Grain

Grains are seeds of grasses. More particularly, the term "grains" usually refers to the cereal grains, those that are used as food or fodder by humans. Three grains—rice, wheat, and corn—are the major source of calories in the human diet throughout the world, both through direct consumption or by providing animal feed. In addition, corn is a significant source of raw materials for some segments of the chemical industry.

Like other seeds of flowering plants, grain contains both the embryo and endosperm . The diploid embryo, often called the germ, contains the tissues that develop into the new individual after germination. The triploid endosperm is a rich nutritive tissue formed by the fusion of a second sperm and the two nuclei of the central cell in the embryo sac. Surrounding both endosperm and embryo is the protein - and oil-rich aleurone layer. This layer plus several thin outer coverings and the remains of the seed coat make up the bran.

Rice

Rice (Oryza sativa ) is grown throughout the world, but principally in the countries of Asia, where it forms the basis of the diet. Most rice is grown under flooded conditions, with fields drained two to three weeks before harvest. Removal of the hull (remnant floral parts) leaves brown rice. Further milling removes the bran and embryo to give white rice, by far the most popular form of rice. White rice is high in carbohydrates but low in protein or vitamins.

Both traditional breeding and genetic engineering have been used to improve the qualities of rice. In the 1960s, shorter semidwarf varieties were bred. This allowed farmers to increase yields with fertilizers without having the long thin stems of full-height rice fall over before harvest. This development was a major part of the "green revolution" in the 1960s, in which grain yields kept pace with a skyrocketing world population, preventing widespread famine. More recently, genetic engineering techniques have been used to introduce a gene for a precursor of vitamin A, lacking in white rice. This so-called "golden rice" may help prevent blindness due to vitamin deficiencies, although the quantity of vitamin A available from the rice alone is insufficient by itself for this purpose.

Wheat

Wheat (Triticum sativum ) is the top food crop consumed directly by humans. Wheat consumption is supplementing or even replacing rice and corn consumption for many people in developing countries. Wheat is grown as a cool-weather annual, with some varieties even requiring a cold period to produce grain. Wheat is less profitable on a per-acre basis than other grains, but requires comparatively little labor and fewer inputs of fertilizer and pesticide. Wheat is milled to remove the hull to give "whole wheat," which can be ground into flour. Removal of the germ and bran before grinding gives white flour. Wheat is unique among the major grains in having a high level of the protein gluten in the endosperm. The elastic gluten protein allows dough to stretch. As yeasts added to dough release gas, the gluten expands, trapping the gas bubbles and allowing the bread to rise.

Corn

Corn or maize (Zea mays ) is a native of the New World and is grown primarily in South, Central, and North America. It still provides the major source of calories for most people south of the United States. Ancient corn was similar to modern popcorn, with a hard seed coat that trapped heated steam until the coat burst suddenly, exposing the puffy white endosperm. Traditionally, corn has been dried and ground into meal, using the entire kernel. The meal is then used for tortillas, tamales, and other foods. The entire kernel of sweet corn is also consumed, but the harvest occurs before seed maturity and before the sugars in the endosperm have been converted to starches. Removal of the seed coat leaves primarily endosperm, which is boiled to make grits, or rolled and baked to make corn flakes. Corn is a major feed for livestock, and provides the starting materials for a number of chemical products, including a variety of alcohols, acetone, polyurethane, and acetic acid.

Other Grains

Several other grains are consumed in small quantities. The handful of species of millet are consumed mainly in Africa and Asia, with U.S. use primarily for birdseed. Rye (Secale cereale ) is used in rye breads mainly in temperate areas in the Northern Hemisphere, and oats (Avena sativa ) are grown for breads, breakfast cereals, and animal feed in these same regions. Barley (Hordeum vulgare ) provides the source of carbohydrate for fermentation in beer.

see also Agriculture; Grasses

Richard Robinson

Bibliography

Leonard, Warren H., and John H. Martin. Cereal Crops. New York: Macmillan, 1963.

grain / grān/ • n. 1. wheat or any other cultivated cereal crop used as food. ∎  the seeds of such cereals: [as adj.] grain exports. 2. a single fruit or seed of a cereal: a few grains of corn. ∎  a small hard particle of a substance such as salt or sand: a grain of salt. ∎  the smallest possible quantity or amount of a quality: there wasn't a grain of truth in what he said. ∎  a discrete particle or crystal in a metal, igneous rock, etc., typically visible only when a surface is magnified. ∎  a piece of solid propellant for use in a rocket engine. 3. (abbr.: gr.) the smallest unit of weight in the troy and avoirdupois systems, equal to ¹/₅₇₆₀ of a pound troy and ¹/₇₀₀₀ of a pound avoirdupois (approx. 0.0648 grams). 4. the longitudinal arrangement or pattern of fibers in wood, paper, etc.: he scored along the grain of the table with the knife. ∎  roughness in texture of wood, stone, etc.; the arrangement and size of constituent particles: the lighter, finer grain of the wood is attractive. ∎  the rough or textured outer surface of leather, or of a similar artificial material. ∎ Mining lamination or planes of cleavage in materials such as stone and coal. ∎ Photog. a granular appearance of a photograph or negative, which is in proportion to the size of the emulsion particles composing it. 5. archaic a person's character or natural tendency. 6. hist. kermes or cochineal, or dye made from either of these. • v. [tr.] 1. (usu. be grained) give a rough surface or texture to: her fingers were grained with chalk dust. ∎  [intr.] form into grains: if the sugar does grain up, add more water. 2. [usu. as n.] (graining) paint (esp. furniture or interior surfaces) in imitation of the grain of wood or marble: the art of graining and marbling. 3. remove hair from (a hide): [as adj.] (grained) the boots were of best grained leather. 4. feed (a horse) on grain. PHRASES: against the grain contrary to the natural inclination or feeling of someone or something: it goes against the grain to tell outright lies. in grain thorough, genuine, by nature, or downright; indelible. DERIVATIVES: grained adj. [usu. in comb.] coarse-grained sandstone. grain·er n. grain·less adj.

grain in agriculture, term referring to the caryopsis, or dry fruit , of a cereal grass . The term is also applied to the seedlike fruits of buckwheat and of certain other plants and is used collectively for any plant that bears such fruits. The food content of the seeds (as they are commonly called) is mostly carbohydrate, but some protein, oil, and vitamins are also present. Grain, whole or ground into meal or flour, is the principal food of man and of domestic animals. The seeds of most grains grow in concentrated clusters that are gathered efficiently by modern mechanical harvesting machines (see combine ). Grain is easy to handle and, because of its low water content, can be stockpiled and stored for long periods, unlike other starch foods (e.g., the potato). Grains, both living and stored, are attacked by a variety of insect pests (e.g., the corn borer, locust, and grasshopper) and by smuts, rusts, blights, rots, and other diseases of plants . The principal grain crops, in order of total world output, are wheat , rice , Indian corn (or maize), oats , barley , and rye ; together, these grains occupy about half of all the land under crops. All the staple grains were domesticated in the Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, and their cultivation was a powerful factor in drawing men into settled communities. Many religious beliefs and rites have been associated with grains; the cereals derive their name from Ceres, the Roman goddess of grain. Grain has been an article of commerce in nearly all civilizations.

Bibliography: See N. L. Kent, Technology of Cereals (1983); Y. Pomerantz, Modern Cereal Science and Technology (1987).

grain
A. small hard particle XIII; granular texture; †berry, grape; seed, spec. of corn or cereal XIV; smallest Eng. unit of weight XVI.

B. kermes, which was thought to consist of seeds or berries (phr. in grain; cf. INGRAINED); (fast) dye XIV. In A — (O)F. grain :- L. grānum CORN1; in B — (O)F. graine :- Rom. *grāna fem., orig. pl. of grānum n.

grain, a five-pronged harpoon attached to a line and carried on board many ships in the days of sail for fishing, particularly for catching dolphins. The fisherman usually climbed out on to the jib-boom or the bumpkin and drove the grain into the dolphin as it swam beneath him.

grain Fruits of various cereal plants, or the plants themselves. The main kinds of grain are wheat, maize, and rice. It is an important food, rich in carbohydrates and also containing proteins and vitamins.

grain
1. A detrital mineral or rock fragment (particle), of sand size.

2. Quarrying term, for the parting fabric of a rock (i.e. the direction in which a rock is most easily split by a quarry worker).

grain against the grain contrary to the natural inclination or feeling of someone or something (from the fact that wood is easier to cut along the line of the grain).

See also a grain of mustard seed.

Grain Medway. Grean c.1100. ‘Gravelly, sandy ground’. OE *grēon. Isle of Grain (formerly an actual island) is Ile of Greane 1610.

grain (grayn) n. a unit of mass equal to 1/7000 of a pound (avoirdupois). 1 grain = 0.0648 gram.

grain in weights and measures: see English units of measurement .

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