Romanesque architecture and art

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Romanesque architecture and art the artistic style that prevailed throughout Europe from the 10th to the mid-12th cent., although it persisted until considerably later in certain areas. The term Romanesque points to the principal source of the style, the buildings of the Roman Empire. In addition to classical elements, however, Romanesque architecture incorporates components of Byzantine and Eastern origin.

Romanesque Architecture

The specific character of the Romanesque style can be understood only in the light of the development of early medieval architecture in the West, notably its Carolingian and Ottonian phases. Certain of the most characteristic features of Romanesque structures—the massive west facade crowned by a tower or by twin towers, the complex design of the eastern part housing the sanctuary, the rhythmic alternation of piers and columns in the nave—represent only the advanced stages in a lengthy and complex formal evolution marked by considerable trial and error.

The development of Romanesque architecture owes much to the primacy accorded to vaulting. Masonry vaulting (see vault ) since the beginning of Christian architecture had been confined to buildings of relatively small scale and to crypts. Large basilican structures, in a continuation of a tradition inaugurated by the early Christian basilica , were topped by wooden roofs. Romanesque churches, on the other hand, with notable exceptions in Normandy and Italy, sustained massive barrel vaults, making mandatory the reinforcement of load-bearing walls in order to parry the lateral outward thrust. The frequent presence of galleries above the aisles, sometimes with half-barrel vaults, is in all probability rooted in structural considerations connected with the problem of abutment. The limitation of wall openings to a minimum, related to the same concern, contributed to the sober yet somberly impressive character of the light.

The major share of architectural activity was sponsored by the great monastic communities. The Cluniac order, at the peak of its power, played a primary role in the patronage of construction. Thus a number of significant Cluniac churches connected with great 12th-century pilgrimages—St. Martin in Tours, St. Sernin in Toulouse, and Santiago de Compostela in Spain—show great similarity in plan and overall design. This sameness is especially notable in the presence of spacious ambulatories with radiating chapels designed to facilitate the pilgrims' access to the precious relics. The design of the third church of Cluny, dedicated in 1095, is reflected in a number of Burgundian churches. The basilica of San Marco in Venice and other Byzantine structures help to account for the presence of domed vaulting in a group of churches in French Aquitaine. German Romanesque architecture on the other hand remained strongly tied to the heritage of Ottonian art .

The following structures are noted works of Romanesque architecture: France—the abbey churches of St. Madeleine Vézelay (c.1090–1130) and Paray-le-Monial (early 12th cent.); Germany—the Cathedral of Speyer, dedicated in 1060, but largely reconstructed after 1082, and the Church of St. Mary on the Capitol in Cologne (1049); Italy—the cathedral (1063–92) and baptistery (1153) in Pisa, the Church of San Miniato al Monte (c.1070) in Florence, and the Cathedral of Monreale in Sicily (1174). From the last third of the 12th cent. certain features of the churches in N France and in England began to point toward the development of the Gothic (see Norman architecture ). Similarly, architecture in the Ile-de-France, particularly the ambulatory (1140) of the abbey of St. Denis, reveals such an advance in unified design and construction as to be considered the first monument of Gothic architecture.

Romanesque Art

The art of the Romanesque period was characterized by an important revival of monumental forms, notably sculpture and fresco painting, which developed in close association with architectural decoration and exhibited a forceful and often severely structural quality. At the same time an element of realism, which parallels the first flowering of vernacular literature, came to the fore. It was expressed in terms of a direct and naive observation of certain details drawn from daily life and a heightened emphasis on emotion and fantasy. For many aspects of its rich imagery Romanesque art depended on the heritage of antiquity and of earlier medieval art, while the prestige of Byzantine art remained high in Western eyes. The pilgrimages and Crusades contributed to an unprecedented expansion of the formal vocabulary through the development of closer contacts between regional cultures and distant peoples.

Sculpture

The first important monuments of Romanesque sculpture were created in the last decade of the 11th cent. and the first decades of the 12th cent. The primary source of artistic patronage was provided by the monastic institutions, for whom sculptors executed large relief carvings for the decoration of church portals and richly ornate capitals for cloisters. Romanesque sculpture produced an art of extraordinary ornamental complexity, ecstatic in expression, and abounding in seemingly endless combinations of zoomorphic, vegetal, and abstract motifs.

In France themes portrayed on tympanums of such churches as Moissac, Vézelay, and Autun emphasized the awesome majesty of Christ as ruler and judge of the universe. They often depicted terrifying spectacles of hell. English sculpture showed a tendency toward geometric ornamentation. However, with the introduction in England of continental influences in the mid-12th cent. there also appeared gruesome renditions of the Last Judgment, e.g., at Lincoln Cathedral. In contrast with the demonic nature and animated quality of sculpture in France and in England, there was an assertion of more massive and ponderous figures in N Italy, with the narrative reliefs from Genesis designed by Wiligelmo in Modena and by Niccolò in Verona.

Metalwork

Another aspect of the Romanesque revival was the production of metalwork objects, of which many outstanding examples, such as crucifixes, reliquary shrines, and candlesticks, are still preserved in church treasuries. The most productive centers of this art were the regions adjacent to the Rhine and the Meuse rivers, where the art of bronze casting reached a level of technical mastery sufficient to permit the execution of works of considerable dimension. An outstanding example of Mosan bronze casting is the baptismal font of St. Barthelemy in Liège, a large vessel supported by 12 oxen and decorated with scenes in high relief, executed by Rainer of Huy between 1107 and 1118. It was during this same period that Limoges, in central France, became an extremely active center of metalwork production, specializing in enamelwork.

Fresco

Fresco painting has been more adversely affected by the accidents of time, but several large cycles, as well as numerous other fragments of Romanesque wall painting, have survived. The large and relatively unbroken expanses of wall space within Romanesque buildings presented an excellent ground for the work of the painter, and the basic forms of Romanesque fresco painting are typically monumental in scale and bold in coloristic effect. Among the foremost examples of this art still largely extant are the cycles of Saint-Savin in western France and Sant'Angelo in Formis in S Italy.

Manuscript Illumination

Manuscript illumination of the Romanesque period was characterized by a vast enlargement of the traditional fund of pictorial imagery, although in terms of overall execution and calligraphic quality Romanesque illuminated books often show a certain carelessness and lack of refinement. The Psalter, as in the early Middle Ages, continued to be the most widely read volume for religious use, and numerous sumptuously illuminated copies of this work were executed. The Romanesque scriptorium also produced large editions of the Bible, often extending to several volumes. A splendid example of such a work is the Winchester Bible, executed in the course of several generations and decorated with numerous scenes from the Old and the New Testaments. Romanesque manuscripts are enlivened by elaborate and highly inventive initial letters, on which the artists of this period lavished their bent for rich ornamental display.

Bibliography

See H. P. Swarzenski, Monuments of Romanesque Art (2d ed. 1967); G. Künstler, ed., Romanesque Art in Europe (1968); G. Nebolsine, Journey into Romanesque (1969); O. Demus, Romanesque Mural Painting (1970); G. Zarnecki, Romanesque Art (1971).

Romanesque. Architectural style of buildings erected in Romanized Western Europe from C7 to the end of C12 having certain characteristics similar to those in Early Christian, late– Roman, and Byzantine architecture, notably the semicircular–headed arch, the use of the basilican form for churches, and the survival of design elements such as the Classical capital (though much coarsened and transformed).

Opinion, however, is divided about when the Romanesque style began: some accept C7, drawing Carolingian and Anglo–Saxon architecture within the Romanesque umbrella; others hold that true Romanesque began with the Ottonian Empire in Germany and the evolution of architecture at Cluny in Burgundy from 910 and the subsequent rise of the Cluniac branch of the Benedictine Order. The latter view tends to regard Romanesque as arriving in England with the Norman Conquest in 1066, but this therefore denies the qualities of such unquestionably sophisticated structures as the crypt of St Wystan's Church, Repton, Derbys. (c.827–40—with vaulted roof carried on columns with spiral shafts (clearly associated with the tomb of St Peter in the Basilica of San Pietro in Rome) and pilasters (obviously derived from Classical precedents), and the Old and New Minsters, Winchester, Hants. (C7–C11—with evident Carolingian prototypes).

Mature Romanesque architecture, mostly surviving in churches and castles, had thick walls and sturdy piers (often cylindrical); the semicircular arch, as mentioned above; vaults based on semicircles, often simple barrel–vaults, but frequently groin– and rib–vaults; plans that were simple in their geometry, including apses and circular buildings (such as Holy Sepulchre Church, Cambridge (c.1130) ); and clearly defined bays, square or rectangular on plan, making the construction of vaulted ceilings relatively simple. Bays were often delineated outside the building by means of pilaster–like lesenes marking each division between bays, and inside by shafts rising up to the tops of the walls, or associated with the springing of arches. Romanesque architecture was therefore clear and logical, the forms and subdivisions comprehensible with ease, both inside and out: this inherent geometrical simplicity also made it powerful and impressive.

Grander churches had ambulatories at the apsidal east end, with radiating chapels around them (as at Cluny). Barrel– or tunnelvaults were employed in France (e.g. Notre Dame, Clermont–Ferrand, and St–Austremoine, Issoire (C12) ), and in Spain; groin–vaults were common in Germany (e.g. the nave of Speier Cathedral (1082–1106) ); domes in parts of France (e.g. Angoulême (1105–30) and Cahors (1119) Cathedrals and St–Front, Périgeux (1120) ); and rib–vaults in England (e.g. Durham Cathedral (end of C11–c.1130) ) and Italy (e.g. San Michele, Pavia (c.1117) ). In England and Northern France (where Romanesque is called Norman) the western fronts of larger churches usually had two towers with a tower over the crossing (as at Southwell Minster, Notts., and St–Étienne, Caen, Normandy). In Italy the basilican clerestoreyed–nave–and–aisles shape of the west end is often expressed and decorated with ranges of arcades (as at Pisa and Pistoia); in Southern France the west ends often have screen–façades (as at St–Gilles–du–Gard, near Arles, where the Roman triumphal arch is clearly a precedent); and in Germany there may be several towers as well as structures (often octagonal) over the crossings (as at Speier Cathedral (1030–1106) and Maria Laach Abbey (1093–1156) ). In Northern Europe roofs were invariably steeply pitched. In terms of rigid, powerful geometries, German Romanesque was unsurpassed: plans were often composed of a series of square bays in the nave, transepts, and chancels, with square bays a quarter of the main nave–bays in the aisles (e.g. Worms Cathedral (1110–81) and the Church of the Apostles, Cologne (1035–1220) ), the threedimensional compartments of each bay emphasizing the rigidity more than in other parts of Europe.

Architectural detail was fairly limited in range, but distinctive. Capitals were often clearly derived from Roman and Byzantine prototypes, but simplified, as with certain examples where the Corinthian volutes are still visible (e.g. the cloisters of Monreale Cathedral (C12) ). Basic Romanesque capitals include the cushion and scalloped type. Mouldings and ornaments, too, were simple, and straightforward, including the beak–head, billet, cable, chevron, double cone, nebule, and reversed zig–zag.

Romanesque enjoyed a revival in the early C19 connected with a general trend towards Historicism. In Germany the style was mingled with Early Christian and Byzantine elements to produce the Rundbogenstil that was to be widely influential especially in Munich. In England there were some attempts to create a C19 untainted Romanesque, including Cottingham's Church of St Helen, Thorney, Notts. (1846), and some buildings by Donthorn and Thomas Hopper. Serious archaeological revival of the style was rare, however, but was a phenomenon in France (with the work of Abadie and others—e.g. basilica of Sacré–Coeur, Paris (1874–1919) ), and in Ireland, where it enjoyed considerable success as Hiberno–Romanesque continuing well into the 1960s (e.g. St Oliver Plunket, Blackrock, Co.

Louth (1923), by Patrick Byrne).

Bibliography

Conant (1979);
Cruickshank (ed.) (1996);
Curran (2003);
M. Davies (1993);
Fernie (1995);
Kubach (1986);
Pevsner (1960);
Jane Turner (1996);
D. Watkin (1986)

Romanesque. Style of art and architecture prevailing throughout most of Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, the first style to achieve such international currency. The dominant art of the Middle Ages was architecture, and ‘Romanesque’, like ‘Gothic’, is primarily an architectural term that has been extended to the other arts of the period. As the name suggests, it indicates a derivation from Roman art, and sometimes ‘Romanesque’ is used to cover all the developments from Roman architecture in the period from the collapse of the Roman Empire until the flowering of the Gothic—roughly ad 500–1200. More usually, however, it is applied to a distinctive style that emerged, almost simultaneously, in several countries—France, Germany, Italy, Spain—in the 11th century. It is characterized most obviously by a new massiveness of scale, reflecting the greater political and economic stability that followed a period when Christian civilization seemed in danger of extinction.

Painting and sculpture, as well as architecture, flourished during the Romanesque period, although comparatively little large-scale painting has survived (originally the churches of the period would have been alive with colour). Many illuminated manuscripts remain, however, and the art of stained glass was perfected in the period. There are also some fine Romanesque mosaics, particularly in Italy, and the most famous work of pictorial art of the period is the Bayeux Tapestry, which gives a wonderfully vivid account of the Norman invasion of England. Sculpture revived greatly during the period, becoming larger in scale and more ambitious, often conceived as an integral part of a building. Few names of Romanesque artists survive, but Gislebertus carved his signature at Autun Cathedral in France, where he created one of the great sculptural ensembles of the Middle Ages. Although Romanesque painting and sculpture show considerable variety, they are in general strongly stylized, with little of the naturalism and humanistic warmth of classical or later Gothic art. The forms of nature are freely translated into linear and sculptural designs that at times are majestically calm and severe and at others are agitated by a visionary, almost delirious excitement. Because of this expressionistic distortion, Romanesque art, as with other great non-naturalistic styles of the past, has had to wait for the revolution in sensibility brought about by modern art in order to be widely appreciated.

The so-called minor arts (or ‘luxury arts’)—work in gold, silver, ivory, bronze, precious stones, and so on—were as highly (or more highly) regarded during the Romanesque period as painting or sculpture. Often they had additional prestige because they were used in church ritual or as containers for holy relics. Many such objects have perished because they have been plundered for their valuable raw materials, but enough survive to show the superb quality of Romanesque craftsmanship.

Romanesque. Style of art and architecture prevailing throughout most of Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, the first style to achieve such international currency. The dominant art of the Middle Ages was architecture, and ‘Romanesque’, like ‘Gothic’, is primarily an architectural term that has been extended to the other arts of the period. As the name suggests, it indicates a derivation from Roman art, and sometimes ‘Romanesque’ is used to cover all the developments from Roman architecture in the period from the collapse of the Roman empire until the flowering of the Gothic—roughly ad 500–1200. More usually, however, it is applied to a distinctive style that emerged, almost simultaneously, in several countries—France, Germany, Italy, Spain—in the 11th century. It is characterized most obviously by a new massiveness of scale, reflecting the greater political and economic stability that followed a period when Christian civilization seemed in danger of extinction. Romanesque painting and sculpture are generally strongly stylized, with little of the naturalism and humanistic warmth of classical or later Gothic art. The forms of nature are freely translated into linear and sculptural designs that at times are majestically calm and severe and at others are agitated by a visionary excitement. Because of its expressionistic distortion, Romanesque art, as with other great non-naturalistic styles of the past, has had to wait for the revolution in sensibility brought about by modern art in order to be widely appreciated.

Romanesque a style of architecture which prevailed in Europe c.1000–1200, although sometimes dated back to the end of the Roman Empire (5th century). Romanesque architecture is characterized by round arches and massive vaulting, and by heavy piers, columns, and walls with small windows. Although disseminated throughout western Europe, the style reached its fullest development in France and Germany; the equivalent style in England is often called Norman.

Ro·man·esque / ˌrōməˈnesk/ • adj. of or relating to a style of architecture that prevailed in Europe c.900–1200, although sometimes dated back to the end of the Roman Empire (5th century). • n. Romanesque architecture.

Romanesque Architectural and artistic style that spread throughout w Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries. English Romanesque architecture includes Anglo-Saxon and Norman styles. See also arch; vault

Romanesque †(of a language) Romance XVIII; (archit.) pert. to building of Romanized style XIX. — F. romanesque, f. roman ROMANCE; see -ESQUE.

Romanesque, see architecture.

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