COWBOYS

COWBOYS. The heirs of ancient pastoral traditions, cowboys have worked as mounted herders on the cattle ranges of the American West for more than three centuries. They First rose to national prominence as an occupational group, however, with the rapid expansion of the western range cattle industry during the second half of the nineteenth century. Cowboy life attracted young, unmarried men, most of them in their late teens and early twenties, from a variety of social and ethnic backgrounds. Whatever their age and upbringing, cowboys, sometimes called "cowhands," "cowpunchers," or "buckaroos," pursued a demanding and sometimes dangerous occupation that required stamina, athleticism, and a specialized knowledge of horses and cattle.

At roundup time cowhands lived undomiciled for months at a time gathering, sorting, branding, and driving cattle. They Typically worked in crews consisting of ten or twelve men under the command of a range boss and supported a cook and a chuck wagon, which carried the outfit's food and bedrolls. Each cowboy maintained a string of a half-dozen or more horses, which he changed periodically throughout the work day. Despite toiling long hours, often under difficult conditions, for wages that in the 1880s ranged from $25 to $30 per month, cowboys were self-reliant, fiercely independent, and rarely organized labor unions or engaged in strikes.

Skilled ropers and riders, American cowboys employed tools and techniques perfected by Spanish vaqueros (cowboys) in Mexico and the southwestern United States. They Snared livestock with ropes made of rawhide or Manila hemp and rode heavy stock saddles equipped with a horn, which served as a snubbing posts while roping. Cowboys also adopted a distinctive, often colorful style of dress that reflected the requirements of the job, the local work environment, and personal taste. Most wore wide-brimmed hats to protect their head from sun and weather, tall-topped boots with underslung heels to help secure their feet in the saddle stirrups, and spurs, sometimes embellished with silver, to motivate their horses. In brush-infested regions they also donned leather leggings, called chaps, shorthand for the Spanish term chaparejos. Most ranchers, however, banned the wearing of firearms along with drinking and gambling.

During the era of the open range, cowboy work was seasonal, lasting from spring until fall. Ranchers laid off most of their cowboys during the winter months, retaining only a few to keep track of their herds and watch for cattle thieves, Many of whom were out-of-work ranch hands. Driving cattle to railhead markets usually fell to separate crews of professional drovers hired by independent contractors.

By the mid-1880s, the open range style of cattle ranching had given way to more organized methods. The

advent of barbed wire fences, which divided the range into ever smaller pastures, allowed the separation and upgrading of cattle herds, reduced the number of hands needed to tend them, and changed cowboy life and work forever. In the new order, cowboys were often called upon to cut hay, fix windmills, and build fences as well as ride the range. Married cowboys became more common as twentieth-century advances in transportation and communication and denser settlement patterns mitigated rural isolation. The eventual introduction of motor vehicles and horse trailers which, along with better roads, allowed cowboys to return to their homes and families after each day's work, gradually eliminated chuck wagon–based roundups.

Amid the inexorable economic and social changes that swept away the open range and the unfettered lifestyle of the horseback cowboy, there emerged a more enduring cowboy of legend. By the turn of the twentieth century, literature, art, and popular culture had rescued cowboys from historical anonymity and negative stereotypes and replaced them with a rugged, chivalrous hero. The writings of such authors as Theodore Roosevelt, Owen Wister, and Zane Grey; the art of Frederic Remington and Charles M. Russell; and the theatrics of Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, shaped and polished the image of the cowboy hero, whose independence, individualism, bravery, and common sense became the ideal of American masculinity. Later, motion picture and television portrayals by such actors as William S. Hart, Tom Mix, John Wayne, Gary Cooper, Gene Autry, and Roy Rogers, further defined and reinforced the model, as did countless novels and short stories. The sport of rodeo also played a part in establishing the cowboy's heroic image, while dude ranches offered western tourists the chance to vicariously participate by dressing in western style clothing, riding horses, herding cattle, and imagining the open range. Meanwhile, shrewd merchants and advertisers capitalized on the universal appeal of cow boy imagery to sell a vast array products from cologne to cigarettes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dary, David. Cowboy Culture: A Saga of Five Centuries. New York: Knopf, 1981.

Price, B. Byron. Cowboys of the American West. San Diego, Calif.: Thunder Bay Books, 1996.

Rollins, Philip Ashton. The Cowboy: An Unconventional History of Civilization on the Old-Time Cattle Range. New York: Scribners, 1936.

Savage, William W., Jr. The Cowboy Hero. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979.

Savage, William W., Jr., ed. Cowboy Life: Reconstructing an American Myth. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975.

B. ByronPrice

See alsoBarbed Wire ; Cattle Drives ; Individualism ; Remington and Indian and Western Images ; Rodeos ; Westerns ; Wild West Show .

Cowboys. The American cowboy descended from the Spanish and Mexican vaquero, who evolved in New Spain after the arrival of cattle in the Western Hemisphere. As cattle ranching spread northward into California and Texas, Americans adopted the tools and techniques of the vaquero. Texas cowboys watched over cattle, branded them, and rounded them up before herding them to markets first in New Orleans and by the 1850s northward to Missouri and beyond. As railroads pushed westward following the Civil War and the demand for beef increased in the East, Texas cowboys began to drive cattle herds north to railheads in Kansas and later Nebraska. By the late 1870s, cowboys, including many ofAfrican‐American and Hispanic descent, were found in cattle‐raising regions throughout the West. After the invention of barbed wire and the fencing of ranches, the cowboy became a hired man on a horseback, repairing fences, doctoring cattle, and participating in cattle‐branding roundups. By 1900, the golden age of the American cowboy was over.

Compared to his counterpart south of the Rio Grande, the American cowboy played a regional and relatively short‐lived role. Yet he found his place in the history and mythology of the West, celebrated for fairness, justice, and courage, as exemplified by the hero of Owen Wister's enduring novel The Virginian (1902). Dime novels, folk songs, motion pictures, television series, and the fashion and advertising industries all helped to create the mythic version of the American cowboy that survives today.
See also Folklore; Hispanic Americans; Livestock Industry; Southwest, The.

Bibliography

David Dary , Cowboy Culture: A Saga of Five Centuries, 1982.

David Dary

cowboys in American history. 1 Tory marauders, adherents to the British cause in the American Revolution, who fought in the contested area of Westchester co., N.Y. Their opposite numbers, who favored the Revolutionary cause and who operated in the same territory at the same period, were called skinners. 2 Mounted men employed as herders on cattle ranches of the American West. They were more important and picturesque in the days before the vast ranches were fenced, when their duties consisted of driving cattle to pasture and water, branding them at the roundup, protecting them from wild animals and thieves, and driving them to the shipping point. See rodeo .

Bibliography: See E. Hough, The Story of the Cowboy (1897, repr. 1970); J. B. Frantz and J. E. Choate, Jr., The American Cowboy, the Myth and the Reality (1955, repr. 1968); J. A. Lomax and A. Lomax, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads (rev. ed. 1966).