south-east Asia. South-east Asian Buddhism is the product of a highly complex system of intertwining historical, geographic, political, and cultural circumstances. The form of Buddhism that predominates in the region is Theravāda, deriving historically from the Sthavira group of schools that emerged in 3rd century bc Sri Lanka. From Sri Lanka monks carried the teachings of the Buddha to Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where, compounded with the previous religious practices of the people of those countries, it has produced the now existing local variations of Theravāda Buddhism. Despite these variations, and the fact that the early history of the religion in south-east Asia is even more piecemeal than the foregoing suggests, there are some common features. For example, among the factors that facilitated the spread of Buddhism in the area is the fact that it was adopted by the rulers of the region. These modelled their notion of the Buddhist king or ideal ruler (cakravartin) on the Indian emperor Aśoka, who had greatly promoted the spread of Buddhism. The close association between Saṃgha and state in south-east Asia meant that the kings of this region took upon themselves the duty of overseeing the Saṃgha of their country to ensure that it conformed to the norms laid down in the Vinaya Piṭaka. This interest of the king in the orthodoxy and orthopraxy of his national Saṃgha is due to the particular link between Saṃgha and kingship that developed in this region. On the one hand, the Saṃgha justified the authority of the king, legitimizing the symbols on which his power rested. This was done in several ways, most noticeably through the compilation of historic literary works. On the other hand, the king, who since the lifetime of the Buddha had been the principal sponsor of the Saṃgha, not only acquired great merit (puṇya), but by giving his favour to one or the other monastic group (nikāya) made sure that none of them became so powerful as to threaten his control.

With the arrival of the colonial powers, the nature of the relationship between political and religious power in the region altered (most notably in Burma) and resulted in the birth of a modern Saṃgha, a greater involvement of the laity in religious matters and a strong correlation of religious and national identity. The modern centralised Saṃgha is largely a result of the development of the modern nation-state and the consequential centralisation of political power. The greater involvement of the laity in all religious matters is due to the fact that the Saṃgha had lost in the king its major sponsor and because with the advent of printed texts and increased literacy the teachings of Buddhism had become more accessible. The involvement of the laity in religious affairs has been mirrored by the social work the monks of this region have been involved in in more recent times. During the last decades of the 20th century various temples have pioneered development programmes geared primarily to the needs of the rural poor. These activities have been at the centre of much public debate, raising, again, the issue of what is appropriate behaviour for a monk.

The greater interest of the laity in Buddhism has generated a sense of national identity, especially in those countries that came to be under the rule of colonial powers. In Burma, for example, the Saṃgha used to be very much under the control of the king. There, a large administrative body headed by a Saṃgharāja, appointed by each king in turn, ruled over the Saṃgha. When the British annexed Burma this system collapsed and as a consequence new groups and movements originated within the Burmese Saṃgha and communities of lay supporters, which in turn became closely linked to the independence movements. Thailand also saw in the 19th century the revival of Buddhism in association with the introduction of social and political reforms. This country, however, had not been colonized. In this case it was the ruling Buddhist dynasty, that of the Chakri kings, that sponsored the revival and the social reforms. The Thai kings practically held divine status, but faced with the modernization movement that threatened to make their own existence obsolete, decided to use their traditional role to lead the movement by means of social reform. The more independent modern south-east Asian Saṃgha has also become more openly involved in all sorts of social and political matters. This remains true throughout the region, despite the fact that in more recent times in Laos and Cambodia the political events of the 1970s have severely curtailed the activities of Buddhist monks. In Burma, the monks have alternatively given and denied their support to the various post-war governments.

Two other important characteristics of south-east Asian Buddhism are the phenomenon of temporary ordination and the lack of ordained nuns. The virtual absence in this region of fully ordained nuns is due to the fact that their ordination tradition has died out in Theravādin countries, and this feature is not only peculiar to this region. Provisions exist for women to ordain to a level which is intermediate between the Five Precepts (pañca-śīla) for a lay Buddhist, and the ten undertaken by the novice (śrāmaṇera). These women, who wear robes, are known in Thailand as sikkhamat or mae chii, in Sri Lanka as dasa silmātā, and in Burma as thilashin. Temporary ordination is a rite of passage into manhood practised exclusively in the Theravādin countries of south-east Asia. It requires that all men at some point in their life, before their marriage, take ordination and spend some time in a monastery (vihāra). This custom was not practised during the lifetime of the Buddha and it is not known when it was introduced in south-east Asia.

Southeast Asia region of Asia (1990 est. pop. 442,500,000), c.1,740,000 sq mi (4,506,600 sq km), bounded roughly by the Indian subcontinent on the west, China on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the east. The name "Southeast Asia" came into popular use after World War II and has replaced such phrases as "Further India,""the East Indies,""Indo-China," and "the Malay Peninsula," which formerly designated all or part of the region. Southeast Asia includes the Indochina Peninsula, which juts into the South China Sea, the Malay Peninsula, and the Indonesian and Philippine Archipelagos. The region has 10 independent countries: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Peninsular Southeast Asia is a rugged region traversed by many mountains and drained by great rivers such as the Thanlwin, Ayeyarwady, Chao Phraya, and Mekong. Insular Southeast Asia is made up of numerous volcanic and coral islands. Southeast Asia has a generally tropical rainy climate, with the exception of the northwestern part, which has a humid subtropical climate. The wet monsoon winds are vital for the economic well-being of the region. Tropical forests cover most of the area. Rice is the chief crop of the region; rubber, tea, spices, and coconuts are also important. The region has a great variety of minerals and produces most of the world's tin.

People

Population is unevenly distributed, with the highest density in lowland areas. Most of the people live in small agrarian villages; the largest cities are Jakarta, Indonesia; Bangkok, Thailand; Singapore; Manila, Philippines; and Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. There is a great diversity in culture, history, religion, and ethnic composition. Many different languages are spoken, such as those of the Tibeto-Burman, Mon-Khmer, and Malayo-Polynesian families. Religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Roman Catholicism, and Confucianism. Animism is still practiced among many more isolated peoples of the region.

History

Most of the influences that molded the societies of Southeast Asia predate European colonization, coming from early Chinese and Indian sources. Several great civilizations, including those of the Khmers and Malays, have flourished there. In the late 15th cent., Islamic influences grew strong but were overshadowed by the arrival of Europeans, who established their power throughout Southeast Asia; only Thailand remained free of colonial occupation. Because of Southeast Asia's strategic location between Japan and India, and the importance of shipping routes that traverse it, the region became the scene of battles between Allied and Japanese forces during World War II.

After the war the countries of Southeast Asia have reemerged as independent nations. They have been plagued by political turmoil, weak economies, ethnic strife, and social inequities, although the situation for most Southeast Asian nations improved in the 1980s and 90s. Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, however, there were open conflicts between Communist and non-Communist factions throughout most of the region, especially in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia (see Vietnam War ). In 1967 Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand created the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the objectives of which are to promote regional economic growth, political stability, social progress, and cultural developments. Since then, Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos (1997), and Myanmar and Cambodia (1999) have joined ASEAN. In 1997 a monetary collapse in Thailand sparked a general economic crisis in several nations in the region; the results were most severe in Indonesia, which underwent economic, political, and social turmoil in the late 1990s.

Bibliography

See C. A. Fisher, Southeast Asia (2d ed. 1966); E. H. G. Dobby, Southeast Asia (10th ed. 1967); J. S. Bastin and H. J. Benda, History of Modern Southeast Asia (1968); G. Myrdal, Asian Drama (3 vol., 1968); L. Williams, Southeast Asia: A History (1976); D. G. E. Hall, A History of South East Asia (4th ed. 1981); M. Osborne, Southeast Asia (3d ed. 1985); D. J. Steinberg, ed., In Search of Southeast Asia (rev. ed. 1987).

South‐East Asia Comprises the mainland states of Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam; the region of East Malysia and the state of Brunei on the island of Borneo; and the insular states of Indonesia and the Philippines. See Asia.

Southeast Asia Region bounded by India, China, and the Pacific Ocean, and comprising Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Philippines, Singapore, and Indonesia. Area: c.4.5 million sq km (1.75 million sq mi).

SOUTHEAST ASIA.

This entry includes three subentries:
Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines
Thailand
Vietnam