Pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo mice

(Heteromyidae)

Class Mammalia

Order Rodentia

Suborder Sciurograthi

Family Heteromyidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium nocturnal, seed-eating rodents with external, fur-lined cheek pouches, bipedal locomotion in the kangaroo rats and mice and quadrupedal locomotion in pocket mice. Rudimentary social structure; sandbathing cleans the hair and deposits scent for communication; the medium and larger sized kangaroo rats communicate by footdrumming

Size
1.7–14.6 in (42–370 mm) total length, weight: 0.2–6.9 oz (5–195 g)

Number of genera, species:
6 genera, 60 species

Habitat
Desert, grasslands, and forest

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 4 species; Endangered: 1 species; Vulnerable: 1 species; Lower Risk/Conservation Dependent: 1 species; Lower Risk/Near Threatened: 8 species

Distribution
Western United States, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America

Evolution and systematics

Heteromyid rodents have a long evolutionary history in North America. Hafner (1993) proposes that heteromyids diverged from their nearest relative, the subterranean pocket gopher, Geomyidae, in the Oligocene over 30 million years ago. The divergence continued as the climate of North America became increasingly cool and arid into the three distinct subfamilies and six genera extant today. Five genera diverged into multiple species in North America while one genus, Heteromys, entered South America. Corbet and Hill (1991) list seven species of spiny pocket mice, Liomys, and five species of forest spiny pocket mice, Heteromys, in the subfamily Heteromyinae. The subfamily Perognathinae consists of 16 species of silky pocket mice, Perognathus, and nine species of coarse-haired pocket mice, Chaetodipus). The third subfamily, Dipodomyinae, includes 21 species of kangaroo rats, Dipodomys, and two species of kangaroo mice, Microdipodops.

Physical characteristics

Heteromyids are frequently associated with the specialized morphology of kangaroo rats (weight: 1.2–6.9 oz; 33–195 g), and, to a lesser extent, the smaller kangaroo mice (0.4–0.6 oz; 10–17 g). Like kangaroos, kangaroo rats and mice move in long powerful jumps on elongated hind limbs and feet. They have especially long, beautiful tails with white tips or tufts on the end that are used for balance, and sometimes as flags. A much more generalized body type occurs in the pocket mice. Heteromys and Liomys are rat-like rodents (weights: 1.29–3.0 oz or 36.6–85.4 g and 1.2–1.8 oz or 34–50 g respectively) that have a standard quadrupedal locomotion and lack the specialized features of other species. The smaller desert pocket mice (body weights range 0.2–1.1 oz [5–31 g] in Perognathus, and 0.4–1.7 oz [10–47 g] in Chaetodipus) are quite diverse. Although they have relatively long feet, they are poor jumpers and exhibit quadrupedal locomotion. All heteromyids have external fur-lined cheek pouches that open anterior to the mouth and are nocturnal with fairly large eyes. Ears are short and rounded. Kangaroo rats and mice have inflated auditory bullae and extremely keen hearing in the low to mid-frequency ranges. The pelage varies in texture from silky and soft in kangaroo rats and mice and silky pocket mice to spiny in Liomys and Chaetodipus. Pelage color varies considerably from light to dark. Maximum longevity for these small mammals is 10 years or more.

Distribution

Schmidley et al. (1993) identify five general regions occupied by heteromyid rodents in North, Central and South America. Tropical species occur in the northern neotropical areas of Mexico, Central and northwestern South America. Heteromys is confined to moist areas of Mexico, and central and northern South America; Liomys inhabits parts of Mexico and Central America. The other four regions are arid and semiarid areas of North America in the Great Plains, the Great Basin desert, southwestern Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts, and California. Perognathus and Chaetodipus occur in all four arid regions. Perognathus ranges as far north as British Columbia and Saskatchewan throughout the central and western United States southward to Mexico. Chaetodipus occupies the Lower Sonoran area of the western United States north into the Great Basin. Microdipodops is primarily restricted to the Great Basin desert in Nevada. Dipodomys are widespread and inhabit arid areas from the Pacific coast north to southern Canada, east to the Great Plains and south through western Texas into Mexico. California has a diverse distribution of kangaroo rats and pocket mice in the southern Mojave Desert, coastal transition zones, and the Central Valley. Twelve of 21 species of kangaroo rat are found in California, and eight of these species occur either only or primarily there.

Habitat

Desert pocket mice and kangaroo rats inhabit a variety of arid habitats consisting of wind-blown sand, sagebrush, desert scrub, grassland, creosote bush flats, rocky hillsides, and chaparral. In contrast, kangaroo mice are mainly restricted to sandy habitats. A characteristic of heteromyid communities is their complexity in which multiple species co-exist. Brown and Harney (1993) describe a community in the Great Basin desert in Nevada composed of three species of kangaroo rat (D. deserti, D. merriami, D. ordii), a kangaroo mouse (M. pallidus), and a pocket mouse (P. longimembris). Heteromys occupies tropical wet forests, and Liomys is found in tropical dry forests and thorn scrub. In contrast with the high diversity of heteromyids in desert habitats, Sanchez-Cordero and Fleming (1993) note the low diversity of species in tropical habitats, probably a result of deserts being more productive in seeds, the main food source for all heteromyid rodents.

Behavior

Spacing

Heteromyid rodents have not evolved complex social systems. Most heteromyids live alone in individual burrows, except for females with young, and show the common mammalian pattern of overlapping home ranges. Male home ranges overlap those of other males and females, and females tend to occupy areas exclusive from other females. An exception is seen in the larger-sized kangaroo rats: D. spectabilis, D. ingens, and D. deserti. Both males and females maintain exclusive territories where they defend large seed caches, except during the breeding season when males travel to female territories for mating. Heteromyid home ranges average 6,458–26,910 ft² (600–2,500 m²).

Social structure

Although heteromyids are solitary species, they are not "asocial" and exhibit a rudimentary social structure. Randall (1993, 2002) views the social system of kangaroo rats as an orderly one promoted by establishment of familiarity with

close neighbors, philopatric dispersal patterns so that relatives may live nearby, and well developed means of communication. Kangaroo rats recognize neighbors from strangers by footdrumming, a characteristic thumping or drumming sound made with the hind feet. They are much less aggressive toward familiar neighbors than unfamiliar ones. Neighbor recognition seems independent of the type of spacing, but species do differ in the degree of tolerance they show toward conspecifics. Little detailed information about the social behavior of other heteromyids is available. Heteromys, however, may be somewhat social. Eisenberg (1963) noticed that adults and mature young seem to share the same burrow, and behavioral tests in the laboratory demonstrated tolerance of conspecifics. Randall (1994) has found that the lack of sociality in heteromyids is not unusual for desert rodents.

Communication

A well developed system of communication helps to promote social order in heteromyid rodents. Sandbathing, which consists of rubbing the sides and ventrum in loose soils, is performed frequently by pocket mice and kangaroo rats. The behavior functions both to remove oils from the pelage and to deposit scent for communication. The rodents deposit scent from oils associated with the hair and from a specialized scent gland on the dorsum at sandbathing sites to communicate species, sex, individual identity, familiarity, and reproductive condition, depending on the species.

Kangaroo rats drum their large hind feet on the ground to generate both airborne and seismic signals. Randall (2001) compared footdrumming in four species of territorial kangaroo rats (D. spectabilis, D. ingens, D. deserti, and D. heermanni) and found that the complexity of the signal and its messages are species specific and vary with context. Footdrumming patterns range from individually distinct footdrumming signals to single foot thumps to communicate territorial ownership, competitive superiority, submission, and readiness to mate to conspecifics.

Predator defense

As in many small prey, heteromyids rely on cryptic coloration and avoidance for predator defense. If a predator is encountered, the erratic path of bipedal locomotion often provides an effective escape for kangaroo rats and mice. Desert heteromyids also have sensitive low-frequency hearing, which enables them to detect approaching predators. At least three species of kangaroo rat (D. spectabilis, D. ingens, and D. deserti) have evolved a unique defense against snakes. Instead of avoiding a snake, they approach it to within striking distance, jump back and footdrum. Although mothers may drum to warn pups in the burrow, the drumming appears directed

at the predator to communicate that the kangaroo rat is alert, cannot be ambushed, and to tell the snake to go away. D. deserti also kicks sand at the snake during defensive interactions

Feeding ecology and diet

Heteromyid rodents are primarily granivores. Seeds comprise their main food source in all habitats, supplemented by green vegetation and insects in some species. Kenagy (1973) found that the chisel-toothed kangaroo rat, D. microps, climbs up in saltbrush, Atriplex, to consume the leaves by stripping off the epidermis with specialized chisel-shaped teeth. Desert species are physiologically adapted to survive lack of water during long droughts. Each night, the rodents emerge from their burrows to dig through the soil with their forelimbs to gather seeds. They scoop up the seeds, rapidly stuff them into their fur-lined cheek pouches until they look like they have the mumps, and transport them to caches. Factors such as seed size, density and nutritional value, predation risk, and type of soil influence foraging choices. Most heteromyids scatter-hoard and bury seeds in widely spaced surface caches

throughout their home ranges. The Merriam's kangaroo rat can even remember the location of seed caches. Territorial kangaroo rats store seeds in a central larder in the territory and actively defend the caches from other rodents by chasing away intruders and footdrumming.

Reproductive biology

The extreme environmental conditions associated with arid habitats constrain reproduction in heteromyid rodents to times of the year when enough moisture is available in the diet to support lactation. D. merriami reproduces any time of the year in response to rainfall and the subsequent growth of green vegetation. D. spectabilis and D. ingens have a winter breeding season but will continue to breed into the summer under the right conditions. D. microps may breed only once during a few weeks in the spring when saltbrush produce new leaves. Chaetodipus and Perognathus escape winter extremes by being dormant and then usually breed in the spring before summer droughts. Those in more mesic conditions may have an extended breeding season. Tropical heteromyids reproduce during both the dry and rainy seasons and generally have longer breeding seasons than desert species.

Females are polyestrus and can produce several litters under favorable environmental conditions. Litter sizes range from one to nine and average between three and four for most species. In field studies, Randall (1991) and Randall et al. (2002) found that D. ingens and D. spectabilis females produced an average of only two pups during a breeding season.

Details of mating behavior in heteromyids are generated from field studies by Randall (1991, 1993) and Randall et al. (2002) of three species of kangaroo rats: D. spectabilis, D. merriami, and D. ingens. Mating is opportunistic and ranges from exclusive matings between one male and female to polygynous matings where males compete for access to an estrous female. Males always go to a female's home area or territory to mate, and one male, usually a close neighbor, attempts to chase away all other males. Larger and medium sized kangaroo rats footdrum during these competitions. Females seem to prefer to mate with familiar males, but they will mate with more than one male if possible. They also prefer the scent of familiar males and allow more amicable contact with familiar than with unfamiliar males in both natural and experimental contexts. Males, however, do not appear to discriminate and approach all females alike. Mating interactions of small to medium sized species can last for up to 30 minutes and include multiple mounts alternating with mutual circling. Larger species may mount only one to three times.

Conservation

Excessive habitat destruction and fragmentation and the loss of plant communities increasingly threaten populations of heteromyids. Currently, all heteromyid species listed as endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service occur in California as a result of habitat loss from urban and industrial development, cultivation, grazing, oil and mining exploration and extraction, highway construction, and flooding. Listed species include D. ingens, D. stephensi, D. nitratoides exilis, D. n. tipton, D. heermanni morroensis, D. merriami parvus, and P. longimembris pacificus. Recovery plans for these species have been implemented. Fifteen species of heteromyids are on the Red List of Threatened Species of the IUCN. They include eight species of kangaroo rat, three Heteromys, two Liomys, and two Perognathus.

Significance to humans

Kangaroo rats are often considered keystone species because their burrows provide habitat for a variety of plants and animals, thus their presence is important to maintain biodiversity in desert environments. Many heteromyids are agents of seed dispersal. These attractive rodents can be observed in the desert at night by humans who wish to enjoy nature.

Species accounts

List of Species

San Joaquin pocket mouse

Perognathus inornatus

subfamily

Perognathinae

taxonomy

Perognathus inornatus Merriam, 1989, Fresno County, California, United States.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Total length 5–6.3 in (128–160 mm); weight 0.22–0.39 oz (7–12 g); soft pelage with upperparts yellowish.

distribution

Found in west-central California.

habitat

Lives in arid annual grasslands, desert scrub, fine soils.

behavior

Sandbathes by alternating sides and rubbing ventrum.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds of grasses, shrubs, and forbs.

reproductive biology

Breeds from spring to summer; has two litters of four to six young.

conservation status

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior (USDI) species of special concern. Two subspecies are Lower Risk/Near Threatened.

significance to humans

Disperses seeds.

Hispid pocket mouse

Chaetodipus hispidus

subfamily

Perognathinae

taxonomy

Perognathus hispidus (Baird, 1858), Tamaulipas, Mexico.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Length 7.8–8.8 in (198–223 mm); weight 0.97–1.5 oz (30–47g); hair is coarse but not spiny, tail is not crested and only slightly longer than body. Olive-buff upper parts lined with black, lower parts are white.

distribution

North Dakota south through Great Plains and Texas to central Mexico, northwest to southeastern Arizona.

habitat

Lives in prairie and cultivated areas.

behavior

Active all year.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats a variety of seeds, green vegetation, and insects.

reproductive biology

Females have two or more litters annually from spring to late summer consisting of two to nine young.

conservation status

Not listed by the IUCN, but a species of concern in Montana and Wyoming.

significance to humans

None known.

Salvin's spiny pocket mouse

Liomys salvini

subfamily

Heteromyinae

taxonomy

Heteromys salvini (Thomas, 1983), Guatemala.

other common names

Spanish: Ratón de monte.

Physical characteristics

Total length 8.3–11 in (210–280 mm); weight female 1.2–1.6 oz (35–45g), male 1.6–2.6 oz (45–75 g). Pelage is hispid consisting of stiff spines and soft hairs. Mixed dark brown hairs above, under parts buffy to white.

distribution

Pacific coastal lowlands of Oaxaca, Mexico to Costa Rica in Central America.

habitat

Lives in dry tropical forest.

behavior

Hoards seeds in burrow; reproductive males move greater distances than females in breeding season. Less tolerant of conspecifics than Heteromys.

feeding ecology and diet

Prefers seeds of woody plants in dry forest and insects.

reproductive biology

Limited to dry and early rainy season in Costa Rica with an average of 1.8 litters/year with 3.8 pups/litter.

conservation status

Not listed by the IUCN.

significance to humans

Disperses seeds in its habitat.

Desmarest's spiny pocket mouse

Heteromys desmarestianus

subfamily

Heteromyinae

taxonomy

Heteromys desmarestianus Gray, 1868, Guatemala.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Total length 11.9 in (302 mm); weight 2.4 oz (74 g). Pelage is dark gray to black with white underside.

distribution

Southern Mexico to northwestern Colombia.

habitat

Lowland tropical forest.

behavior

Seasonal differences in home ranges; males move greater distances than females; may be social as they tolerate conspecifics in the laboratory.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on seeds, green leaves, succulent plants.

reproductive biology

Breeds year round with seasonal rains; three in litter.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Disperses seeds in tropical forests.

Pale kangaroo mouse

Microdipodops pallidus

subfamily

Dipodomyinae

taxonomy

Microdipodops pallidus Merriam, 1901, Mountain Well, Nevada, United States.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Total length 5.9–6.8 in (150–173 mm); weight 0.33–0.54 (10.3–16.8 g). Small, bipedal rodent with dorsal surface lightly colored and white on ventrum.

distribution

Restricted to central Nevada and small part of eastern California.

habitat

Open areas of wind-blown sand.

behavior

Nocturnal and solitary; bipedal locomotion.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds and insects.

reproductive biology

Nothing is known.

conservation status

Not threatened, though rare in some portions of its range. One subspecies is Vulnerable.

significance to humans

None known.

Banner-tailed kangaroo rat

Dipodomys spectabilis

subfamily

Dipodomyinae

taxonomy

Dipodomys spectabilis Merriam, 1890, Cochise County, Arizona, United States.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Total length 12.1–13.2 in (308–336 mm); weight 3.15–4.18 oz (98–130 g). Large, four-toed, with white tip on tail. Upper parts dark buff, lighter underside. Tail buff with dark upper stripe.

distribution

New Mexico, southeastern Arizona, eastern Texas into Mexico.

habitat

Found in desert scrub, arid grasslands.

behavior

Both sexes defend territories of large dirt mounds that contain extensive burrows. Territorial ownership is communicated via individual footdrumming signatures that are modified if the animal moves into a new neighborhood.

feeding ecology and diet

Larder-hoards seeds in large dirt mounds.

reproductive biology

Breeding season can extend from November to May with additional matings in late summer after abundant rainfall. Females have three or more estrous cycles in a season with male competition increasing as the breeding season progresses.

conservation status

Not listed by the IUCN, but threatened by overgrazing and eradication by ranchers in some parts of range. D. s. baileyi listed as endangered in Arizona.

significance to humans

Mounds provide habitat in arid environments; this kangaroo rat is a keystone species.

Giant kangaroo rat

Dipodomys ingens

subfamily

Dipodomyinae

taxonomy

Dipodomys ingens (Merriam, 1904), San Luis Obispo County, California, United States.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Largest body mass in the family: total length 12.3–13.7 in (312–348 mm), weight 3–6.3 oz (93–195 g). Pelage is tan with white underside.

distribution

Restricted to 2% of its former range in Central California. Largest population is in the Carrizo Plain National Monument.

habitat

Arid grasslands.

behavior

Defends territory, but tolerates close neighbors and can discriminate familiar neighbors from strangers. Both sexes foot-drums as territorial advertisement and in response to snakes and kit fox predators; males drum during competition for estrous females. Has longest footroll of any species with up to 300 individual foot thumps in a footroll.

feeding ecology and diet

Granivores that store seeds in burrows, sometimes after allowing seed heads to cure in surface caches.

reproductive biology

Reproduce from January to May. Females are polyestrus and average three estrous cycles in a breeding season. Gestation ranges from 30–35 days with a postpartum estrus an average of three days after parturition.

conservation status

Listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Also a state and federal endangered species in the United States.

significance to humans

Keystone species.

Heermann's kangaroo rat

Dipodomys heermanni

subfamily

Dipodomyinae

taxonomy

Dipodomys heermanni Le Conte, 1853, Calaveras County, California, United States.

other common names

None known.

Physical characteristics

Total length 9.8–12.3 oz (250-313 mm), weight 2.3–2.6 oz (70-80 g). A medium-sized kangaroo rat with long silky hair and typical color pattern. Its large, dorsal sebaceous gland secrets throughout the year.

distribution

Central California west of the Sierra Nevada mountains.

habitat

Occupy discrete burrows in dry grassy plains and partly open gravel covered ground on slopes with sparse chaparral, or costal dune scrub habitat.

behavior

Territorial around burrows but tolerate conspecifics once socialized. Footdrumming communicates social status.

feeding ecology and diet

Seeds and green vegetation are main foods.

reproductive biology

Females enter estrus every 14–17 days and remain in estrus for a few hours. Breeding is concentrated from February to August with a peak in April. Gestation is 30–31 days and litter size ranges from two to four young.

conservation status

One subspecies (berkeleyensis) is already extinct and another, morroensis has been on the USDI and State of California endangered species lists since in 1971 and is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. The last official estimate of population size in 1995 on the remaining 37 acres (15 ha) of occupied habitat was fewer than 50 individuals.

significance to humans

Could be a keystone species in some areas.

Resources

Books

Brown, J. H., and B. A. Harney. "Population and Community Ecology of Heteromyid Rodents in Temperate Habitats." In Biology of the Heteromyidae, edited by Hugh H. Genoways and James H. Brown. Special Publication No. 10. Lawrence, KS: The American Society of Mammalogists, 1993.

Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. A World List of Mammalian Species. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Eisenberg, John F. "The Behavior Patterns of Desert Rodents." In Rodents in a Desert Environment, edited by I. Praakash and P. K. Ghosh. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk. 1975.

Hafner, John C. "Macroevolutionary Diversification in Heteromyid Rodents: Heterochrony and Adaptation in Phylogeny." In Biology of the Heteromyidae, edited by Hugh H. Genoways and James H. Brown. Special Publication No.10. Lawrence, KS: The American Society of Mammalogists, 1993.

Kays, R. W., and D. E. Wilson. Mammals of North America. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Nowak, Robert M. Walker Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Sanchez-Cordero, V., and T. H. Fleming. "Ecology of Tropical Heteromyids." In Biology of the Heteromyidae, edited by Hugh H. Genoways and James H. Brown. Special Publication No. 10. Lawrence, KS: The American Society of Mammalogists: 1993.

Schmidly, D.J., K. T. Walkins, and J. N. Derr. "Biogeography." In Biology of the Heteromyidae, edited by Hugh H. Genoways and James H. Brown. Special Publication No. 10. Lawrence, KS: The American Society of Mammalogists: 1993.

Periodicals

Eisenberg, John F. "The Behavior of Heteromyid Rodents." University of California Publications in Zoology 69 (1963): 1–100.

Goldingay, R. L., P. A. Kelly, and D. F. Williams. "The Kangaroo Rats of California: Endemism and Conservation of Keystone Species." Pacific Conservation Biology 3 (1997): 47–60.

Kenagy, G. J. "Adaptations for Leaf Eating in the Great Basin Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys microps." Oecologia 12 (1973): 383–412.

Perri, L. M., and J. A. Randall. "Behavioral Mechanisms of Coexistence in Sympatric Species of Desert Rodents, Dipodomys ordii and D. merriami." Journal of Mammalogy 80 (1999): 1297–1310.

Randall, Jan A. "Behavioural Adaptations of Desert Animals (Heteromyidae)." Animal Behaviour 45 (1993): 263–287.

——. "Convergences and Divergences in Social Organization and Communication in Desert. Rodents." Australian Journal of Zoology 42 (1994): 405–433.

——. "Evolution and Function of Drumming as Communication in Mammals." American Zoologist 41 (2001): 91–104.

——. "Mating Strategies of a Nocturnal Desert Rodent (Dipodomys spectabilis)." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 28 (1991): 215–220.

Randall, J. A., and M. Matocq. "Why Do Kangaroo Rats Footdrum in the Presence of Snakes?" Behavioral Ecology 8 (1997): 404–413.

Randall, J. A., E. R. Hekkala, L. D. Cooper, and J. Barfield. "Familiarity and Flexible Mating Strategies of a Solitary Rodent, Dipodomys ingens." Animal Behaviour 64 (2002): 11–21.

Organizations

The American Society of Mammalogists. Web site: <http://www.mammalsociety.org/>

IUCN—The World Conservation Union. Rue Mauverney 28, Gland, 1196 Switzerland. Phone: +41 (22) 999 0000. Fax: +41 (22) 999 0002. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: <http://www.iucn.org>

United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Web site: <http://www.fws.gov/>

Jan A. Randall, PhD