colonial and post‐colonial models. Ireland has been described as England's oldest colony. While the colonial origins of the connection between England and Ireland are not in doubt, the extent to which colonial models illuminate the historical relationships between the two is more contentious.

Broadly speaking, one can distinguish three types of models. First, there are those of an implicit kind: loose allusions to the political subordination of Ireland to England and the economic exploitation of the former by the latter. These tend to lack a basis in social theory of any kind and are commonly found in Irish nationalist writings of the last two centuries. Images of colonial domination also find limited expression in some Irish unionist writings, particularly in relation to the 18th century, but interestingly not with reference to time periods after the Act of Union. In these writings the colonial notion is put more to descriptive than to analytical use.

Then there are those models which deal explicitly with notions of colonialism. These are grounded, to varying degrees, in theory and accord colonial relationships substantial weight within their explanatory schemes. Here one can distinguish two subtypes. There are those whose explanatory scope is clearly limited in space and time. Some of the best examples belong to studies of 17th‐century Ireland, where processes of colonization in Munster and Ulster (see plantation), and in the New World, are effectively linked and explicated. Others, not many in fact, adopt a more ambitious time frame, seeking to encompass centuries of Irish history within a framework of colonial assumptions. A good example is Hechter's model of internal colonialism. In terms of this model, social groups within the core region (in this case England) dominated the peoples of peripheral regions politically and exploited them materially. As interactions between the English core and the Irish, Scottish, and Welsh peripheries multiplied over time, conflict and underdevelopment ensued. The predicted result for Ireland, as well as other areas of the Celtic fringe, was weak industrialization, low levels of income, and political alienation and mobilization along ethnic lines.

Finally, there are theories of post‐colonialism. These are of recent origin and emanate from the unlikely context of literary and cultural criticism. Though developed initially in relation to colonial societies outside Europe, including the white dominions of the British empire, they have found an application in the Irish context. From the perspective of post‐colonial theorizing, Ireland is a formerly colonial society with an experience little different from that of India, Algeria, or Ghana. In other words, Ireland should be modelled historically in much the same way as a Third World country in thrall to an imperial power. Within these writings there is a heavy emphasis on cultural subordination and resistance: the imposition of metropolitan, that is English, values, culture, and language on the indigenous peoples of Ireland, and the native reaction to this. Moreover, even after the achievement of political independence, the heritage of colonialism is still held to exert a baleful influence on Irish culture and society.

Does the post‐colonial cap fit? Ironically, in view of the emerging hegemony of theory in cultural studies, the model suffers from theoretical underdevelopment. Relationships between variables are poorly specified and their dynamic loosely sketched. More often than not, the depth of historical scholarship bears little relation to the extent of theoretical speculation. In particular the economic processes which are held to underpin colonialism are relatively neglected. More generally, one might remark that while good model building, even grand theorizing, remains a legitimate goal, it is proving an elusive one. This despite the length of the Irish–English connection and a wealth of historical materials.

Bibliography

Hechter, M. , Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536–1966 (1976)

Liam Kennedy

colony any nonself-governing territory subject to the jurisdiction of a usually distant country. The term is also applied to a group of nationals who settle in a foreign country or territory but retain political or cultural connections with their parent state. Colonies in the first sense may be colonies of settlement, such as Australia and North and Latin America before they gained independence. There are also colonies of exploitation, which have dense native populations, such as post-conquest Mexico and Peru, the Belgian Congo (now Congo [Kinshasa]), or the British Indian Empire (now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). Colonists in a colony of exploitation consist chiefly of military and administrative officers and commercial and financial representatives. The use of slaves and forced labor has often been a feature of such colonies. In a colony of exploitation, the government tends to be highly centralized and is frequently upheld by the presence of a strong police force or army; in a colony of settlement, there is generally rapid evolution from a purely military or autocratic government to autonomy or incorporation within the parent state. Since the 18th cent., colonial problems and their resolution have played a central role in European diplomacy and international relations. Strategic considerations, diplomatic rivalries, and the search for markets all led to a dramatic growth in European colonial holdings in the 19th cent. (see colonization ; imperialism ). In the late 19th cent., Great Britain began granting autonomy to some of its colonies, ultimately resulting in the transformation of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations . In the 20th cent., many colonial areas came under international supervision through the mandates system, or its successor, the trusteeship system (see trusteeship, territorial ). The French empire was progressively dissolved, first with the creation (1946) of the French Union and then with its reorganization (1958) as the French Community . By 1990 most of the former colonies of the Western European powers had become independent nations. Those that had not were, with a few exceptions, relatively small islands or island groups; most were autonomous in internal affairs and remained colonies by choice.

Bibliography: For bibliography, see under colonization and imperialism.

col·o·ny / ˈkälənē/ • n. (pl. -nies) 1. a country or area under the full or partial political control of another country, typically a distant one, and occupied by settlers from that country. ∎  a group of people living in such a country or area, consisting of the original settlers and their descendants and successors. ∎  (the Colonies) chiefly British term for Thirteen Colonies. ∎  (the colonies) all the foreign countries or areas formerly under British political control. 2. a group of people of one nationality or ethnic group living in a foreign city or country: the British colony in New York. ∎  a place where a group of people with similar interests live together: an artists' colony. 3. Biol. a community of animals or plants of one kind living together or forming a physically connected structure. ∎  a group of fungi or bacteria grown from a single spore or cell on a culture medium. ORIGIN: late Middle English (denoting a settlement formed mainly of retired soldiers, acting as a garrison in newly conquered territory in the Roman Empire): from Latin colonia ‘settlement, farm,’ from colonus ‘settler, farmer,’ from colere ‘cultivate.’

colony
1. (in zoology) A group of animals of the same species living together and dependent upon each other. Some, such as the corals and sponges, are physically connected and function as a single unit. Others, such as insect colonies, are not physically joined but show a high level of social organization with members specialized for different functions (see caste).

2. (in microbiology) A group of microorganisms, usually bacteria or yeasts, that are considered to have developed from a single parent cell. Colonies that grow on agar plates differ in shape, colour, surface texture, and translucency and can therefore be used as a means of identification.

colonialism Control by one country over a dependent area or people. Although associated with modern political history, the practice is ancient. In European colonial history, economic, political and strategic factors were involved in the colonial enterprise, which created the world empires of countries such as Britain and France, subjugating mainly African and Asian states and often creating artificial boundaries. After World War II, colonialist exploitation was widely recognized, and colonial powers conceded, willingly or not, independence to their colonies. See also imperialism

Colony

a group of people transported to another place or part of the world; a collection of people associated with a craft, occupation, decorative art, etc.; a number of animals or plants in a group. See also community.

Examples: colony of ants—Lipton, 1970; of artists; of auks [on land]; of avocets; of badgers; of bats; of bees, 1713; of beggars, 1737; of chinchilla; of cormorants; of frogs; of gulls; of ibises; of lepers; of mice; of monks, 1844; of musicians, 1711; of penguins; of sparrows, 1840; of voles; of vampires.

colony Colonies were cities into which Roman soldiers or veterans were accommodated, transplanted from the capital to form Roman outposts amid possibly hostile territory. Corinth, Lystra, and Antioch of Pisidia were colonies; their constitutions were modelled on those of Rome. In writing to the Church at Philippi which was a colony (Acts 16: 12) Paul tells the Christians that their true citizenship is of heaven though they live temporarily in an earthly outpost (Phil. 3: 20).

colony XVI. — L. colōnia farm, landed estate, settlement, f. colōnus cultivator, settler, f. colere cultivate; see -Y 3.
Hence colonial XVIII, colonize XVII (whence colonist XVIII).

colony (kol-ŏni) n. a discrete population or mass of microorganisms, usually bacteria, all of which are considered to have developed from a single parent cell. See also culture.

colony •Léonie, peony •Tierney •Briony, bryony, Hermione •tourney • ebony • Albany •chalcedony • Alderney •Persephone, Stephanie, telephony •antiphony, epiphany, polyphony, tiffany •symphony •cacophony, homophony, theophany, Zoffany •euphony • agony • garganey •Antigone •cosmogony, mahogany, theogony •balcony • Gascony • Tuscany •calumny •felony, Melanie, miscellany •villainy • colony •Chamonix, salmony, scammony, Tammany •harmony •anemone, Emeny, hegemony, lemony, Yemeni •alimony, palimony •agrimony • acrimony •matrimony, patrimony •ceremony • parsimony • antimony •sanctimony • testimony • simony •Romany • Germany • threepenny •timpani • sixpenny • tuppenny •accompany, company •barony • saffrony • tyranny •synchrony • irony • saxony • cushiony •Anthony • betony •Brittany, dittany, litany •botany, cottony, monotony •gluttony, muttony •Bethany • oniony • raisiny •attorney, Burney, Czerny, Ernie, ferny, gurney, journey, Verny