SENATE

The upper chamber, or smaller branch, of the U.S. Congress. The upper chamber of the legislature of most of the states.

The U.S. Constitution reserves for the Senate special powers not available to the other branch of Congress, the House of Representatives. These powers include the trial of all impeachments of federal officials; the ratification, by a two-thirds vote, of all treaties obtained by the president of the United States; and approval or rejection of all presidential appointments to the federal judiciary, ambassadorships, cabinet positions, and other significant executive branch posts.

The Senate, with terms of six years for its members—as opposed to two years for members of the House of Representatives—and a tradition of unlimited debate, has long prided itself as the more deliberate of the two branches of Congress. Under its rules a senator may speak on an issue indefinitely, which is known as the filibuster. Sixty senators present and voting may pass a motion of cloture to stop debate.

Members

Under Article II, Section 3, of the Constitution, the Senate is made up of two members from each state, each of whom has one vote. Unlike the House of Representatives, in which the entire chamber is up for election every two years, only one-third of the senators are up for reelection every two years.

The Constitution requires that a senator be at least thirty years of age and a U.S. citizen for a minimum of nine years. A senator must make her legal residence in the state that she represents.

The Constitution originally provided for the election of senators by state legislatures. However, the seventeenth amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1913, mandated the election of senators by popular vote. The Senate may punish members for disorderly behavior. With the concurrence of two-thirds of the senators, it can expel a member.

When a vacancy occurs in the representation of any state in the Senate, the governor of that state issues a writ of election to fill the vacancy. The state legislature, however, can empower the governor to make a temporary appointment until the people fill the vacancy through an election.

The vice president of the United States is president of the Senate but has no vote unless the senators are equally divided on a question. His vote breaks the tie.

Committees

The Senate uses a committee system to evaluate, draft, and amend legislation before it is submitted to the full chamber. During the 108th Congress (2003–04), the Senate had sixteen standing, or permanent, committees: Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry; Appropriations; Armed Services; Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs; Budget; Commerce, Science, and Transportation; Energy and Natural Resources; Environment and Public Works; Finance; Foreign Relations; Governmental Affairs; Judiciary; Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions; Rules and Administration; Small Business; and Veterans' Affairs. The committees have an average of six to seven subcommittees. Senators typically belong to three committees and eight subcommittees. The Senate also has joint committees with the House, special committees, and investigative committees.

Officers

The vice president acts as the president of the Senate. In the vice president's absence, that position is filled by the president pro tempore, who is usually the most senior senator of the majority party. The majority leader has significant powers in the appointment of majority senators to committees. Political parties also elect majority and minority leaders to lead their efforts in the Senate. They are assisted by an assistant floor leader (whip) and a party secretary.

Other Senate officers include the secretary, who oversees Senate finances and official Senate pronouncements related to impeachment proceedings and treaty ratification, and the sergeant at arms, who serves as the law enforcement and protocol officer and organizes ceremonial functions.

A Day in the Life of the Senate

As the bells ring in the halls of the Capitol and its office buildings, the U.S. Senate starts the day's session. The presiding officer of the Senate, sometimes the vice president but usually the president pro tempore, accompanies the Senate chaplain to the rostrum to lead the chamber in an opening prayer.

After short speeches by the majority and minority leaders, the Senate begins the "morning hour"—a session that generally lasts two hours. During this time senators introduce bills, resolutions, and committee reports and speak briefly on subjects of concern. Bills are referred to approrpiate committees at this time.

Following the morning hour, the Senate may take up executive or legislative business. If in executive session, the Senate considers treaties or nominations that the president has submitted for Senate approval. Before 1929 executive sessions were conducted behind closed doors. Since then, however, the public and the press have been allowed to observe these sessions.

Most of the Senate's time, however, is spent in legislative session. This time is used to debate and vote on bills. Bills with unanimous consent are enacted by a simple voice vote without debate, whereas more controversial bills may be debated at length and may undergo roll call votes. Some bills may not come up for a vote at all.

During debate of a bill, assistant floor leaders, or whips, from each party usually occupy the seats of the majority and minority leaders, located in the front row, center aisle, of the Senate chamber. They enforce established time limits, if any, for debate on specific bills. Frequently, only a few senators are on the Senate floor, while the majority are attending committee meetings or working in their offices. From their offices, senators may apprise themselves of Senate proceedings either through "hot lines" to the Senate floor or live television coverage on the Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network (c-span), which began broadcasting Senate sessions in 1986.

A Senate legislative day may end in either adjournment or recess. If the Senate adjourns, a legislative day is officially over. If it merely recesses, however, the legislative day resumes on the following calendar day. In the case of a recess, the Senate may forego the rituals of the morning hour on the next calendar day. This is frequently done to save time during busy legislative sessions.

Sometimes, when there is a filibuster or heavy legislative load, the Senate does not stop at the end of the day but continues through the night. During these night sessions, a lantern at the top of the Capitol dome remains lit. The public has access to Senate galleries at all times that the Senate is in session, day or night.

further readings

Bach, Stanley. 1996. "The Daily Order of Business." In The Legislative Process on the Senate Floor: An Introduction. Report 91-520 RCO. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.

Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. 2001. Treaties and Other International Agreements: The Role of the United States Senate: A Study. Washington, D.C.: GPO.

Hardeman, D.B. 1976. "Congress, United States." In Dictionary of American History. Vol. 2. Edited by Louise B. Ketz. New York: Scribner.

U.S. Senate Web site. Available online at <www.senate.gov> (accessed February 10, 2004).

Wirls, Daniel and Stephen. 2003. The Invention of the United States Senate. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

cross-references

Congress of the United States; Constitution of the United States.

Senate, the upper house of the Oireachtas.

1921–1937

Under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, the Senate of the Southern Ireland parliament, which was based on that proposed by the 1917 Irish Convention, consisted of nominated members representing a range of interests in Ireland, particularly business, the professions, and education. Fifteen senators nominated by the lord lieutenant met in June 1921, but the assembly was adjourned following the truce which ended the Anglo‐Irish War and abolished in the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922.

The constitution of the Irish Free State provided for a Senate of 60 members who had to take the oath of allegiance. Southern Unionists were guaranteed special representation by Cosgrave, who as president of the executive council nominated half of the first Senate. The election process was considerably amended. Senators were elected for a twelve‐year term, later reduced to nine, with one‐third retiring every three years. Popular elections were abolished in 1928, when senators were elected by the Dáil and Senate. One member of the Senate could sit on the executive council.

Although the Senate could initiate legislation, it had no authority over money bills. If the Senate rejected a bill, the Dáil could within a year pass a resolution to send it back to the Senate and within 60 days it would pass. The Senate could also suspend for 90 days any bill passed by both houses if a majority of the Senate so requested the president of the executive council.

1937–

In 1936 de Valera abolished the Senate, which had earlier rejected the bill to abolish the oath of allegiance and other legislation. Contrary to expectation, the 1937 constitution of Ireland revived the concept of an upper house. There are 60 senators, 49 elected and II nominated by the taoiseach. Two members of the government can be senators and ministers can attend both houses. Of the 49 elected members, 6 represent universities; the other 43 members are elected from five panels representing language and culture, agriculture, labour, industry and commerce, and public administration. The constitution also provides for direct election by vocational groups.

Under the 1947 Seanad Electoral Act, members of the Dáil and Senate and county council members constitute the electorate for these panels and this has meant that panel members, despite their ostensibly vocational character, have tended to be party politicians.

The Senate can, like its predecessor, initiate legislation but cannot amend money bills. A bill rejected by the Senate can be passed after 180 days. The Senate and the Dáil can address a joint petition to the president requesting him or her not to sign a bill unless the ‘will of the people’ has been ascertained. With the Dáil, the Senate can declare a national emergency in time of war or armed rebellion.

The Senate has aways been subordinate to the Dáil and has not, until recently, actively used its revising and initiating powers. This changed with the introduction in the 1980s of more Oireachtas committees and with more crowded Dáil agendas.

Bibliography

Chubb, Basil , The Government and Politics of Ireland (3rd edn., 1992)
Kohn, Leo , The Constitution of the Irish Free State (1932)

Deirdre McMahon

Senate Upper House of the US legislature, which together with the House of Representatives forms the Congress. It consists of two senators from each state, who are elected for six-year terms. Elections are held every other year, with about one third of the Senate elected at a time. There are usually 16 standing committees, and committee chairs retain their positions for as long as their party has a majority of the votes. The approval of a simple majority of the Senate is necessary for major presidential appointments, and a two-thirds majority for treaties. The Senate can initiate legislation except on fiscal matters. Officially, the presiding officer of the Senate is the vice president, but the position is often delegated.

sen·ate / ˈsenit/ • n. any of various legislative or governing bodies, in particular: ∎  the smaller upper assembly in the U.S. Congress, most U.S. states, France, and other countries. ∎  the state council of the ancient Roman republic and empire, which shared legislative power with the popular assemblies, administration with the magistrates, and judicial power with the knights. ∎  the governing body of a university or college. ORIGIN: Middle English: from Old French senat, from Latin senatus, from senex ‘old man.’

Senate the state council of the ancient Roman republic and empire, which shared legislative power with the popular assemblies, administration with the magistrates, and judicial power with the knights. In modern usage, Senate is the title of various legislative or governing bodies, in particular the smaller upper assembly in the US, US states, France, and other countries; the governing body of a university or college.

The name comes (in Middle English, via Old French) from Latin senatus, from senex ‘old man’.

Senate

an assembly or Council of citizens; a body of the elders, 1586; the governing body of a nation, state or university.

Examples : the senate of the Gods is met, 1821; the senate of the heart, 1540.

senate XIII. — (O)F. sénat — L. senātus, f. senex, sen- old (man); see SENIOR, -ATE1.
So senator (OR1) XIII. — (O)F. sénateur — L. senātor, -ōrem.

Senate. See Federal Government, Legislative Branch: Senate.

SENATE

SENATE. SeeCongress, United States .

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