FISHING

FISHING. Fishing is the art and science of catching animals that live in water. This pursuit can be for fun or profit. Recreational angling is often practiced as an art, with little to no expectation of actually catching and keeping a fish for personal use. In commercial fishing, there is an expectation of catching and keeping fish or invertebrates and an expectation of selling those animals for profit. This article will focus on commercial fishing.

Hunting and gathering animals that live in water is an ancient form of food gathering. Today, aquatic animals caught from wild populations are one of, if not the last, major food category we still predominantly hunt and gather. Virtually all of the other foods we consume are grown in agricultural operations. However, we are in the early phases of a major transition from hunting and gathering fish and shellfish to agricultural production (aquaculture) of aquatic animals.

We live on a wet planet. Water comprises greater than 70 percent of Earth, and that habitat is home to far more vertebrates than the dry portion of the planet. Given the size and scope of aquatic habitats and the diversity of species present, it is not surprising that it took until 1989 to reach maximum sustainable yield from the world's oceans. Maximum sustainable yield is the tonnage of aquatic animals that can be harvested annually while maintaining healthy populations. It is important to note that there are two distinct groupings when discussing fish: individual species and the sum of all species. Further subdivisions are possible, but the important point is that individual populations or species can be in poor condition (for example, low numbers) while overall, fishes in that body of water are generally healthy.

Since 1989, global commercial harvest has been close to 90 million metric tons, and that figure is not expected to increase. The largest commercial harvest industries are for species used for making fish meal (anchovy, herring, and menhaden) and those used for food (pollack, mackerel, and capelin). The largest species-oriented industries are listed in Table 1.

There are over 22,000 species of fish, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization monitors commercial harvest of slightly over 1,100 species. Further, a thorough understanding of fish taxonomy (the science of fish identification) is not commonplace among many commercial fishermen. Thus, many species simply are grouped into a nonspecific category such as marine fishes. From the data above, it seems clear that the commercial fishing fleets from the western coast of South America (Chile and Peru) and Southeast Asia (China, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Japan) harvest more fish than other parts of the planet. Not shown in Table 1 are the most productive fishing grounds, which are the

Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southeast, and the northeastern portion of the Atlantic Ocean.

There are several reasons postulated for the plateauing of commercial harvests. Pollution and other environmental stressors on fish populations are common speculations, as well as overharvest by commercial fishing fleets. From the industrial revolution to current times, pollutant levels in the oceans increased and certainly had some negative impact on populations of animals in aquatic habitats. Over the same time period, commercial harvesting equipment improved significantly and also contributed to declines in populations and leveling of harvest volumes. Regardless of the cause, wild populations of many fish and shellfish declined in the latter half of the twentieth century. However, it is important to grasp the scope of the situation before assigning blame to any particular cause.

The average depth of oceans is over 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). Over 84 percent of the oceans are deeper than 6,500 feet (2,000 meters). The Marianas Trench in the western Pacific Ocean is the deepest place at 36,000 feet (11,000 meters), deeper by a mile than the altitude of Mount Everest (29,000 feet, or 8,845 meters high). As stated earlier, the vast majority of our planet is under water. Many species of fish either travel long distances in their normal habits or the populations inhabit large areas. Given these facts, establishing accurate population estimates is virtually impossible. Fishing gears and efficiency of commercial harvest have increased significantly and also contribute to attaining maximum sustainable yield.

Fishing gears are largely unchanged from ancient times. Nets of various types are the most commonly used commercial fishing gear. The basic concept of a net, regardless of the configuration, is the same today as it was when ancient man first wove fibers together to make nets. Impaling devices such as spears and harpoons are also unchanged from ancient times. There are numerous types of traps in use, mainly for trapping crustaceans (lobsters, crabs, crayfish), and those have ancient origins. Fishing gears have become more efficient, but in subtle ways. Prior to about 1980, trawls (nets pulled behind a boat) could attain only a limited depth and were nonspecific in their catch. Significant research efforts resulted in trawls that could be fished deeper (up to 8,200 feet, or 2,500 meters) and had devices that would tend to exclude mammals or turtles. Harpoons are not routinely used in the twenty-first century, and spears have evolved to spear guns for individual fishermen. Trap materials have changed with the advent of polymers, but the basic configurations have not changed for hundreds of years. The major change that occurred is not in gears, but in the boats.

Commercial fishing boats are capable of staying at sea for months at a time, giving fishermen the ability to fish anywhere in the world. Technological advances in engines, fuels, and boat designs, coupled with international treaties that allow foreign fishing fleets safe harbor, increased the efficiency of commercial operations. Harvested animals can be cleaned on board and frozen at –76°F (–60°C) for extended storage. Large companies evolved to more efficiently harvest fish, and those companies developed the concept of multiple fishing boats and a mother ship for processing and storing fish. It is not uncommon to find Japanese fishermen in the North Atlantic Ocean harvesting giant bluefin tuna. Fishermen also take advantage of the other forms of commercial transport, taking some of their harvest to nearby ports and consigning them to air freight companies for transport back to home bases. Frozen giant bluefin tuna are flown from New York to Tokyo regularly.

Restrictions on commercial harvest have been common since the early 1980s. As populations declined, state or federal regulatory agencies restricted harvest by establishing quotas (limited number of fishing licenses), restricting harvest volume (limitation on volume, which can be expressed per day, week, or season), or restricting gears (numbers of traps, length of nets, number of nets). There is at least one example on every coast of the United States in which commercial harvest has been significantly curtailed, even to the point of declaring the species rare and endangered. However, as mentioned above, the size and scope of fishing demands that many countries contribute toward management of populations.

International agreements are in place that define who can fish where, seasons for fishing, and gear acceptance. Most countries claim some distance from their shores as available only to local fishermen. The Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (or the Magnuson Act) was adopted in 1976 and declared the first two hundred miles (322 kilometers) from U.S. shores as open only to U.S. fishermen. The International Whaling Commission was established in 1946 to regulate the global harvest of whales, but has only slowly gained momentum and has no real authority to enforce agreements. Native Americans retained many of their rights to traditional fisheries and harvest those populations in the twenty-first century. Many times, these harvests are contrary to recommendations from regulatory agencies and are controversial with other fishermen.

Fishing communities in New England, the Gulf Coast, and the West Coast have been seriously impacted by the decline in commercial fishing. Whole communities are in significant economic crisis. New industries are not readily apparent for a labor force trained in commercial fishing, processing, and distribution of fish and shellfish. Since the 1980s the fisheries have been in sharp decline, and with it a way of life. Some fishermen, with modified gears, are able to switch species. For example, in 1970, the harvest of the Argentine shortfin squid was 1,300 metric tons. However, harvest of anchovy became erratic and new species were sought, including the shortfin squid. Between 1970 and 1999, total harvest of the Peruvian anchovy by all countries varied from 93,000 metric tons to over 13 million metric tons. Over this same time period, harvest of the shortfin squid increased to just over 1 million metric tons. Harvest of the Atlantic cod, the species used in most fish sandwiches in the United States, has declined from over 3 million metric tons to around 1 million metric tons. A replacement has not been identified in the North Atlantic ocean. Creative marketing techniques also opened opportunities for commercial fishermen. A deep-water species around Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania was once unmarketable. The local name for this fish was the slime head. However, under its new name, orange roughy has found a ready market in the United States.

The newest of the commercial harvest industries developed in the past forty or fifty years and focused on species inhabiting coral reefs. The pet or hobby aquarium trade increased significantly as technology made it possible to maintain saltwater fish tanks in any temperature-controlled room. Harvest was often by hand, using small dip nets, but more recently other forms of harvest have been used, including poisons (cyanide) and explosives. These collection methods are indiscriminate and have been banned in most countries. The demand for ornamental fishes coupled with the gradual bans on many harvest techniques led to development of aquaculture industries focused on tropical fishes for home aquaria. The same scenario is occurring with fishes destined for food. However, culture of fishes for making fish meal is not occurring and appears unlikely. Fish harvested for fish meal do not command high prices and need large areas. The economics of that form of aquaculture are not favorable.

See also Crustaceans and Shellfish; Fish and Chips; Fish; Mollusks; Fish, Salted; Fish, Smoked.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Levinton, Jeffrey S. Marine Biology: Function, Biodiversity, Ecology, 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Moyle, Peter B., and Joseph J. Cech, Jr. Fishes: An Introduction to Ichthyology, 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1996.

Von Brandt, Andres. Fish Catching Methods of the World. 3d ed. Surrey, Great Britain: Fishing News Books, 1984.

Paul B. Brown

fishing. Ireland occupies a position of rare advantage in relation to the fertile fishing grounds of the North Atlantic. Opportunities existed for several different types of fishery pursuit, including land‐based operations involving the capture of crabs and lobsters; land and seafisheries for shellfish and molluscs, the latter important as a source of bait for the line‐fishing industry as well as a source of saleable food; seasonal pelagic fishing for migratory species such as mackerel, herring, and, in southern waters, pilchards; and all‐year‐round boat fishing for demersal species of round and flat fish. However, the development of an Irish fishing industry was shaped by a number of inherent constraints. The sea is an open resource which, apart from coastal waters, must be shared with fishermen of other nationalities. Fish stocks themselves are highly mobile and so subject to localized fluctuations in availability and quality. Most important of all, particularly in the period before refrigeration, has been the highly perishable nature of the product, affecting both the length of time a boat could remain at sea and the marketing of the fish caught.

Evidence from prehistoric kitchen middens testifies to the exploitation of sea and coast by the earliest settlers, while the recognized status accorded to fishermen in early Irish laws and institutions, the Norse origin of Irish words pertaining to types of fish, boats, and fishing lines, medieval descriptions of the south coast whale fishery, and Gaelic chronicles of western sea cod fisheries indicate the establishment and development over centuries of specialized fishery pursuit. From at least the 14th century Irish boats, merchants, and mariners were highly active in supplying British and European demand for fish and fish products.

Both this trade and the various fishery enterprises which supported it grew apace during the 15th and 16th centuries to make sea fishing one of the key sectors of the early modern Irish economy. In the 17th century, however, commercial sea fishing declined, due both to political upheaval and to unhelpful government policy (for example in relation to Irish duties on the importation of salt). Irish fishermen were nevertheless sufficiently dynamic to be able to exploit the Newfoundland fisheries once the statutory embargo on their participation was lifted in 1704. The 18th century saw the introduction of a series of government bounties, which particularly benefited the herring industry, with exports of cured herring showing marked increases towards the end of the century. However, herring fishing contracted sharply following the withdrawal of bounties in 1829. Export‐based whitefishing in Irish offshore grounds, meanwhile, was very largely carried on by foreign vessels. A parliamentary commission of inquiry in 1836 found an industry in profound decline, its workforce poorly equipped, poorly rewarded, and mostly part‐time. A partial exception was the east coast, where the expansion of Dublin supported the establishment of a small whitefishing industry. But overall domestic demand for Irish‐caught fish was extremely weak, particularly in inland regions, which were increasingly being supplied from external sources. By 1819 Ireland had become a fish importer.

The mid‐19th century saw a ‘revolution in the trade in fish’, based on the application of steam to land and sea travel, refrigeration to fish carriage, and the trawl to fish capture, and underpinned by population growth and the move towards urbanization. In Ireland, however, severe imbalances between levels of domestic demand and the productivity of local fisheries meant that Irish quayside buyers generally found it more expedient to send their purchases for final sale in Scotland and England, while Irish provincial fish markets, such as Belfast, looked to sources outside Ireland for regular supplies. The exception was Dublin, where the expansion of the whitefishing fleet in the 1830s enabled local fishermen not only to land fish in increasing quantities, but also to hold their own as the major suppliers of the local fish trade. Elsewhere development was limited by weak local demand and the ease with which this could be met within what was now a highly integrated United Kingdom market for fresh fish.

On the east coast a new period of prosperity was heralded by the revival in the 1860s of the Irish Sea herring industry. Unlike earlier herring fisheries, which had been underpinned by the curing sector, this nationally significant enterprise, which attracted vessels from all parts of the British Isles, was directed at supplying domestic fresh markets, particularly in England. Based at first at the two major herring stations of Ardglass, Co. Down, and Howth, Co. Dublin, within a few years participation in this fishery had increased to include most of the fishing harbours on the Irish east coast. The establishment in the 1880s of a similarly cosmopolitan spring mackerel fishery at Kinsale, directed at the export of cured fish to the United States, strengthened the commercial basis of the Irish sea fisheries along the southern Irish coast. At the same time, the efforts of the newly formed Congested Districts Board were instrumental in the revival at the end of the 19th century of herring curing enterprise in Donegal; by 1906 curers had also re‐established bases in Co. Down for the production of fish for export to America and Europe. In the first decades of the 20th century Ireland became a fish exporter, albeit on a modest scale, with a balance of trade which rose from £0.15 million in 1904–7 to £0.45 million in 1915–18.

During the First World War the withdrawal of British trawl fleets from the North Sea, along with a generous system of government loans and grants directed specifically at the inshore fisheries, brought great improvements in capacity and infrastructure. After 1918, however, the cured herring industry went into steady decline after losing first its Russian and then its German markets. The cured mackerel trade was similarly affected by the loss of American demand during the Depression. The Irish Sea fresh herring trade, however, remained viable. An important new whitefishery based on the Danish seine net and made possible by the previous upgrading of the fleet and the move to engine propulsion emerged on the east coast in the 1920s, and by 1935 had become Northern Ireland's single most valuable fishery.

Vivienne Pollock

fishing act of catching fish for consumption or display. Fishing—usually by hand, club, spear, net, and possibly by hook—was known to prehistoric people. It was practiced by the ancient Persians, Egyptians, and Chinese, and it is mentioned in the Odyssey and in the Bible. It is a major means of subsistence and livelihood today, not only in societies such as those in the South Pacific but also in most nations of the world (see fisheries ).

Sport Fishing

The development of fishing as a sport or pastime is comparatively recent, although books on the art and philosophy of angling have been published since the early 16th cent.; the most famous work is Izaak Walton's The Compleat Angler (1653). The basic equipment of modern sport fishing consists of a barbed metal hook at the end of a nylon or Dacron line, and a wood, fiberglass, or metal rod, or pole, that usually has some type of spool, or reel, near the handle around which the line is wound. Recreational fishing, which is practiced throughout the world, may be done in either fresh- or saltwater. The most popular game fish are salmon, trout, bass, and pike in freshwater, and sailfish, tuna, marlin, tarpon, and bonefish in saltwater. In the United States each state issues fishing licenses and sets regulations as to the season in which a certain species of fish may be caught, the minimum permissible size, and the number that may be taken per day. There are two basic types of freshwater tackle, those for fly casting and those for bait casting.

Fly Casting

Fly rods and reels are light and require that a hooked fish be "played" rather than reeled in by force; they are used to catch fish that inhabit running streams, such as trout and salmon. Live bait (worms, insects, minnows, or frogs) or artificial flies and lures are cast into or on the stream as an enticement for the fish to bite.

Bait Casting

A sturdier rod and reel are used for bait casting, which is done mainly in lakes and large rivers. Live bait or a variety of plugs, spoons, and other artificial lures can be cast and pulled in, "popped" along the surface, trolled from a moving boat, or allowed to rest near the bottom. Spinning tackle, which greatly simplifies bait casting by allowing the line to unwind more evenly, has become very popular.

Other Methods

Heavier rods and reels of the bait-casting type are used in saltwater fishing; trolling and casting from the surf are the usual methods. In big-game fishing, sport fishers troll the open ocean for large fish such as tuna, swordfish, and shark. The familiar bamboo pole, without reel, continues to be used for still fishing. Fishing with handlines through holes in the ice and spearfishing underwater are also popular. High-tech devices such as underwater cameras have been introduced, but are regarded by many as unsporting.

Competitive Fishing

There are many annual tournaments both for catching fish and for accuracy and distance in casting; records are kept for the largest catch in each species. The International Game Fish Association (founded 1939) standardizes rules for saltwater fishing throughout the world. The largest ratified catch of any type is a 2,664-lb (1,208-kg) white shark caught off the Australian coast in 1959.

Bibliography

See W. Radcliffe, Fishing from Earliest Times (1921); A. J. McClane, McClane's New Standard Fishing Encyclopedia and International Angling Guide (1974); A. von Brandt, Fish Catching Methods of the World (1984).

Fishing

Sources

Unorganized Recreation. Even the earliest commentators recognized that America’s lakes, rivers, and streams were overflowing with fish and shellfish. Since early settlements and all colonial cities were built near water, few people lived far from a fishing spot. Fishing was relatively easy since all one needed was a line, a pole, and some bait. Both blacks and whites also seemed to find small boats or canoes from which to fish. In the early 1730s the indentured servant William Moraley and a friend fished the Delaware River near Philadelphia and in twenty minutes “caught between us 140 Perch and Roach.” They sold some sixty of them for “Rum and Sugar” and used the rest to serve a fish dinner, complete with drink, to four friends. Men and women went fishing together, one of the few recreations that saw the genders mingle. The great marshes of the Carolinas were ecological niches similar to those of many parts of the West African coast, so slaves there were even better suited to exploit these resources than the Europeans. In their free time they fished and collected shellfish for themselves and for sale to their masters or others.

Fishing Companies. Philadelphia’s position between two rivers lent itself to more-organized water sports. Wealthy male Philadelphians created clubs dedicated to the pastime. These included the Colony in Schuylkill, the Fishing Company of Fort St. David’s, and the Mount Regale Fishing Company, all housed along the waterfront. Perhaps the oldest social organization in America, the Colony in Schuylkill was founded in 1732 to serve as a social club where each member in turn served a dinner the first Thursday of the month at “the Castle.” Fort St. David was a summer pavilion decorated with Indian artifacts owned by its attendant fishing company. There the members either fished themselves or feasted on fish they hired others to catch for them. The Mount Regale Fishing Company, composed of Philadelphia’s gentlemen elite, met at Robinson’s Tavern every other week in the summer.

Sources

W. A. Newman Dorland, “The Second Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,46 (1922): 57–77;

Susan E. Klepp and Billy G. Smith, eds., The Infortunate: The Voyage and Adventures of William Moraley, an Indentured Servant (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992);

John F. Watson, Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, in the Olden Time, volume 1 (Philadelphia: Carey & Hart, 1845);

Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Norton, 1974).

fishing and fisheries Harvesting fish for commercial uses. Commercial fishing boats and fleets employ several methods for catching fish, including pole and line, purse seine, gill netting, trawling and stunning. About 70% of the commercial fish catch is taken in the Northern Hemisphere, with the greatest catches taken between the Philippines and Japan. Other fishing areas include the North Atlantic, North Pacific and North Sea. The most significant Southern Hemisphere areas are the Pacific coast of Peru and the South African coast. Herrings, sardines and anchovies make up the largest percentage of the total catch. Other species caught in commercial quantities include cod, haddock, hake, redfish, sea bream, mackerel, tuna, and salmon. The major fishing nations (by catch) are China, Japan, Peru, Chile, Russia, and the United States. By the late 1970s, fish stocks were severely depleted. While attempts have been made to allow fish stocks to return to previous levels, such as the 1983 United Nations' ‘Law of the Sea’ resolution that allowed countries to enforce an exclusive 320km (200mi) limit around their coastlines, fish stocks remain low. See also angling

angling Popular freshwater or marine sport. The two basic types of freshwater fishing are game fishing and coarse fishing. Game fishing uses artificial bait, such as spinning lures and flies (imitation insects), and is undertaken in fast-moving water where salmon and trout can be found. Coarse fishing takes place in slow-moving water and uses either live bait, such as maggots and worms, or cereal bait, such as sweetcorn. Saltwater fishing requires heavier rods and reels, and includes trolling and big-game fishing. Flatfish, mackerel, and sea bass are among the more common seafish caught, while tuna, swordfish, marlin, and shark are landed in big-game fishing.

angling is the art of catching fish with rod, line, and hook, with live or artificial bait, and can be pursued at many different levels and in different ways. The name derives from the Old English angle, a hook. The success of Izaak Walton's The Compleat Angler (1653) testifies to the popularity of the pastime in the 17th cent. Competitive events were organized by local clubs, often based upon pubs, and commanded a very large following, particularly as the expanding railway network improved access to rivers, lakes, and canals. A National Federation of Anglers was formed in 1903.

J. A. Cannon

angling is the art of catching fish with rod, line, and hook, with live or artificial bait. The name derives from the Old English angle, a hook. The success of Izaak Walton's The Compleat Angler (1653) testifies to the popularity of the pastime in the 17th cent. A National Federation of Anglers was formed in 1903.

fish·ing / ˈfishing/ • n. the activity of catching fish, either for food or as a sport. PHRASES: fishing expedition a search or investigation undertaken with the hope, though not the stated purpose, of discovering information: they worried about an FBI fishing expedition.

angling see fishing .

fishing. See angling.

fishing See angling.