Olaf Bull

Olaf Bull , 1883-1933, Norwegian lyric poet. The son of a successful writer, Bull began his career as a journalist. His poetic brilliance was revealed by the publication of his collection Digte [poems] (1909). He is noted for a style characterized by flawlessness of form and the use of daring imagery.

Ibsen, Henrik Johan (1828–1906), Norwegian dramatist and poet, the most important theatrical figure of his generation, whose plays completely changed the main current of European dramatic literature. At one time regarded purely as a depicter of small-town provincial life, he is now recognized as a universal genius who infused even his prose works with a profoundly passionate and tragic poetic spirit. His early years were unhappy, his first plays, Catilina (1850) and Fru Inger til Østraat (Lady Inger of Østraat, 1854), unsuccessful. Gildet paa Solhaug (The Feast at Solhaug, 1855) was the first to achieve recognition; Hærmændene paa Helgeland (The Warriors—or Vikings—at Helgeland, 1857), set in the heroic age of the sagas, shows what remarkable progress Ibsen had made during the time he had spent working at the theatre in Bergen, as assistant to Ole Bull. All these early plays were historical. After this Ibsen used the past as a setting for his plays only twice more—in Kongsemnerne (The Pretenders, 1864) and Kejser og Galilæer (Emperor and Galilean) completed in 1873.

In 1862 the theatre in Bergen went bankrupt and Ibsen moved to Christiania (Oslo), where his first play on contemporary life, a satire in verse entitled Kjærlighedens komedie (Love's Comedy), was produced with some success. A year later he received a travelling fellowship which enabled him to visit Italy and Germany, and in 1864 he settled in Rome, where he wrote his great poetic drama Brand. This established his reputation throughout Europe and earned him a state pension. It was followed by his last play in verse, Peer Gynt, written in 1867 and produced in a revised stage version, with incidental music by Grieg, in 1876.

The four plays that followed are realistic portrayals of ageless and universal parochialism set in the small-town life of Ibsen's own day: Samfundets støtter (Pillars of Society, 1877) is a study of public life based on a lie; Et dukkehjem (A Doll's House, 1879) of the insidious destruction of domestic life by another lie; Gengangere (Ghosts, 1881) of the lingering poison in a marriage based on a lie; En folkefiende (An Enemy of the People, 1882) of a man of truth in conflict with the falsity of society. All have the structural economy and simplicity of a skilled writer at the height of his powers, and all, in thought and technique, exercised an immense influence on the contemporary theatre. Ibsen's last plays, in which symbolism plays an increasingly large part and the interest shifts gradually from the individual in society to the individual isolated and alone, include Vildanden (The Wild Duck, 1884), Rosmersholm (1886), Fruen fra havet (The Lady from the Sea, 1888), Hedda Gabler (1890), a subtle study of feminine psychology, Bygmester Solness (The Master Builder, 1892), which is concerned with the dual nature of the man and the artist, Lille Eyolf (Little Eyolf, 1894), a study of marital relations, John Gabriel Borkman (1896), a study of unfulfilled genius in relation to society, and Naar vi døde vaagner (When We Dead Awaken, 1899), Ibsen's last pronouncement on the artist's relation to life and truth.

The first play by Ibsen to be seen in London, in 1880, was Samfundets støtter, translated by William Archer (who quickly established himself as the main translator of Ibsen) as Quicksands; under the better-known title, Pillars of Society, it was staged in 1889. Et dukkehjem, as Breaking a Butterfly, with Tree as Krogstad (renamed Dunkley), was seen in 1884; as Nora, in 1885; and as A Doll's House, with Janet Achurch as Nora, in 1889. Florence Farr and Frank Benson appeared in Rosmersholm in 1891. In the same year came the private production of Gengangere, as Ghosts, which aroused a storm of abuse, and the first performance of The Lady from the Sea. In 1893 came The Master Builder and An Enemy of the People, again with Tree. The Wild Duck in 1894. Little Eyolf in 1896. John Gabriel Borkman in 1897, and The League of Youth in 1900 were followed by a Stage Society production of When We Dead Awaken in 1903. In the same year came Gordon Craig's production of The Vikings at Helgeland with his mother, Ellen Terry, as Hiordis. Lady Inger came in 1906, Peer Gynt and Olaf Liljekrans in 1911, The Burial Mound (as The Hero's Mound) and Brand in 1912, The Pretenders in 1913, St John's Night in 1921. In 1936 Donald Wolfit appeared in Catiline. A production outside London deserving mention is Love's Comedy, produced as early as 1909 at the Gaiety Theatre in Manchester. Most of Ibsen's plays have been revived, often in new translations.

In 1882 the world première of Gengangere was given in Chicago, in Norwegian, a year before its first production in Europe, and in the same year America saw its first translated Ibsen play, Et Dukkehjem as The Child Wife; it was presented in 1883 in Louisville, Ky., as A Doll's House with Modjeska as Nora. Ghosts followed in 1894 and John Gabriel Borkman in 1897. The critical response was generally hostile; but leading ladies of the calibre of Mrs Fiske persisted in playing Ibsen's heroines. Hedda Gabler was first produced in America in 1898, The Master Builder in 1900, Rosmersholm and The Pillars of Society in 1904, and When We Dead Awake(n) in 1905. By the year of Ibsen's death, opinion had changed in his favour; Richard Mansfield presented Peer Gynt in that year, and when Nazimova mounted a season of Ibsen plays in 1906–7 the important literary critics James Huneker and William Dean Howells came to his defence. The first American productions of Brand, Little Eyolf, and The Lady from the Sea came in 1910, and of The Wild Duck in 1918. Eleonora Duse's national tour with Ghosts and The Lady from the Sea in 1923 paved the way for the Actors' Theater and Eva Le Gallienne's Civic Repertory Company, both in New York, to champion Ibsen's plays alongside other European works. Walter Hampden gave An Enemy of the People its American première in 1927 and by 1929 there were six Ibsen productions on Broadway, with Eva Le Gallienne and Blanche Yurka appearing simultaneously as Hedda Gabler. The Vikings had its first American production in 1930. A shift in the taste of American audiences towards new and purely American plays led to 20 years of comparative neglect; but with Arthur Miller's adaptation of An Enemy of the People in 1950 and Lee Strasberg's production of Peer Gynt in 1951 this came to an end, and Ibsen's work has since ranked highly.

Grieg, Edvard (Hagerup) (b Bergen, 1843; d Bergen, 1907). Norweg. composer, conductor, and pianist. (Great-grandfather was Scotsman named Greig.) Early tuition from mother, who was gifted pianist. On advice of violinist Ole Bull, went to study at Leipzig Cons., working so hard that his health was permanently impaired. Settled in Copenhagen, being encouraged (but not taught) by Gade. In 1865–6 visited Rome where he comp. his concert ov. In Autumn which later won Stockholm Acad. of Mus. prize. Married his cousin, the sop. Nina Hagerup, in 1867, she being the inspiration and interpreter of many of his songs. Settling in Christiania (Oslo), became teacher and cond. His comps. earned admiration of Liszt, whom he met in Rome 1870 where Liszt played Grieg's pf. conc. from MS at sight. In 1874 Grieg received life annuity from Norweg. Govt. and was asked by Ibsen to write incidental mus. to Peer Gynt. This had its f.p. in 1876 and made Grieg a nat. figure. He was a great favourite in Eng., where he and his wife gave recitals. He received Hon. D Mus. Cambridge 1894 and Oxford 1906. Befriended Delius and Percy Grainger. Grieg's mus. eschews the larger forms of opera and sym. (he wrote a sym. in 1864 but forbade perfs. after a few had been given, though this edict has been posthumously ignored) but within his chosen scale it is deeply poetic, superbly fashioned, and, in the songs especially, emotionally passionate. His nationalist idiom transcends local boundaries by reason of the strong individuality of his work. Comps. incl.:INCIDENTAL MUSIC: Sigurd Jorsalfar (Bjørnson), Op.22 (1872); Peer Gynt (Ibsen), Op.23 (1874–5, rev. 1885, 1891–2).ORCH.: In Autumn, concert ov., Op.11 (1866); Peer Gynt, suite No.1 from incid. mus., Op.46 (1874–5, rev. 1885, 1891–2), suite No.2, Op.55 (1874–5, rev. 1891 and 1892); 3 pieces from incid. mus. for Sigurd Jorsalfar, Op.56 (1872, rev. 1892); Lyric Suite (orch. of 4 items from Op.54 for pf.) (1904); pf. conc., Op.16 (1868, rev. 1906–7); 2 Elegiac Melodies (Heart's Wounds and Last Spring), Op.34 (version for str. of 2 songs from Op.33); Holberg Suite, str., Op.40 (1884) (also for pf.); 2 Melodies, str., Op.53 (1891); 2 Norwegian Melodies, str., (1869), orch. (1895), Op.63; 4 Symphonic Dances, Op.64 (orch. of work for pf., 4 hands) (1896–7); Sym. (1863–4, withdrawn by composer but perf. Oslo 1980 and recorded).CHORUS AND ORCH.: Before the Cloister Gate, soloists, women's ch., Op.20 (1871); Olaf Trygvason, soloists, ch., Op.50 (1873, rev. 1889).VOICE AND ORCH.: Bergliot, reciter, orch., Op.42 (1871, orch. 1885); The Mountain Thrall, bar., 2 hn., str., Op.32 (1877–8); 6 Songs, v., orch. (incl. ‘Solvejg's Song’ from Peer Gynt) (1870–80, rev. 1891–4).CHAMBER MUSIC: Vn. Sonata, No.1 in F, Op.8 (1865), No.2 in G, Op.13 (1867), No.3 in C minor, Op.45 (1886–7); Str. Qt. in G minor, Op.27 (1877–8); vc. sonata in A minor, Op.36 (1883).PIANO: 4 Pieces, Op.1 (1861); 4 Humoresques, Op.6 (1865); sonata in E minor, Op.7 (1865); Lyric Pieces: Book 1 (8 items), Op.12 (1867), Book 2 (8 items), Op.38 (1883), Book 3 (6 items), Op.43 (1884), Book 4 (7 items), Op.47 (1885–8), Book 5 (6 items), Op.54 (1891) (those orch. as Lyric Suite are No.1, Shepherd's Boy, 2, Norwegian Rustic March, 3, Nocturne, and 5, March of the Dwarfs), Book 6 (7 items), Op.57 (1893), Book 7 (6 items), Op.62 (1895), Book 8 (6 items), Op.65 (1897) (No.6 Wedding Day at Troldhaugen, also for orch.), Book 9 (6 items), Op.68 (1898), Book 10 (6 items), Op.71 (1901); Sketches of Norwegian Life, Op.19 (1870–1); Ballade in G minor, Op.24 (1875–6); 4 Albumblätter, Op.28 (1878); Holberg Suite, Op.40 (1884); 6 Songs transcr. for pf., Op.52 (incl. ‘ Solvejg's Song’ as No.4); 19 Norwegian Folk Tunes, Op.66 (1896); Norwegian Peasant Dances, Op.72 (1902–3); Moods, Op.73 (1903–5).PIANO (4 HANDS): 2 Symphonic Pieces, Op.14 (1863–4); 4 Norwegian Dances, Op.35 (also orch.) (1881); 2 Waltz Caprices, Op.37 (1883); Symphonic Dances, Op.64 (also orch.) (1897).SONGS: Grieg's songs, numbering over 120, were pubd. as follows: 4 Songs, Op.2; 6 Songs, Op.4; 4 Songs, Op.5; 4 Songs and Ballads, Op.9; 4 Songs, Op.10; 4 Songs, Op.15; 8 Songs, Op.18; 4 Songs, Op.21; 3 Songs from Peer Gynt (1. Solvejg's Song, 2. Solvejg's Cradle Song, 3. Peer Gynt's Serenade), Op.23; 5 Songs, Op.25; 4 Songs, Op.26; 12 Songs, Op.33; 5 Songs, Op.39; 4 Songs, From Fjeld and Fjord, Op.44; 6 Songs (Ger. words), Op.48; 6 Songs, Op.49; 5 Songs, Op.58; 6 Songs, Op.59; 5 Songs, Op.60; 7 Children's Songs, Op.61; Haugtussa (The Mountain Maid), cycle of 8 songs, Op.67 (1895); 5 Songs, Op.69; 7 Songs, Op.70. The best-known individual titles with opus numbers are: Hope (or Ambition), Op.26, No.3; 'Neath the Roses, Op.39, No.3; Autumn Song, Op.18, No.3; A Dream, Op.48, No.6; Eros, Op.70, No.2; The First Meeting, Op.21, No.4; From Monte Pincio, Op.39, No.5; The Hut, Op.18, No.4; I love thee, Op.5, No.3 (1864); Spring, Op.33, No.2; The Swan, Op.25, No.1; With a Water Lily, Op.25, No.3
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