Amber

Background

Although considered a gem, amber is a wholly-organic material derived from the resin of extinct species of trees. In the dense forests of the Middle Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, between 10 and 100 million years ago, these resin-bearing trees fell and were carried by rivers to coastal regions. There, the trees and their resins became covered with sediment, and over millions of years the resin hardened into amber. Although many amber deposits remain in ocean residue, geological events often repositioned the amber elsewhere.

For thousands of years, amber has been carved and worked into beads, jewelry, and other types of ornamentation. However, today amber is valued primarily for the astounding array of fossils preserved inside. As sticky resin was exuded by the trees, animals, minerals, and plant materials were trapped in it. As the resin hardened, these fossils—called inclusions—were perfectly preserved, providing modern scientists with invaluable information about extinct species.

Unlike other types of fossils, amber fossils are three-dimensional, with life-like colors and patterns. Even the internal structures of cells may be intact. Often, insects were caught by the resin in active poses, along with their predators, prey, and internal and external parasites. Previously-unknown genera of fossilized insects have been discovered in amber. Intact frogs and lizards, snake skins, bird feathers, hair and bones of mammals, and various plant materials have been preserved in amber. In some cases, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) can be extracted from the fossilized organisms and compared with that of its modern-day counterparts.

History

Amber has been a highly-valued material since earliest times. Worked amber dating back to 11,000 b.c. has been found at archeological sites in England. Amber was widely believed to have magical healing powers. It was used to make varnish as long ago as 250 b.c., and powdered amber was valued as incense. Amber was also traded throughout the world. By identifying the type of amber used in ancient artifacts, scholars can determine the geographical source of the amber and draw conclusions about early trade routes.

In about 600 b.c., the Greek philosopher Thales rubbed amber with silk, causing it to attract dust and feathers. This static electricity was believed to be a unique property of amber until the sixteenth century, when English scientist William Gilbert demonstrated that it was characteristic of numerous materials. He called it electrification, after elektron, the Greek word for amber.

In the Western Hemisphere, the Aztecs and Mayans carved amber and burned it as incense. The Taino Indians of the island of Hispaniola offered gifts of amber to Christopher Columbus.

The decorative use of amber culminated in 1712 with the completion of an entire banquet room made of amber panels constructed for King Frederick I of Prussia. In the nineteenth century amber attained new significance when German scientists began studying the fossils imbedded in it.

Raw Materials

Resins are complex substances that include oily compounds called terpenes. Over time, some terpenes evaporate while others condense and become cross-linked to each other, forming hard polymers. However, different species of trees produce different types and amounts of resins. The exact structure and composition of amber depends on the makeup of the original tree resin, the age of the amber, the environment in which it was deposited, and the thermal conditions and geological forces to which it was exposed. Thus, even amber obtained from similar locations may vary in chemical structure and physical characteristics.

Types of amber

Although deposits of amber occur throughout the world, amber from the coast of the Baltic Sea is the best-known. It is called succinite amber because it contains a substantial amount of succinic acid. Most Baltic amber came from pine tree resin. Amber that lacks succinic acid is classified as retinite amber.

Amber from Mexico and the Dominican Republic began forming 20-30 million years ago from the resins of extinct species of Hymenaea or algarrobo trees. These flowering trees thrived in the canopy of extensive tropical rain forests. They produced copious amounts of resin that eventually hardened into amber. Torrential rains washed the amber to deltas where it was covered with silt. As sea levels changed, the amber settled on the sea floor and the sediment over it hardened into rock. Later, mountain formation pushed up the rocks.

Design

Physical characteristics

Many components of amber are similar to those of modern resins. However the cross-linking of these compounds makes the amber hard, with a high melting point and low solubility. Amber has a hardness of 2-3 on Mohs's scale, the standard for minerals and gems. On this scale, talc is I and diamond is 10. Amber softens at 302°F (150°C) and melts at 482-662°F (250-350°C). With a specific gravity of 1.05-1.12, amber is only slightly more dense than water. It will not completely dissolve in organic solvents.

Amber usually occurs as small irregular masses, nodules, or droplets. Although it can be many different colors, it is most often pale to golden yellow or orange and can be fluorescent. After a few years of exposure to light and air, amber often turns dark red and develops numerous cracks on the surface. Some amber is translucent or even transparent. However, trapped air bubbles can cause amber to be cloudy or opaque. Amber is a poor conductor of heat and large changes in temperature can cause it to fracture.

The Manufacturing
Process

Amber is extracted in different ways, depending on its location. Baltic amber washes up along the shores of the Baltic Sea and as far away as Denmark, Norway, and England. The largest deposits of North American amber are found on the surface of openpit clay mines in Arkansas. In New Jersey, Cretaceous amber is dug from the sand and clay of abandoned pit mines. It is screened, washed, and examined for inclusions. In Asia, amber is found in coal mines. Until the mid-twentieth century, highly-prized amber was mined from deep pits in northern Burma (now Myanmar).

Mining and washing

• 1 Drops or blocks of Baltic amber are mined from open pits of 40-60 million-year-old glauconite sand. Glauconite is a hydrated potassium-iron silicate mineral and these deposits are called "blue earth" because of their blue-green color. After the surface has been cleared, the blue earth is dug out with steam shovels and dredges. It is poured through grates at a washing plant, where streams of water are used to separate the amber from the sand. In the early twentieth century, up to one million lb (450,000 kg) of amber per year were extracted from the blue earth layer of the Samland Peninsula in the eastern Baltic.

  Mexican and Dominican amber may be exposed by landslides on steep mountain slopes and extracted with picks and shovels. It also is mined from pits dug deep into the ground. Much Dominican amber is mined from narrow tunnels carved as far as 600 ft (183 m) into the sides of mountains. Water is baled or pumped out of the tunnels and the miners crawl through, chisel at the rock, and pick out the exposed amber. Dominican amber is washed by the miner, sorted by size, and examined for inclusions.

Clarifying and coloring

• 2 Large trapped air bubbles result in a foamy or frothy type of amber. Microscopic bubbles result in bony or osseous amber that looks like dried bone. Very cloudy amber is called bastard. Amber is clarified by heating in rapeseed oil. The oil penetrates bubbles near the surface and reduces the cloudiness, making even bony or bastard amber more transparent. Amber also may be clarified by heating under pressure with nitrogen and then baking in an oven. Clarification darkens the amber and produces disc-like stress marks, called "sun spangles." Amber may be stained green or reddish. Mexican and Dominican amber is usually clear and transparent and does not need clarifying.

Cutting and reshaping

• 3 For jewelry or carving, amber usually is worked by hand, with a jeweler's saw and fine-toothed files. It is wet-sanded with 320-grit cloth and finished with a 400- or 600-grit wet-sanding cloth. It can be drilled with dry steel drills, using a low speed and slight pressure, to prevent heating and cracking.
• 4 To obtain a clear view of inclusions, one end of an amber piece may be chipped off. Amber with inclusions may be cut or reshaped for examination of the biological specimen or to separate two specimens. Cutting is done with a jeweler's hand saw or, for larger pieces, with a high-speed trim saw with a diamond blade, at speeds up to 4,200 rpm.
• 5 Reshaping is done with various grades of sandpaper. Rough edges from the saw blade may be smoothed with 200- and 400-grit paper, by hand or with a belt sander equipped with a water cooling system, to remove dust and prevent overheating and fracturing or glazing.

Polishing

• 6 Amber for jewelry is polished with tin oxide or cerium oxide, using a leather buff, Jelt wheel or pad, or chamois board. Periodic polishing with a silicone-based wax restores shine and decreases evaporation and surface oxidation.

  Dominican amber is polished with a sander, following the natural contours. Surface oxidation of Dominican amber diminishes the fluorescence and the blue, green, or purple color. Removing the outer layer and repolishing restores the fluorescence. Repolishing may be done by hand or with a cotton buffing wheel, using dental polishing compound, an abrasive for plastics, or other fine neutral-colored polishing compounds. A final hand polishing removes the polishing compound.

  Cretaceous amber more than 65 million years old is very brittle and fractured. After several years of exposure, it is prone to disintegration. Encasing Cretaceous amber in a synthetic resin helps to preserve it.

Pressing

• 7 For producing gems, small clear pieces of amber are softened and fused in a vacuum with steam at 400°F (204°C) or above.
• 8 The pieces are pressed through a fine steel sieve or mesh, mixed, and hardened into blocks. This pressed amber is called ambroid or amberoid and may contain bubbles that have elongated under the heat and pressure. Sometimes modern insect inclusions are inserted into pressed amber and the ambroid may be dyed, usually dark red.

Other processing

• 9 Small pieces of poor quality amber, including about 90% of Baltic amber, are distilled in huge, dry iron retorts. About 60% is recovered as amber colophony, a high-grade varnish. Another 15—20% becomes amber oil, used in medicines, casting, and the highest grade of varnish. About 2%of the products are distilled acids, such as succinic acid, that are used for medicines and varnishes.

Quality Control

Harder and, presumably, older amber is usually considered to be of higher quality. Since mining costs are 28% higher than the value of raw amber, its value is based primarily on its inclusions or on its eventual processing into jewelry and art objects. Therefore, amber is graded according to its size and beauty, as well as the presence and type of inclusions.

Imitation amber with fake inclusions has been produced for at least 600 years. Fresh resins, synthetic polystyrenes, Bakelite, epoxy resins, celluloid, colored glass, plastics, and polyesters all have been used for imitation amber. However, true amber can be distinguished by its hardness, melting temperature, lack of solubility, fluorescence, specific gravity, refractive index (measure of the degree that it bends light), and odor on burning. Sometimes true amber is fractured, a cavity is carved in it for an inclusion embedded in fresh resin, and the piece is resealed.

Byproducts/Waste

About 90% of the world's extractable amber is located in the Kaliningrad region of Russia on the Baltic Sea. There, amber mining and processing has caused widespread environmental degradation. More than 100 million tons of waste has been discharged into the Baltic from the Palmnicken (Yantarny) mine over the past century. This insoluble waste causes high turbidity in the Baltic Sea. The waters of the pollution-sensitive Baltic take 25-30 years to renew themselves.

The Future

The easily-extracted, top layers of Baltic amber were exhausted by the mid-1800s. However it is estimated that over 180,000 tons of amber remain in the Yantarny mine in Kaliningrad. At the current rate of extracetion, amber could be mined there for another 300 years. In addition, mining has resumed in Myanmar and the high-quality Burmese amber is being sold to museums.

Although the process of amber formation from tree resin continues, it takes millions of years for the resin to harden into amber. As amber deposits are depleted by mining, and resin-bearing trees are cut or burned rather than allowed to fossilize, the supply of raw amber will continue to dwindle.

Where to Learn More

Books

Anderson, K. B., and J. C. Crelling, eds. Amber, Resinite, and Fossil Resins. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1995.

Grimaldi, David A. Amber: Window to the Past. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. and the American Museum of Natural History, 1996.

Poinar Jr., George, and Roberta Poinar. The Amber Forest: A Reconstruction of a Vanished World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Other

"Amber Trade and the Environment in the Kaliningrad Oblast." TED Case Studies. 27 July 2001. <http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/ted/amber.htm>.

Brost, Leif. "Amber: A Fossilized Tree Resin." The Swedish Amber Museum Home Page. 27 July 2001. <http://www.brost.se/eng/education/facts.html>.

MargaretAlic

Amber

Singer

For the Record…

Selected discography

Sources

When Dutch recording artist Amber first made a splash on the dance music scene in 1996, some critics dismissed her as just another anonymous studio singer. With an album produced by the Berman Brothers—the team responsible for the success of German dance music stars Real McCoy—it was easy to assume that Amber was only a singer hired to complete an album under the guidance of the producers. Yet her subsequent work revealed a lyrical depth and vivid personality that set Amber apart from other divas. Hit dance tracks such as “Sexual (Li Da Di)” and “The Need to Be Naked” were forthright explorations of sensuality written by the singer, while “Yes!” incorporated lines from James Joyce’s classic novel Ulysses. “I don’t want to be categorized,” Amber reflected in a December of 1999 profile in Billboard. “I live and learn and want to make my own choices in music, going in all kinds of directions. I think that the public likes to see an artist grow. There’s nothing more boring than an album that sounds the same from one song to another.”

The singer known around the world as Amber was born Marie-Claire Cremers in the Netherlands around 1970. She spent a significant part of her childhood in neighboring Germany, where her father pursued a career as an opera singer and her mother worked as a piano teacher and pursued her own interests in classical composition and singing. The family tradition of performing extended back to the turn of the century and an earlier generation, as Amber joked in a Billboard article: “In 1901 my great-great-grandmother was dressed up to her neck, but she played piano and danced and sang. No one accepted her musicality, because they thought it was wrong. But there she was, the original Spice Girl.” Although her parents encouraged her to listen to classical music, Amber became a pop music fan. Her favorite singers included Oleta Adams, Barbra Streisand, and Diana Ross; the Jackson 5 and the Beatles were other early influences.

By the time she was 16, Amber had decided to pursue a career in music. One of her first appearances on record was as a finger cymbal player on the album The Joy of Belly Dancing by George Abdo (a leading artist in that genre) in 1990. In 1992 she added vocals to the album Back on the Street by soul singer Roy C. She also sang with a number of bands and even secured a recording contract, although the deal quickly fell through. Amber’s real breakthrough came in 1992 when she made a demo tape with the Berman Brothers, although it took a couple more years before the effort paid off. In 1994 the Berman Brothers scored a huge international hit with their work on the Real McCoy’s debut album, Another Night. Once the production team was in demand, they contacted Amber with an offer to turn her demo tape into a full-length album. She signed with the Berman Brothers and quickly went back into the studio.

Although she enjoyed working with the Berman Brothers, Amber later had mixed feelings about signing with

For the Record…

Born Marie-Claire Cremers c. 1970 in the Netherlands; raised in Germany; daughter of opera singer and piano teacher; divorced with one son.

Performed as studio singer, early 1990s; released first album, This Is Your Night, 1996; released second album, Amber, which contained controversial single “Sexual (Li Da Di),” 2000; released third album, Naked, 2002.

Awards: American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) Rhythm and Soul Award, Dance Songs, “Sexual (Li Da Di),” 2000.

Addresses: Record company — Tommy Boy Records, 902 Broadway, New York, NY 10010, website: http://www.tommyboy.com. Booking —T-Best Talent Agency, 1122 B Street #308, Hayward, CA 94541, phone: (510) 728-7280. Website— Amber Official Website: http://www.amber-mcc.com.

them. “I didn’t feel I had the creative freedom I was supposed to have,” she reflected in her Tommy Boy Records biography, “I was directed in terms of how to write my songs. I didn’t feel comfortable in that skin.” Despite her misgivings, one of the tracks initially on her 1992 demo tape, “This Is Your Night,” proved immediately successful when it was reworked and released as a single in the United States in May of 1996. The young singer promoted the release with numerous club dates in North America and then returned to Europe, where the record was a hit dance single as well. She followed it up with the dance hits “Colour of Love” and “One More Night,” all of which were included on her debut album, This Is Your Night.

Amber branched out a bit with an appearance as a singer in the movie Studio 54, which chronicled the history of the famous New York City disco. Heading back into the recording studio, she was determined to show a more diverse range of styles and content on her sophomore album, 1999’s Amber. Looking back on her first efforts in a Billboard interview in August of 1999, she admitted, “I had no clue about anything back then, and everything was done in a rush. This time, we moved gradually through the writing and recording process. More thought went into each song, and I was present at all times.” With characteristic frankness she added, “This album doesn’t go the full distance in terms of revealing my creative vision, but it’s a good start.”

The first release from the album kicked off some controversy with its title alone, “Sexual (Li Da Di),” which hit the top 25 on the Billboard pop chart despite the refusal of some radio stations to play it. Amber laughed off the controversy, particularly during an appearance on the Donny and Marie talk show where Marie Osmond refused to say the song’s title. “This is a woman who is pregnant every second week,” she told Billboard in December of 1999. “What was that all about?” On a more serious note she added, “Hopefully sex can be a normal thing in a good and responsible way. It’s also an answer to chauvinist songs out there; men don’t always understand that women work best through communication.”

In November of 2000 Amber released a remix album of her past hits. Although she was happy to please her fans by making available some of her hard-to-find club mixes, she was ambivalent about the process. “I have to honestly say that I do not care much about the remixes,” she told Mauricio Saravia of the Artist Interviews website, adding, “I like to work with real musicians and writers that create the song in its essence, because without the song there would be no remix…. Most of the remixers only care about their beats and abuse the vocals.” What did excite her was the chance to write some tunes with her mother, Anne-Mieke de Vroomen, and her sister, Anne-Fleur Cremers, for inclusion on her third album.

Released in August of 2002, Naked was Amber’s third album of original material and the first to be released after she bought out her contract from the Berman Brothers. The content also reflected much more than the uptempo dance tunes that characterized her earlier releases. Having gone through a divorce and now raising her son as a single parent, the lyrics on Naked demonstrated Amber’s focus on personal relationships. The song “Anyway (Men Are from Mars)” dealt with her divorce, while “The Smile of a Child,” co-written with her mother, was dedicated to her son. “For too long, I was being pushed into a dance corner only,” she told Billboard upon the album’s release. “I’m much more than that. This album shows me in my space. It’s an expression of my musical diversity.”

The first single from Naked, “Yes!,” was another danceoriented track, but with a twist: it featured lyrics taken from James Joyce’s classic work Ulysses. Ironically, the use of the material raised even more controversy from radio stations than her track “Sexual (Li Da Di).” In particular, radio programmers were hesitant to play the track for its inclusion of Joyce’s lines, “I put my arms around him, yes/And drew him down to me so he could feel my breast/And his heart was going like mad/And yes, I said yes.” The album’s follow up single, ‘The Need to Be Naked,” also drew attention for its frankly sexual subject matter. “I like to mess with people’s minds in this way,” Amber told Billboard in August of 2002. “But if you dig a little deeper and really listen to the lyrics, I’m dealing with sexuality on a more spiritual level.”

Selected discography

This Is Your Night, Tommy Boy, 1996.

Amber, Tommy Boy, 1999.

Remixed Tommy Boy, 2000.

Naked, Tommy Boy, 2002.

Sources

Periodicals

Billboard, December 7, 1996, p. 8; August 21, 1999, p. 25; December 11, 1999, p. 98; October 14, 2000, p. 36; October 27, 2001, p. 30; July 20, 2002, p. 20; August 24, 2002, p. 21.

Online

“Amber,” Artist Interviews, http://www.artistinterviews.com/music.amber.htm (September 2, 2002).

“Amber,” T-Best Talent Agency, http://www.t-besttalentagency.com/ (September 1, 2002).

“Amber: Naked,” Tommy Boy Records, http://tommyboy.materialinmotion.com/customer/home.php?mode=amberbio (August 31, 2002).

—Timothy Borden

amber Amber is a light, organic substance that is generally yellow or orange in colour and may be transparent or cloudy. It is the fossilized resin from trees that lived millions of years ago Trees produce resin as protection against disease and insect attack. Some trees produce resin in large quantities, which seeps out of cracks in the bark and flows down the trunk. Resin is very sticky, and insects, other small animals and plant remains are readily trapped. The resin hardens and becomes incorporated into sediments, where it polymerizes to form amber; any inclusions are usually very well preserved.

Amber is composed of cyclic hydrocarbons known as terpenes; it has a hardness of 2–3 on the Mohs' scale, a specific gravity of 1.04–1.10, and a melting point of 200–380 °C. Amber is generally attractive to look at, warm to the touch, light, and easy to carve. These properties have made it desirable for jewellery since the Stone Age.

Amber is difficult to date and this is mainly done by studying the associated fossils in the sediments from which the amber comes. This, however, indicates only a minimum age because there is no way of knowing how long the amber took to get from the trees to where it was deposited. The associated fossils may give an incorrect age if the amber has been reworked. The oldest amber has been recorded from the Upper Carboniferous. The oldest amber that contains insects comes from the Lower Cretaceous.

Amber occurs in many parts of the world. The largest deposits are from around the Baltic Sea and in the Dominican Republic, which are generally considered to be Upper Eocene–Lower Oligocene and Lower–Middle Miocene in age respectively. Other significant deposits occur in Canada, the USA, Mexico, France, Spain, Germany, Sicily, Romania, Lebanon, Russia, China, Burma, Japan, and Borneo.

The insects and other inclusions that are trapped in amber provide evidence of past biodiversity, ecology, and biogeography. Although most species in amber are extinct, it is often possible to work out how they lived by comparison with their living relatives. There is a bias in what is preserved: many larger animals are strong enough to pull themselves out of sticky resin, whereas small and weak insects are more prone to be entrapped. Furthermore, insects that live on the resin-producing trees are more prone to entrapment than those that live in habitats away from the trees. Amber is crucial for our knowledge of small extinct insects that would not otherwise be fossilized. Of particular interest are specimens in which two different animals are caught interacting, such as parasites still attached to their host.

In recent years scientists have analysed air bubbles in amber to try to obtain evidence of past atmospheres. However, amber oxidizes, and oxygen in the bubbles would then react with the amber, which would affect the composition of the bubbles. Scientists have also attempted to extract DNA from the insects in amber. Some have claimed success, but independent attempts to replicate the results have so far been unsuccessful, which has led to suggestions that the recovered DNA may be recent contamination rather than ancient materials.

Andrew J. Ross

amber fossilized tree resin . Amber can vary in color from yellow to red to green and blue. The best commercial amber is transparent, but some varieties are cloudy. To be called amber, the resin must be several million years old; recently hardened resins are called copals.

The tree species that produced amber are now extinct. They included cedars and other conifers and broadleaved trees. The most famous source of the world's amber is the Baltic coast of Germany. Amber is also found off the coasts of Sicily and England and in Myanmar (Burma). In the Western Hemisphere, there are rich deposits in the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and the state of New Jersey.

Amber is of interest both for its decorative value and for the ancient, once-living inclusions that it preserves. Capable of being highly polished, it is the oldest decorative substance known. It was familiar to Paleolithic peoples and to the Greeks and Romans, who used it extensively in jewelry. Pliny recounts several instances of its artistic uses. Amber is used in the manufacture of beads, amulets, mouthpieces, cigar and cigarette holders, pipes, and other small ornamental objects.

When rubbed with a cloth, amber becomes charged with static electricity; Thales was familiar with its electrical properties. When destructively distilled, amber yields acetic, butyric, valeric, and other acids; water; and hydrocarbons. Baltic amber also contains succinic acid and is often called succinite. An essential oil (amber oil) is obtained from amber.

Leaves, flowers, insects, and small animals are frequently found in amber. Older fossils trapped in this way often represent the sole specimen of an extinct species. An especially rich bed of amber in New Jersey has yielded over 100 previously unknown extinct Cretaceous species dating back as much as 94 million years. Because of amber's preservative qualities, the DNA of the specimens trapped inside is intact, affording scientists a unique opportunity to study the DNA of extinct species.

Bibliography: See D. Grimaldi, Amber: Window on the Past (1996); G. and R. Poinar, The Amber Forest (1999).

amber. A fossil resin derived from various trees, found in many parts of the world but mainly on the southern shores of the Baltic; it has been used in art to make jewellery, decorative items, and small-scale sculpture, and also perhaps as an ingredient of some varnishes. Amber is usually yellow, but many other colours are found and it varies greatly in opacity. It has been used since prehistoric times, notably in amulets because it was believed to have magical properties (it becomes charged with static electricity when rubbed on the hair). Although it is easy to carve, it can be brittle and skill is needed to prevent fracturing. The golden age of amber carving was the 16th and 17th centuries, and the most famous of all works in the medium was a room lined with amber commissioned by Frederick I of Prussia in 1701. It was originally installed in Schloss Charlottenberg, Berlin, but following Frederick's death in 1714 it was presented to Peter the Great of Russia in 1717 and reconstructed in the Great Palace (or Catherine Palace) at Tsarskoye Selo (now Pushkin), near St Petersburg. The room was looted by the Germans in the Second World War and has never been recovered, but a replica was unveiled in 2003 to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the founding of St Petersburg; a team of craftsmen took more than 20 years to produce it.

Amber has also been used to make a dark, slow-drying varnish, but it is doubtful if it has been used much, if at all, in painting (when medieval writers refer to it in recipes they may be confusing it with other resins).

amber hard translucent fossilized resin originating from extinct coniferous trees of the Tertiary period, typically yellowish in colour. It has been used in jewellery for centuries. A piece of amber was traditionally used as an amulet to attract lovers.

Amber often contains the bodies of trapped insects (the plot of Michael Crichton's thriller Jurassic Park and the 1993 Spielberg film based on it turned on the hypothesis that dinosaur DNA from the blood on which such insects had fed could be recovered from the insect bodies).

The word is recorded from late Middle English (also in sense ambergris), and comes via Old French from Arabic ῾anbar ‘ambergris’, later ‘amber’.

See also fly in amber.

amber A yellow or reddish-brown fossil resin. The resin was exuded by certain trees and other plants and often contains preserved insects, flowers, or leaves that were trapped by its sticky surface before the resin hardened. Amber is used for jewellery and ornaments. It also has the property of acquiring an electrical charge when rubbed (the term electricity is derived from electron, the Greek name for amber). It occurs throughout the world in rock strata from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene, but most commonly in Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks.

am·ber / ˈambər/ • n. hard translucent fossilized resin produced by extinct coniferous trees of the Tertiary period, typically yellowish in color. ∎  a honey-yellow color typical of this substance. ∎  a yellow light used as a cautionary signal between green for “go” and red for “stop.” • adj. made of amber: amber beads. ∎  having the yellow color of amber.

amber Hard, yellow or brown, translucent fossil resin, mainly from pine trees. Amber is most often found in alluvial soils, in lignite beds or around seashores, especially the Baltic Sea. The resin sometimes occurs with embedded fossil insects or plants. Amber can be polished to a high degree, and is used to make necklaces and other items of jewellery.

Amber ♀ From the word for the fossilized resin amber, a word derived via Old French and Latin from Arabic ambar. This was first used as a given name at the end of the 19th century. It enjoyed a surge in popularity following the publication of Kathleen Winsor's novel Forever Amber in 1944, and again in the 1990s.

Āmber, Rājasthān/India Ambarikhanera, Ambiner Founded as a fortress‐palace in 1592, it became a Rājput capital. Also known as Āmer, it was named after Ambarisha, King of Ayodhyā. The original complete name was shortened to Ambiner and again to Amber.

amber Fossil conifer resin, which is brittle and hard, translucent to transparent, and yellow to brown in colour. It is found in sediments or on the shore and takes a fine polish.

amber Fossil conifer resin which is brittle and hard, translucent to transparent, and yellow to brown in colour. It is found in sediments or on the shore and takes a fine polish.

amber †ambergris; yellow fossil resin. XIV. ME. aumbre — (O)F. ambre (medL. ambar(e), ambrum) — Arab. 'anbar ambergris, amber.

amber Fossil resin that was exuded from coniferous trees during the Tertiary Period.

amber •abba, blabber, dabber, grabber, jabber, stabber, yabber •Alba, Galba •amber, camber, caramba, clamber, Cochabamba, gamba, mamba, Maramba, samba, timbre •Annaba, arbor, arbour, barber, Barbour, harbour (US harbor), indaba, Kaaba, Lualaba, Pearl Harbor, Saba, Sabah, Shaba •sambar, sambhar •rebbe, Weber •Elba •Bemba, December, ember, member, November, Pemba, September •belabour (US belabor), caber, labour (US labor), neighbour (US neighbor), sabre (US saber), tabor •chamber • bedchamber •antechamber •amoeba (US ameba), Bathsheba, Bourguiba, Geber, Sheba, zariba •cribber, dibber, fibber, gibber, jibba, jibber, libber, ribber •Wilbur •limber, marimba, timber •winebibber •calibre (US caliber), Excalibur •briber, fibre (US fiber), scriber, subscriber, Tiber, transcriber •clobber, cobber, jobber, mobber, robber, slobber •ombre, sombre (US somber) •carnauba, catawba, dauber, Micawber •jojoba, Manitoba, October, sober •Aruba, Cuba, Nuba, scuba, tuba, tuber •Drouzhba • Toowoomba • Yoruba •Hecuba