak of 44,000 in 1989.

During the 1990s, the economy grew significantly, buoyed by EU subsidies and new foreign investment. By the end of the decade, unemployment was below the EU average, although pockets of poverty persisted. In late 1994, after the IRA and Protestant militias agreed to a cease-fire, efforts were begun to negotiate a settlement of the the Northern Ireland issue. Despite some setbacks, agreements were reached in Apr., 1998, and approved by voters in both the Irish Republic and Northern Ireland in May. Women's issues, such as the government's strong antiabortion stance and the constitutional ban on divorce, also became a focus in the 1990s; a referendum legalizing divorce passed by a narrow margin in 1995. In 1991, Ireland elected its first female president, Mary Robinson, and in 1997 Mary McAleese became its first president from Northern Ireland.

In 1992, Albert Reynolds , of Fianna Fáil, replaced Charles Haughey as prime minister, and when the governing coalition collapsed, Reynolds successfully formed another. The Reynolds government fell in 1994, and Fine Gael leader John Bruton succeeded him, heading a Fine Gael–Labor coalition. Bertie Ahern became prime minister in 1997, heading a Fianna Fáil–Progressive Democrat coalition; his coalition was returned to office in 2002. Revelations in 2006 that Ahern had received loans from business acquaintances in 1993–94 while he was finance minister and had not yet repaid them sparked controversy. Ahern said his attempts to repay them had been refused; he did repay the loans soon after they were became public.

In 2007 Ahern led his party to another victory at the polls, but Progressive Democrat losses led to the addition of the Green party to the governing coalition. Investigation into Ahern's finances revealed he had received additional secret cash payments in the early 1990s, and in May, 2008, he resigned because the investigation was undermining his government. Deputy Prime Minister Brian Cowen succeeded Ahern as Fianna Fáil leader and prime minister.

In June, 2008, Irish voters rejected the European Union's Lisbon Treaty amid concerns over the loss of Irish sovereignty. The Irish, who voted in a referendum because of conflicts between the treaty and the Irish constitution, were the only national electorate given a chance to vote on the treaty. A second vote on the Lisbon Treaty in Sept., 2009, following EU guarantees designed to allay Irish concerns, resulted in the treaty's approval.

Ireland officially entered what became a prolonged recession in Sept., 2008, ending more than a decade of growth that had earned its economy the nickname "Celtic Tiger." By the end of 2008, the collapse of Ireland's booming property market threatened the Irish banking system, especially the Anglo Irish Bank, which was nationalized in early 2009. In Sept., 2010, the total cost of Ireland's bailout of its banking system was estimated to be ultimately €40 billion , with roughly three fourths of that incurred due to the Anglo Irish Bank.

In November the markets had forced Ireland to agree to an €85 billion international rescue package, and the country was forced to adopt additional austerity measures and radically overhaul its banks. The Green party remained in the governing coalition but called for an early election, and Cowen, who resigned as party leader (Jan., 2011), was forced to call for an early election when the Greens quit the government. In the February contest, Fine Gael and Labor placed first and second, with the former almost winning a majority. The two parties formed a coalition government in March, with Fine Gael leader Enda Kenny as prime minister.

Bibliography

For bibliography, see under Ireland.

Ireland, Republic of A country in western Europe comprising four-fifths of the island of IRELAND, to the west of Great Britain.

Physical

A flat and fertile plain surrounds a central lake, Lough Ree, and the basin of the River Shannon. It is surrounded by coastal areas of great beauty: the Wicklow Mountains in the south-east reach to nearly 1000 m (3300 feet); the Connemara Mountains in the west stand up above great lakes, while those of Kerry in the south-west reach to over 1000 m (3282 feet) and point like rugged fingers to the sea. Many islands, among them Aran, lie in the deep bays of the western coast, where there are sandy beaches among the rocks.

Economy

Ireland has a diversified economy in which agriculture predominates, although industry has become increasingly important; the chief exports are foodstuffs (especially beef), electrical machinery, and chemicals. Other industries include textiles, and tourism is also important. The country generates 15% of its electricity by burning peat, of which there are extensive reserves. Ireland has a higher rate of emigration than any other member of the EU. However, in recent years the economy has grown rapidly, with inflation remaining low. Irish citizens have had the right to reside, work, and vote in the UK since independence.

History

After years of intermittent fighting, the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921, concluded by Lloyd George with the SINN FEIN leaders, gave separate DOMINION status to Ireland (as the Irish Free State) with the exception of six of the counties of Ulster, which formed the state of NORTHERN IRELAND. Irish republicans led by DE VALERA rejected the agreement and fought a civil war against the Irish Free State forces, but were defeated in 1923. After the FÍANNA FÁIL victory in the election of 1932, de Valera began to sever the Irish Free State's remaining connections with Great Britain. In 1937 a new constitution established it as a sovereign state with an elected president; the power of the British Crown was ended and the office of governor-general abolished. The title of Irish Free State was replaced by Ireland; in Irish, Eire. An agreement in 1938 ended the British occupation of certain naval bases in Ireland. Having remained neutral in World War II, Ireland left the COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS and was recognized as an independent republic in 1949. De Valera was elected President in 1959. He was succeeded as Taoiseach (Prime Minister) by Sean LEMASS (1959–66) and Jack LYNCH (1966–73). In 1973 Ireland joined the European Community and a FINE GAEL—Labour coalition led by Liam COSGRAVE came to power. Subsequent governments have been controlled alternately by the Fíanna Fáil under Charles HAUGHEY (1979–81; 1982; 1987–92) and the Fine Gael—Labour coalition under Dr Garret FITZGERALD (1981–82; 1982–87). In November 1985 Ireland signed the Anglo-Irish Accord (the Hillsborough Agreement) giving the republic a consultative role in the government of Northern Ireland. The agreement thus ensured a role for the republic on behalf of the nationalist minority in the north. The election as President, in December 1990, of Mary ROBINSON, of the Irish Labour Party, represented a move towards greater liberalism within Irish society; but opposition to abortion remained strong. Economically the republic has gained from its membership of the European Community (now the EUROPEAN UNION), which it continues strongly to support. In 1992 Haughey was replaced by Albert REYNOLDS, who resigned in 1994 following the collapse of his coalition. The Fine Gael leader, John BRUTON, became Prime Minister at the head of a new coalition with Labour and the Democratic Left. In December 1993 Albert Reynolds had joined the UK Prime Minister John MAJOR in issuing the DOWNING STREET DECLARATION, which set out general principles for the holding of future peace talks on NORTHERN IRELAND and represented a significant step towards peace in the province. In August 1994 the IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (IRA) announced a complete ceasefire, and the Irish government agreed to the early release of IRA prisoners as a move to consolidate the peace process. Despite the presentation by John Major and John Bruton of a joint framework document for all-party talks on a durable settlement for Northern Ireland in early 1995, a deadlock in progress towards talks developed over the British government's insistence on the IRA decommissioning of weapons before any talks began. The IRA's ceasefire was broken in early 1996 and there were bomb attacks on mainland Britain. Peace talks began in June 1996, from which Sinn Fein (the political wing of the IRA) was excluded, but in 1997, following a further IRA ceasefire, talks resumed with Sinn Fein included. In January 1998 the Irish and British governments issued, as a basis for negotiation, a joint document containing proposals for the future government of Northern Ireland, which would include a north—south ministerial council to promote cooperation between the Republic and Northern Ireland. In 1998 a peace agreement based on these proposals was signed by the Irish and British Prime Ministers ( Bertie AHERN and Tony BLAIR) and by the negotiating parties and was endorsed by the Irish electorate in a referendum.

Ireland, Republic of

History and Politics

In January 1922, the Irish Free State was created as a Dominion within the British Empire. Arthur Griffith of Sinn Féin became Taoiseach. Civil war (1922–23) ensued between supporters of the settlement, and those who refused to countenance the partition of Ireland and the creation of Northern Ireland. The anti-settlement party, led by Eamon De Valera, were defeated by Irish Free State forces led by Michael Collins. Collins was assasinated and William Cosgrave became prime minister (1922–32). In 1926, De Valera formed a separate party, Fianna Fáil, and became Taoiseach (1932–48, 1951–54, 1957–59). In 1933, Fine Gael was founded.

In 1937 a new constitution declared the sovereign nation of Éire to be the whole island of Ireland, and abolished the oath of loyalty to the English crown. During World War II, Éire remained neutral. It opposed Allied operations in Northern Ireland and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) pursued a pro-German line. In 1949, Ireland became a republic outside of the Commonwealth. Its claim to the six counties of Northern Ireland was reiterated. In 1955, Ireland joined the United Nations. In 1959, De Valera became president (1959–73). During the 1950s, the IRA was banned by both Irish governments and, as a secret organization, it conducted bombing campaigns in Northern Ireland and England. Relations with Northern Ireland improved. In 1973, Ireland joined the European Community (EC). During the 1980s, a series of short-lived coalition governments led by Charles Haughey and Dr Garrett Fitzgerald caused political uncertainty. The Anglo-Irish Agreement (1985) gave Ireland a consultative role in the affairs of Northern Ireland. Mary Robinson became Ireland's first female president in 1990 elections.

The Downing Street Declaration (1993), signed by John Major and Albert Reynolds, continued the momentum for a peaceful settlement in Northern Ireland. The Republic agreed to relinquish its claim to Northern Ireland if a majority of the North voted to remain in the UK. In 1995 elections, John Bruton, leader of Fine Gael, defeated Reynolds. Following a 1995 referendum, divorce was legalized. Abortion remains a contentious political issue. In 1997 elections, Bertie Ahern became Taoiseach and Mary McAleese became president. In the Good Friday Agreement (1998), the Irish Republic gave up its constitutional claim to Northern Ireland and a North-South Ministerial Council was established. In 1999, Ireland joined the euro. Bertie Ahern was re-elected in 2002.

Economy

Ireland benefited greatly from its membership of the European Union (2000 GDP per capita, US$21,600). In particular, Common Agricultural Policy grants enabled the modernization of farming. Agriculture employs 14% of the workforce. Food and live animals account for more than 20% of exports. Fishing is also important. Industry greatly expanded in the 20th century and accounts for 35% of GNP. High-tech industries supplemented traditional sectors such as brewing, distilling, and textiles. The service sector employs 57% of the workforce and accounts for more than 50% of GNP. Tourism is very important; receipts from tourism amounted to US$3495 million (1999).

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.irlgov.ie

Republic of Ireland. The leaders of the rising of 1916, drawing on a long political tradition (see republicanism), proclaimed an Irish Republic which would be a ‘sovereign, independent state’. The first Dáil constitution in 1919 did not define the state, although the Declaration of Independence and the democratic programme both referred to the Republic.

Between 1919 and 1921 ‘republic’ was translated in Dáil documents as ‘saorstát’. When the Irish Free State appropriated the Irish title in 1922, opponents of the Anglo‐Irish treaty reverted to the Irish word ‘poblacht’, which had been used in the 1916 proclamation. During the Civil War, anti‐treaty forces maintained a shadow republican government which became increasingly ineffective after the war ended and when de Valera left Sinn Féin in 1926.

After 1932 de Valera was pressed to declare a republic by critics from the right and the left who disliked the ambiguity of the Free State constitutional position, but refused to apply the term to one section of a partitioned Ireland. There is no reference to a republic in the 1937 constitution although this was recommended in the 1967 review of the constitution.

After the Second World War, there was increasing pressure to declare a republic and thus resolve Ireland's ambiguous international position. In 1948 the interparty government passed the Republic of Ireland Act. This caused confusion because ‘Republic of Ireland’ was the description but not the name of the state as defined in the 1937 constitution.

Deirdre McMahon