OLYMPIC GAMES

The Selection of Stockholm

In 1896 the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, the site of the original games. Subsequent Olympic Games were hosted by Paris in 1900, Saint Louis in 1904, and London in 1908. These Olympic Games were held in conjunction with World's Fairs, events that often overshadowed the athletic contests. Meeting in Berlin in 1909, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) selected Stockholm, Sweden, as the site of the fifth Olympic Games. "Of all the countries in the world," remarked Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic movement and secretary-general of the IOC, "Sweden is at the moment best qualified to host a great Olympic Games." Although Stockholm's award was largely because of a strong campaign by Sweden's longtime IOC representative, Col. Victor Balak, who would become the chairman of the Swedish Olympic Organizing Committee, Germany ensured the selection of the Swedish capital by withdrawing Berlin as a candidate for the host city. In order to hold the Olympic Games in Stockholm, however, the IOC dropped boxing from its schedule of events, because Sweden prohibited the sport.

The Swedish Success

The Games of the fifth Olympiad, according to historian John Lucas, were "the best organized and most pacific international games since the original Athens' celebration." Held from 5 May to 22 July, the Stockholm Olympics were the largest since the revival of the Games in 1896, with 2,490 athletes from twenty-eight nations participating. Sweden, the host nation, finished as the unofficial team champion with sixty-five medals—twenty-four gold, twenty-four silver, and seventeen bronze. The United States finished second to the Swedes, garnering sixty-one medals, of which twenty-three were gold, nineteen silver, and nineteen bronze. Great Britain, the team champion of the 1908 Olympic Games held in London, was third with forty-one medals—ten gold, fifteen silver, and sixteen bronze. Scandinavian athletes, on the whole, performed well in the 1912 games. Swedish athletes, who won medals in nearly all sports, were particularly strong in the triple jump, cross-country, equestrian, modern pentathlon, shooting, diving, Greco-Roman wrestling, and yachting. Finnish runners initiated their pre-World War II dominance in long distance events.

American Triumphs

As in previous Olympic Games, American athletes dominated track and field. Ralph Craig of the University of Michigan won both the 100 meters, leading an American medal sweep, and the 200 meters. Syracuse University's Charles Reidpath won the 400 meters in an Olympic record of 48.2 seconds. James Meredith, a prep-school runner from Pennsylvania, captured the 800 meters in a world record of 1:51.9, narrowly defeating countrymen Melvin Sheppard and Ira Davenport by a hundredth of a second. Louis Tewanima, a Hopi Indian, finished second to Finland's Johannes Kolehmainen in the 10,000 meters. Jim Thorpe, a Native American of Sac and Fox descent, won the decathlon and pentathlon events. Americans swept the medals in the 110-meter high hurdles, pole vault, and shot put. Hawaiian swimmer Duke Kahanamoku won the 100-meter freestyle, his first of five Olympic medals spread over four Olympic Games. Americans performed surprisingly well in shooting, winning four gold medals, three silver, and one bronze. In the three-day equestrian team event, Americans won the bronze medal. American cyclists also won bronze in the individual and team road races.

Furor over Women's Aquatics

The IOC expanded women's sports to include swimming and diving at the 1912 games. Many in the United States and Australia opposed this expansion of women's events on the Olympic schedule. James E. Sullivan, the head of the AAU in the United States, opposed women's sports altogether, and did not permit American female swimmers and divers to compete in Stockholm. Australian feminist Rose Scott opposed female participation in swimming and diving because, as historian Allen Guttmann put it, she "feared that the presence of shapely young women in swimsuits might attract more voyeurs than sports spectators." Scott's protests aside, Australian women went to Stockholm and returned with the gold and silver medals in the 100-meter freestyle. Sarah Durack, the gold medalist, won the event in a world record of 1:22.2. In the 4-by-100-meter freestyle relay the British won in a world record of 5:52.8. Greta Johansson and Lisa Regnell, both of Sweden, dueled in platform diving, with Johansson gaining the gold and Regnell the silver. Despite the pre-Olympic furor over the women's swimming and diving events, Everett C. Brown, an AAU associate of Sullivan, viewed and approved of the new events, noting that any criticism of them must "have been brought about by foul minds."

Berlin Plans for the 1916 Games

In 1909, when the IOC met in Berlin and decided upon Stockholm as the site for the 1912 Olympic Games, it also told the German Olympic Committee to "begin serious planning for the 1916 Olympic celebration." This announcement inspired the Germans to make Berlin the ultimate site for the Olympic Games. Since 1896, when the German Olympic Committee had returned from the first modern Olympic Games in Athens, they had campaigned vigorously to host the event in Berlin. Immediately upon learning that the German capital would most likely be the site for the Games of the sixth Olympiad, the Berliners started construction of a thirty-four-thousand-seat stadium, complete with a four-hundred-meter running track and six-hundred-meter cycling track, as well as a one-hundred-meter swimming pool with a gallery for four thousand spectators. In 1911 the IOC announced officially that Berlin would host the 1916 Olympic Games, but national elation turned into disappointment after German athletes failed to perform well in the 1912 Olympic Games. In response, the Germans visited the United States to study military and collegiate athletic training systems. They hired Alvin C. Kraenzlein, a German American who coached track at the University of Michigan and an Olympic gold medalist from 1900, to prepare German Olympians. Once in Germany, Kraenzlein told The New York Times in 1913 that German "life could only benefit from the healthy enthusiasm and rivalry found in athletic competition and Olympic sports."

The Games Canceled by war

In addition to unfurling the five-ringed flag that has come to symbolize the Olympic Games, the IOC finalized the program for the 1916 Olympic Games at the 1914 IOC convention. After the convention Robert Thompson, the president of the American Olympic Committee, remarked that "the Berlin Games would be the greatest ever held," because of the thoroughness of the Germans' organization and preparation. Less than a month after Thompson made that remark, war broke out in Europe. Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia and France. Coubertin believed that the Germans, as the host nation for the 1916 Olympic Games, would sue for a peaceful end to the war, but Germany soon invaded Belgium, and Great Britain entered the war against the Central Powers, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Anticipating a quick end to the conflict, the German Olympic Committee continued to prepare for the Games, but other national Olympic Committees urged Coubertin to change the venue for the Games. In a letter to The New York Times in j 1915 Coubertin stated his position: "The Sixth Olympic Games remain and will remain credited to Berlin, but it is possible that they will not be held." With European civilization on the brink of destruction during the summer of 1916, Berlin's Olympic Games were canceled.

Sources:

John Findling and Kimberly Pele, eds., The Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Games (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996);

Allen Guttmann, The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1994);

David Wallechinsky, The Complete Book of the Olympics, revised edition (New York: Viking, 1988).

Olympic Games

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Olympic Games are an international sporting event held quadrennially in different venues. The date of inception remains a point of conjecture among historians, but it is generally accepted that the Olympic Games found their genesis in Olympia, Greece, in 776 BCE and survived in attenuated form until 393 BCE. Inspired by the ancient Greek festival, the modern Olympic Games were revived in 1896 by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a French nobleman who envisaged that the Games would foster a religion of patriotism by directing the new power of national identity into constructive and peaceful channels. Initially, only amateur athletes were permitted to compete in the Olympics; professional athletes were not allowed to compete until the 1970s when the amateurism requirements were extracted from the Olympic Charter. The revival of the Olympic Games was held in Athens, Greece. The Games attracted a relatively small competitive field, with about 240 athletes competing in 43 events.

In the early years of the twentieth century, the International Olympic Committee encountered an array of difficulties with the hosting of the Games. The subsequent two celebrations that followed the Athens Games failed to command popular support, partly because they were crossed with, and effectively eclipsed by, the World’s Fair Exhibitions in Paris (1900) and Saint Louis (1904). The 1908 Games, though originally awarded to Rome, were held in London. The majority of the competing countries selected national teams to participate in the London Games, and the athletes were paraded by nation at the opening ceremony. The Olympic Games had institutionalized the “nation” in international athletics. After the 1912 Olympic Games, held in Stockholm, the Olympic movement entered a period of upheaval. De Coubertin may have seen the Olympics as an agent of international peace in a world moving inexorably toward war, but the ideal of the Olympics as an event that could prevent war proved ill-founded. The Games scheduled for Berlin in 1916 were abandoned because of World War I, and two other Olympiads passed without Games in 1940 and 1944 as a result of World War II.

In the aftermath of World War I, the 1920 Games were awarded to Antwerp as a mark of respect for the Belgian people after the anguish that had been inflicted on them during the war. The 1920 opening ceremony was notable for the introduction of the Olympic flag, the release of doves as a symbol of peace, and the presentation of the athletes’ oath. The introduction of the flag, representing the unity of the five continents, and the symbolic release of doves also reflected the idyllic vision of the Olympic movement as standing for international peace and unity.

However, it was also in the interwar period that Olympic sport became symbolic of national struggle, with participants as representatives of their national groups. Throughout the twentieth century, John MacAloon argues, “a nascent athletic nationalism was already undermining the Olympic ideal” (1981, pp. 258–259). A notable instance of this was Adolf Hitler’s use of the 1936 Olympic Games to enhance his control over the German populace and legitimize Nazi culture. The opening ceremony designed for those games was a shrewdly propagandistic and brilliantly conceived charade that reinforced and mobilized the hysterical patriotism of the German masses. The Berlin Games have also become closely associated in the popular imagination with the African American athlete Jesse Owens. Against a background of Nazi efforts to manipulate the Games to demonstrate the racial and athletic superiority of the Aryan race, Owens won four gold medals at the first Olympic Games to be broadcast on a form of television. The Berlin Games demonstrated how the hosting of the Olympic Games could be manipulated to provide a benign and uncritical backdrop for the parade of national identity.

Another political incident involving African American athletes occurred at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. Two African American track-and-field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, bowed their heads and raised a black-gloved power salute on the victory podium during the playing of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” USA Olympics officials asserted that the athletes should not have used the Games as a platform to air their political grievances, and the two athletes were immediately suspended from the U.S. team and banned from the Olympic Village. Politics was also to cast its shadow over the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, when members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the Palestinian terrorist organization Black September. The terrorists killed eleven Israeli athletes and one German police officer in an event that is conventionally referred to as the Munich Massacre.

The 1980 Olympics in Moscow were arguably the most political in the history of the Games and reflected the extremes of nationalism that had emerged as a result of the renewed cold war struggle. In 1980 the United States and sixty-four other Western nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics that year because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The boycott reduced the number of nations participating to only eighty, including only sixteen Western nations—the lowest number of nations to compete since 1956. The Soviet Union and fourteen Eastern bloc countries (Romania was the exception) retaliated by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984.

In the Olympic arena, encircled by flags of various nations, the political symbolism of sport is most evident. Young nations make use of the nationalist symbolism of sport to gain recognition on the world stage; established nations do so to demonstrate their strength and prowess. The media make use of sport to construct a “battle” among nations, giving individuals a public spectacle at which they can cheer on their compatriots. The central role of the Olympics as a forum where new nations can gain acceptance is also clear from the number of nations taking part. In Antwerp in 1920, twenty-nine nations competed; by the Athens Olympics of 2004, that number had risen spectacularly to 201. The importance of the Olympic Games to cultural unity and national identity lies not only within the event as staged but in the sporting occasion as an international spectacle. Beyond the demonstration of physical strength and skill, Olympic sport as collective ritual, highlighting concepts of leadership and heroism, has become part of the language of nationalism.

SEE ALSO Aryans; Black September; Entertainment Industry; Hitler, Adolf; Nationalism and Nationality; Nazism; Racism; Sports; Sports Industry; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Coakley, Jay, and Eric Dunning, eds. 2000. Handbook of Sports Studies. London: Sage.

Cronin, Mike. 1999. Sport and Nationalism in Ireland: Gaelic Games, Soccer, and Irish Identity since 1884. Dublin and Portland, OR: Four Courts Press.

Guttmann, Allen. 1984. The Games Must Go On: Avery Brundage and the Olympic Movement. New York: Columbia University Press.

Guttmann, Allen. 2002. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games, 2nd edition. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Hill, Christopher R. 1996. Olympic Politics. Manchester, U.K., and New York: Manchester University Press.

Holt, Richard. 1993. Sport and the British: A Modern History. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Houlihan, Barrie. 1994. Sport and International Politics. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

MacAloon, John J. 1981. This Great Symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Miller, David. 2003. Athens to Athens: The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 1896–2004. Edinburgh: Mainstream.

David M. Doyle

Olympic games premier athletic meeting of ancient Greece, and, in modern times, series of international sports contests.

The Olympics of Ancient Greece

Although records cannot verify games earlier than 776 BC, the contests in Homer's Iliad indicate a much earlier competitive tradition. Held in honor of Zeus in the city of Olympia for four days every fourth summer, the Olympic games were the oldest and most prestigious of four great ancient Greek athletic festivals, which also included the Pythian games at Delphi, the Isthmian at Corinth, and the Nemean at Argos (the Panathenaea at Athens was also important). The Olympics reached their height in the 5th-4th cent. BC; thereafter they became more and more professionalized until, in the Roman period, they provoked much censure. They were eventually discontinued by Emperor Theodosius I of Rome, who condemned them as a pagan spectacle, at the end of the 4th cent. AD

Among the Greeks, the games were nationalistic in spirit; states were said to have been prouder of Olympic victories than of battles won. Women, foreigners, slaves, and dishonored persons were forbidden to compete. Contestants were required to train faithfully for 10 months before the games, had to remain 30 days under the eyes of officials in Elis, who had charge of the games, and had to take an oath that they had fulfilled the training requirements before participating. At first, the Olympic games were confined to running, but over time new events were added: the long run (720 BC), when the loincloth was abandoned and athletes began competing naked; the pentathlon , which combined running, the long jump, wrestling, and discus and spear throwing (708 BC); boxing (688 BC); chariot racing (680 BC); the pankration (648 BC), involving boxing and wrestling contests for boys (632 BC); and the foot race with armor (580 BC).

Greek women, forbidden not only to participate in but also to watch the Olympic games, held games of their own, called the Heraea. Those were also held every four years but had fewer events than the Olympics. Known to have been conducted as early as the 6th cent. BC, the Heraea games were discontinued about the time the Romans conquered Greece. Winning was of prime importance in both male and female festivals. The winners of the Olympics (and of the Heraea) were crowned with chaplets of wild olive, and in their home city-states male champions were also awarded numerous honors, valuable gifts, and privileges.

The Modern Olympics

The modern revival of the Olympic games is due in a large measure to the efforts of Pierre, baron de Coubertin, of France. They were held, appropriately enough, in Athens in 1896, but that meeting and the ones that followed at Paris (1900) and at St. Louis (1904) were hampered by poor organization and the absence of worldwide representation. The first successful meet was held at London in 1908; since then the games have been held in cities throughout the world (see Sites of the Modern Olympic Games , table). World War I prevented the Olympic meeting of 1916, and World War II the 1940 and 1944 meetings. The number of entrants, competing nations, and events have increased steadily.

To the traditional events of track and field athletics , which include the decathlon and heptathlon, have been added a host of games and sports—archery, badminton, baseball and softball, basketball, boxing, canoeing and kayaking, cycling, diving, equestrian contests, fencing, field hockey, gymnastics, judo and taekwondo, the modern pentathlon, rowing, sailing, shooting, soccer, swimming, table tennis, team (field) handball, tennis, trampoline, the triathlon, volleyball, water polo, weight lifting, and wrestling. Olympic events for women made their first appearance in 1912. A separate series of winter Olympic meets, inaugurated (1924) at Chamonix, France, now includes ice hockey, curling, bobsledding, luge, skeleton, and skiing, snowboarding, and skating events. Since 1994 the winter games have been held in even-numbered years in which the summer games are not contested. Until late in the 20th cent. the modern Olympics were open only to amateurs, but the governing bodies of several sports now permit professionals to compete as well.

As a visible focus of world energies, the Olympics have been prey to many factors that thwarted their ideals of world cooperation and athletic excellence. As in ancient Greece, nationalistic fervor has fostered intense rivalries that at times threatened the survival of the games. Although officially only individuals win Olympic medals, nations routinely assign political significance to the feats of their citizens and teams. Between 1952 and 1988 rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, rooted in mutual political antagonism, resulted in each boycotting games hosted by the other (Moscow, 1980; Los Angeles, 1984). Politics has influenced the Olympic games in other ways, from the propaganda of the Nazis in Berlin (1936) to pressures leading to the exclusion of white-ruled Rhodesia from the Munich games (1972). At Munich, nine Israeli athletes were kidnapped and murdered by Palestinian terrorists. The International Olympic Committee (IOC), which sets and enforces Olympic policy, has struggled with the licensing and commercialization of the games, the need to schedule events to accommodate American television networks (whose broadcasting fees help underwrite the games), and the monitoring of athletes who seek illegal competitive advantages, often through the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The IOC itself has also been the subject of controversy. In 1998 a scandal erupted with revelations that bribery and favoritism had played a role in the awarding of the 2002 Winter Games to Salt Lake City, Utah, and in the selection of some earlier venues. As a result, the IOC instituted a number of reforms including, in 1999, initiating age and term limits for members and barring them from visiting cities bidding to be Olympic sites.

Bibliography

See R. Mandell, The First Modern Olympics (1976); J. Lucas, The Modern Olympic Games (1980); J. J. MacAloon, This Great Symbol (1981); A. Guttmann, The Games Must Go On (1984); J. Swaddling, The Ancient Olympic Games (2000); A. Kitroeff, Wrestling with the Ancients: Modern Greek Identity and the Olympics (2004); S. G. Miller, Ancient Greek Athletics (2004); T. Perrotet, The Naked Olympics (2004); N. Spivey, The Ancient Olympics (2004).

Sites of the Modern Olympic Games

Olympic Games World's major international athletic competition, held in two segments – the Summer Games and the Winter Games – since 1992 it has alternated so that there are two years between segments, but four years before a segment is repeated. In 776 bc, the Games were first celebrated in Olympia, Greece, and were held every four years until ad 393, when they were abolished by the Roman Emperor. The modern, summer Games were initiated by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, and were first held in Athens, Greece, in 1896. Women did not compete until 1912. The Games were cancelled during World War I and World War II. Summer events include archery, track and field events, basketball, boxing, canoeing, cycling, diving, equestrian sports, fencing, hockey, gymnastics, handball, judo, rowing, shooting, soccer, swimming, volleyball, weightlifting and yachting. Winter events include the biathlon, bobsledding, ice hockey, skating, and skiing. Control of the Games is vested in the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which lays down the rules and chooses venues. In 1999, corruption scandals rocked the IOC.

http://www.olympic.org

Olympian in Greek religion and mythology, one of the 12 important gods who succeeded the Titans as rulers of the universe. The divine family of the Olympians was headed by Zeus, who ruled the heavens and earth, and his queen, Hera. Zeus' brothers, Poseidon and Hades (also called Pluto), ruled the sea and underworld respectively. The divine children were Ares, Hermes, Apollo, Hephaestus, Athena, Aphrodite, and Artemis. It was said that Zeus' sister Hestia, who was also an Olympian, resigned her place to Dionysus. The Olympians, whose honors and attributes have come down to us almost entirely through Homer and Hesiod, lived in majestic splendor on Mt. Olympus. Similar to human beings in both physical appearance and character traits, the gods feasted on ambrosia and nectar and took special delight in their mortal loves. About the 6th cent. BC the Olympian gods began to yield in importance to the mystery cults (see mysteries ).

O·lym·pi·an / əˈlimpēən; ōˈlim-/ • adj. 1. associated with Mount Olympus in northeastern Greece, or with the Greek gods whose home was traditionally held to be there. ∎  resembling or appropriate to a god, esp. in superiority and aloofness: the court is capable of an Olympian detachment. 2. relating to the ancient or modern Olympic Games. • n. 1. any of the twelve Greek gods regarded as living on Olympus. ∎  a person of great attainments or exalted position. 2. a competitor in the Olympic Games.

O·lym·pic Games (also the O·lym·pics) a modern sports festival held traditionally every four years in different venues, instigated by the Frenchman Baron de Coubertin (1863–1937) in 1896. Athletes representing many countries compete for gold, silver, and bronze medals in a great variety of sports. Since 1992 the Summer Games and Winter Games alternate every two years. ∎  an ancient Greek festival with athletic, literary, and musical competitions, held at Olympia every four years traditionally from 776 bc until abolished by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in ad 393.

Olympic Games an ancient Greek festival with athletic, literary, and musical competitions held at Olympia every four years, traditionally from 776 bc until abolished by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in ad 393.

In modern times, the phrase designates a sports festival held every four years in different venues, instigated by the Frenchman Baron de Coubertin (1863–1937) in 1896. Athletes representing nearly 150 countries now compete for gold, silver, and bronze medals in more than twenty sports.
Olympic village the place where the competitors in the modern Olympic games are housed for the duration of the event.

O·lym·pi·ad / ōˈlimpēˌad; əˈlim-/ • n. a celebration of the ancient or modern Olympic Games. ∎  a period of four years between Olympic Games, used by the ancient Greeks in dating events. ∎  a major national or international contest in some activity, notably chess or bridge.

Olympiad unit of a chronological era of ancient Greece, a four-year period, each one beginning with the Olympic games . Timaeus (c.356-c.260 BC) of Sicily was the first to use, as a check on chronology, the list of victors kept in the gymnasium at Olympia. The first Olympiad was reckoned to have begun in 776 BC

Olympiad period of four years between celebrations of the Olympic games (ancient Gr. festival). XVI. — F. Olympiade or L. Olympias, -ad- — Gr. Olumpiás, f. Olúmpios, adj. of O'lumpos lofty mountain in Thessaly, Greece, home of the gods in Gr. myth.; see -AD.
So Olympian, Olympic XVI.

Olympiad •multi-layered •beard, weird •greybeard (US graybeard) •bluebeard • Iliad • Olympiad • myriad •period •hamadryad, jeremiad, semi-retired, underwired, undesired, unexpired, uninspired •coward, Howard, underpowered, unpowered •froward •leeward, steward •gourd, Lourdes, self-assured, uncured, uninsured, unobscured, unsecured •scabbard, tabard •halberd • starboard •unremembered • tribade • cupboard •unencumbered, unnumbered •good-natured, ill-natured •Richard • pilchard • pochard • orchard •unstructured • uncultured •standard, sub-standard •unconsidered • unhindered •unordered • Stafford • Bradford •Sandford, Sanford, Stanford •Hartford, Hertford •Bedford, Redford •Telford • Wexford • Chelmsford •Clifford • Pickford • Guildford •Linford • Mitford • Hereford •Longford • Oxford • Watford •Crawford • Salford • Rutherford •haggard, laggard •niggard • unsugared • sluggard •unmeasured • uninjured • tankard •becard • bewhiskered • unconquered •drunkard

Olympian •antipodean, Crimean, Judaean, Korean •Albion •Gambian, Zambian •lesbian •Arabian, Bessarabian, Fabian, gabion, Sabian, Swabian •amphibian, Libyan, Namibian •Sorbian •Danubian, Nubian •Colombian • Serbian • Nietzschean •Chadian, Trinidadian •Andean, Kandyan •guardian •Acadian, Akkadian, Arcadian, Barbadian, Canadian, circadian, Grenadian, Hadean, Orcadian, Palladian, radian, steradian •Archimedean, comedian, epicedian, median, tragedian •ascidian, Derridean, Dravidian, enchiridion, Euclidean, Floridian, Gideon, Lydian, meridian, Numidian, obsidian, Pisidian, quotidian, viridian •Amerindian, Indian •accordion, Edwardian •Cambodian, collodion, custodian, melodeon, nickelodeon, Odeon •Freudian • Bermudian • Burundian •Burgundian •Falstaffian, Halafian •Christadelphian, Delphian, Philadelphian •nymphean • ruffian • Brobdingnagian •Carolingian • Swedenborgian •logion, Muskogean •Jungian •magian, Pelagian •collegian •callipygian, Cantabrigian, Phrygian, Stygian •Merovingian • philologian • Fujian •Czechoslovakian • Pickwickian •Algonquian • Chomskian •Kentuckian •battalion, galleon, medallion, rapscallion, scallion •Anglian, ganglion •Heraklion •Dalian, Malian, Somalian •Chellean, Machiavellian, Orwellian, Sabellian, Trevelyan, triskelion •Wesleyan •alien, Australian, bacchanalian, Castalian, Deucalion, episcopalian, Hegelian, madrigalian, mammalian, Pygmalion, Salian, saturnalian, sesquipedalian, tatterdemalion, Thessalian, Westphalian •anthelion, Aristotelian, Aurelian, carnelian, chameleon, Karelian, Mendelian, Mephistophelian, Pelion, Sahelian •Abbevillian, Azilian, Brazilian, caecilian, Castilian, Chilean, Churchillian, civilian, cotillion, crocodilian, epyllion, Gillian, Lilian, Maximilian, Pamphylian, pavilion, postilion, Quintilian, reptilian, Sicilian, Tamilian, vaudevillian, vermilion, Virgilian •Aeolian, Anatolian, Eolian, Jolyon, Mongolian, napoleon, simoleon •Acheulian, Boolean, cerulean, Friulian, Julian, Julien •bullion •mullion, scullion, Tertullian •Liverpudlian •Bahamian, Bamian, Damian, Mesopotamian, Samian •anthemion, Bohemian •Endymion, prosimian, Simeon, simian •isthmian • antinomian •Permian, vermian •Oceanian •Albanian, Azanian, Iranian, Jordanian, Lithuanian, Mauritanian, Mediterranean, Panamanian, Pennsylvanian, Pomeranian, Romanian, Ruritanian, Sassanian, subterranean, Tasmanian, Transylvanian, Tripolitanian, Turanian, Ukrainian, Vulcanian •Armenian, Athenian, Fenian, Magdalenian, Mycenaean (US Mycenean), Slovenian, Tyrrhenian •Argentinian, Arminian, Augustinian, Carthaginian, Darwinian, dominion, Guinean, Justinian, Ninian, Palestinian, Sardinian, Virginian •epilimnion, hypolimnion •Bosnian •Bornean, Californian, Capricornian •Aberdonian, Amazonian, Apollonian, Babylonian, Baconian, Bostonian, Caledonian, Catalonian, Chalcedonian, Ciceronian, Devonian, draconian, Estonian, Etonian, gorgonian, Ionian, Johnsonian, Laconian, Macedonian, Miltonian, Newtonian, Oregonian, Oxonian, Patagonian, Plutonian, Tennysonian, Tobagonian, Washingtonian •Cameroonian, communion, Mancunian, Neptunian, Réunion, union •Hibernian, Saturnian •Campion, champion, Grampian, rampion, tampion •thespian • Mississippian • Olympian •Crispian •Scorpian, scorpion •cornucopian, dystopian, Ethiopian, Salopian, subtopian, Utopian •Guadeloupian •Carian, carrion, clarion, Marian •Calabrian, Cantabrian •Cambrian • Bactrian •Lancastrian, Zoroastrian •Alexandrian • Maharashtrian •equestrian, pedestrian •agrarian, antiquarian, apiarian, Aquarian, Arian, Aryan, authoritarian, barbarian, Bavarian, Bulgarian, Caesarean (US Cesarean), centenarian, communitarian, contrarian, Darien, disciplinarian, egalitarian, equalitarian, establishmentarian, fruitarian, Gibraltarian, grammarian, Hanoverian, humanitarian, Hungarian, latitudinarian, libertarian, librarian, majoritarian, millenarian, necessarian, necessitarian, nonagenarian, octogenarian, ovarian, Parian, parliamentarian, planarian, predestinarian, prelapsarian, proletarian, quadragenarian, quinquagenarian, quodlibetarian, Rastafarian, riparian, rosarian, Rotarian, sabbatarian, Sagittarian, sanitarian, Sauveterrian, sectarian, seminarian, septuagenarian, sexagenarian, topiarian, totalitarian, Trinitarian, ubiquitarian, Unitarian, utilitarian, valetudinarian, vegetarian, veterinarian, vulgarian •Adrian, Hadrian •Assyrian, Illyrian, Syrian, Tyrian •morion • Austrian •Dorian, Ecuadorean, historian, Hyperborean, Nestorian, oratorian, praetorian (US pretorian), salutatorian, Salvadorean, Singaporean, stentorian, Taurean, valedictorian, Victorian •Ugrian • Zarathustrian •Cumbrian, Northumbrian, Umbrian •Algerian, Cancerian, Chaucerian, Cimmerian, criterion, Hesperian, Hitlerian, Hyperion, Iberian, Liberian, Nigerian, Presbyterian, Shakespearean, Siberian, Spenserian, Sumerian, valerian, Wagnerian, Zairean •Arthurian, Ben-Gurion, centurion, durian, holothurian, Khachaturian, Ligurian, Missourian, Silurian, tellurian •Circassian, Parnassian •halcyon • Capsian • Hessian •Albigensian, Waldensian •Dacian • Keatsian •Cilician, Galician, Lycian, Mysian, Odyssean •Leibnizian • Piscean • Ossian •Gaussian • Joycean • Andalusian •Mercian • Appalachian • Decian •Ordovician, Priscian •Lucian •himation, Montserratian •Atlantean, Dantean, Kantian •bastion, Erastian, Sebastian •Mozartian • Brechtian • Thyestean •Fortean • Faustian • protean •Djiboutian •fustian, Procrustean •Gilbertian, Goethean, nemertean •pantheon •Hogarthian, Parthian •Lethean, Promethean •Pythian • Corinthian • Scythian •Lothian, Midlothian •Latvian • Yugoslavian •avian, Batavian, Flavian, Moldavian, Moravian, Octavian, Scandinavian, Shavian •Bolivian, Maldivian, oblivion, Vivian •Chekhovian, Harrovian, Jovian, Pavlovian •alluvion, antediluvian, diluvian, Peruvian •Servian • Malawian • Zimbabwean •Abkhazian • Dickensian •Caucasian, Malaysian, Rabelaisian •Keynesian •Belizean, Cartesian, Indonesian, Milesian, Salesian, Silesian •Elysian, Frisian, Parisian, Tunisian •Holmesian •Carthusian, Malthusian, Venusian