Asteroids

Asteroids

Asteroids are small bodies in space—the numerous leftover planetesimals from which the planets were made nearly 4.6 billion years ago. Most are in the "main belt," which is a doughnut-like volume of space between Mars and Jupiter (about 2.1 to 3.2 astronomical units [AU] from the Sun; one AU is equal to the mean distance between Earth and the Sun). The Trojans are two groups of asteroids around 60 degrees ahead of (and behind) Jupiter in its orbit (5.2 AU from the Sun). Asteroids range in location from within Earth's orbit to the outer solar system, where the distinction between asteroids and comets blurs.

Some asteroids orbit at a solar distance where their year is matched to Jupiter's year. For example, the Hilda asteroids circle the Sun three times for every two revolutions of Jupiter. Other Jupiter-asteroid relationships are unstable, so asteroids are missing from those locations. For example, gaps occur in the main belt where asteroids orbit the Sun twice and three times each Jovian year. These gaps are called Kirkwood gaps. Any asteroids originally formed in such locations have been kicked out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter's strong gravitational forces, so no asteroids remain there.

Many asteroids are members of groups with very similar orbital shapes, tilts, and solar distances. These so-called families were formed when asteroids smashed into each other at interasteroidal velocities of 5 kilometers per second (3 miles per second). Fragments from such explosive disruptions became separate asteroids.

Asteroid Sizes, Shapes, and Compositions

Ceres, the first asteroid to be discovered (on January 1, 1801), remains the largest asteroid found to date; it is about 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) in diameter. Dozens of asteroids range from 200 to 300 kilometers (124 to 186 miles) in diameter, thousands are the size of a small city, and hundreds of billions are house-sized. Indeed, asteroids grade into the rocks that occasionally burn through our atmosphere as fireballs and the even smaller grains of sand that produce meteors ("shooting stars") in a clear, dark sky. Collected remnants are called meteorites. All are debris from the cratering and catastrophic disruptions of inter-asteroidal collisions.

Asteroids are small and distant, so even in telescopes they are only faint points of light gradually moving against the backdrop of the stars. Astronomers use telescopes to measure asteroid motions, brightnesses, and the spectral colors of sunlight reflected from their surfaces. Asteroid brightnesses change every few hours as they spin, first brightening when they are broadside to us and fading when end-on. From these data, astronomers infer that most asteroids have irregular, nonspherical shapes and spin every few minutes (for some very small asteroids) to less often than once a month.

Different minerals reflect sunlight (at ultraviolet , visible, and infrared wavelengths ) in different ways. So the spectra of asteroids enable astronomers to infer what they are made of. Many are made of primitive materials, such as rocky minerals and flecks of metal, from which it is believed the planets were made. Such is the case with the ordinary chondrites, the most common meteorites in museums. Most asteroids are exceedingly dark in color, and are apparently rich in carbon and other black compounds, including the uncommon carbonaceous meteorites . Such fragile, C-type materials are abundant in space but often disintegrate when passing through Earth's atmosphere. C-type asteroids may even contain water ice deep below their surfaces.

While most asteroids survived fairly unchanged from the earliest epochs of solar system history, others were heated and melted. The metal flecks sank to form iron cores (like nickel-iron meteorites), while lighter rocks floated upwards and flowed out across their surfaces, like lavas do on Earth. Vesta, one of the largest asteroids, appears to be covered with lava; certain lava-like meteorites probably came from Vesta. Metallic asteroids are rare but are readily recognized by Earth-based radar observations because metal reflects radar pulses well.

New techniques in astronomy, such as radar delay-Doppler mapping and adaptive optics (which unblurs the twinkling of visible light induced by Earth's atmosphere), have revealed a variety of asteroid shapes and configurations. One asteroid, named Antiope, is a double body: Two separate bodies, each 80 kilometers (50 miles) across and separated by 160 kilometers (100 miles), orbit about each other every sixteen hours. Other asteroids have satellites (e.g., moonlets) and still others have very odd shapes (e.g., dumbbells).

Spacecraft Studies of Asteroids

The best (though most expensive) way to study an asteroid, of course, is to send a spacecraft. Three main-belt asteroids—Gaspra, Ida, and Mathilde—were visited in the 1990s by spacecraft en route to other targets. But even during the few minutes available for close-up observations during such high-speed encounters, scientists obtained images a hundred times sharper than the best possible images from Earth.

The most thorough study of an asteroid was of Eros by the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft (which was renamed NEAR Shoemaker, after American astronomer Eugene Shoemaker, who first thought of the enterprise). Eros is a 34-kilometer-long (21-mile-long), Earth-approaching asteroid. NEAR Shoemaker orbited Eros until February 12, 2001, when it was landed on the asteroid's surface. Its instruments were designed specifically for asteroid studies. It revealed Eros to be an oddly shaped, heavily cratered object, with ridges and grooves, and covered by a million boulders, each larger than a house. Eros is made of minerals much like the ordinary chondrite meteorites .

Near Earth Asteroids

A few asteroids escape from the main belt through Kirkwood gaps and move around the Sun on elongated orbits that can cross the orbits of Mars and Earth. If an asteroid comes within 0.3 AU of Earth, it is called a near Earth asteroid (NEA). More than half of the estimated 1,000 NEAs larger than 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) in diameter have been discovered. Orbits of NEAs are not stable, and within a few million years they collide with the Sun, crash into a planet, or are ejected from the solar system.

The Threat of Impacts.

If a 2-kilometer (1.2-mile) NEA struck Earth, it would explode as 100,000 megatons of TNT, more than the world's nuclear weapons arsenal. It would contaminate the stratosphere with so much Sun-darkening dust that humans would lose an entire growing season worldwide, resulting in mass starvation and threatening civilization as we know it. Such a collision happens about once every million years, so there is one chance in 10,000 of one occurring during the twenty-first century. A 10-or 15-kilometer (6-or 9-mile) asteroid, like the one that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, hits every 50 or 100 million years with a force of 100 million megatons.

Though the chances of dying by asteroid impact are similar to the chances of dying in an air crash, society has done little to address the impact hazard. Modest telescopic searches for threatening objects are underway in several countries. Given months to a few years warning, ground zero could be evacuated and food could be saved to endure an impact winter . If given many years, or decades, of warning, high-tech space missions could be launched in an attempt to study and then divert the oncoming body.

see also Asteroid Mining (volume 4); Impacts (volume 4); Close Encounters (volume 2); Galilei, Galileo (volume 2); Meteorites (volume 2); Planetesimals (volume 2); Shoemaker, Eugene (volume 2); Small Bodies (volume 2).

Clark R. Chapman

Bibliography

Chapman, Clark R. "Asteroids." In The New Solar System, 4th ed., ed. J. Kelly Beatty, Carolyn Collins Petersen, and Andrew Chaikin. New York and Cambridge, UK: Sky Publishing Corp. and Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Gehrels, Tom, ed. Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994.

Veverka, Joseph, Mark Robinson, and Pete Thomas. "NEAR at Eros: Imaging and Spectral Results." Science 289 (2000):2088-2097.

Yeomans, Donald K. "Small Bodies of the Solar System." Nature 404 (2000):829-832.

Internet Resources

Arnett, Bill. "Asteroids." <http://www.seds.org/nineplanets/nineplanets/asteroids.html>.

Near-Earth Object Program. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. <http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/>.

Astrobiology See Astrobiology (Volume 4).