Middle Ages

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Middle Ages period in Western European history that followed the disintegration of the West Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th cent. and lasted into the 15th cent., i.e., into the period of the Renaissance. The ideas and institutions of western civilization derive largely from the turbulent events of the Early Middle Ages and the rebirth of culture in the later years. The importance of the Middle Ages has been increasingly recognized as scholarship based on newly published source material, archaeological findings, and studies of demographics and migration patterns presents more accurate and detailed analyses of events and trends.

Beginnings and Cultural Developments

Although the transitions were gradual, and exact dates for the demarcation of the Middle Ages are misleading, convention often places the beginning of the period between the death of the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 395 and the fall of Rome to the Visigoths in 410. The Dark Ages, formerly a designation for the entire period of the Middle Ages, now refers usually to the period c.450-750, also known as the Early Middle Ages. In fact, the term Dark Ages may be more a judgment on the lack of sources for evaluating the period than on the significance of events that transpired.

Medieval Europe was far from unified; it was a large geographical region divided into smaller and culturally diverse political units that were never totally dominated by any one authority. With the collapse of the Roman Empire, Christianity became the standard-bearer of Western civilization. The papacy gradually gained secular authority; monastic communities, generally adhering to the Rule of St. Benedict , had the effect of preserving antique learning; and missionaries, sent to convert the Germans and other tribes, spread Latin civilization.

By the 8th cent. culture centered on Christianity had been established; it incorporated both Latin traditions and German institutions, such as Germanic laws . The far-flung empire created by Charlemagne illustrated this fusion. However, the empire's fragile central authority was shattered by a new wave of invasions, notably those of the Vikings and Magyars .

Feudalism , with the manorial system (see also tenure ) as its agricultural base, became the typical social and political organization of Europe. The new framework gained stability from the 11th cent., as the invaders became Christian and settled and as prosperity was created by agricultural innovations, increasing productivity, and population expansion.

The High Middle Ages

As Europe entered the period known as the High Middle Ages, the church became the universal and unifying institution. While some independence from feudal rule was gained by the rising towns (see commune , in medieval history), their system of guilds perpetuated the Christian and medieval spirit of economic life, which stressed the collective entity, disapproved of unregulated competition, and minimized the profit motive. Strong popes, notably Gregory VII , worked for a reinvigorated Europe guided by a centralized church, a goal virtually realized under Innocent III .

Militant religious zeal was expressed in the Crusades , which also stemmed from the growing strength of Europe. Security and prosperity stimulated intellectual life, newly centered in burgeoning universities (see colleges and universities ), which developed under the auspices of the church. From the Crusades and other sources came contact with Arab culture, which had preserved works of Greek authors whose writings had not survived in Europe. Philosophy, science, and mathematics from the Classical and Hellenistic periods were assimilated into the tenets of the Christian faith and the prevailing philosophy of scholasticism ; Aristotle, long associated with heresy, was adapted by St. Thomas Aquinas to Christian doctrine.

Christian values pervaded scholarship and literature, especially Medieval Latin literature , but Provençal literature also reflected Arab influence, and other flourishing medieval literatures, including German literature , Old Norse literature , and Middle English literature , incorporated the materials of pre-Christian traditions. The complex currents, vitality, and religious fervor of medieval culture are evident in the classics of Dante and Chaucer . Gothic architecture developed most notably in the 12th cent., against a background of the cultural and economic ascendancy of Western Europe.

Transition to the Modern World

The transition from the medieval to the modern world was foreshadowed by economic expansion, political centralization, and secularization. A money economy weakened serfdom, and an inquiring spirit stimulated the age of exploration. Banking, the bourgeois class, and secular ideals flourished in the growing towns and lent support to the expanding monarchies. The church was weakened by internal conflicts as well as by quarrels between church and state . As feudal strength was sapped, notably by the the Hundred Years War and the Wars of the Roses , there emerged in France and England the modern nation state. A forerunner of intellectual modernity was the new humanism of the Renaissance . Finally, the great medieval unity of Christianity was shattered by the religious theories that culminated in the Protestant Reformation .

Bibliography

There is a vast body of scholarship dealing with the Middle Ages. A general bibliography to provide a helpful introduction to aspects of the period should include works by Henry Adams, Marc Bloch, P. Brown, J. B. Bury, N. F. Cantor, G. Duby, F. L. Ganshof, P. J. Geary, H. Grundmann, C. H. Haskins, Johan Huizinga, E. James, F. Lot, S. Painter, Henri Pirenne, E. Power, F. M. Powicke, R. W. Southern, F. M. Stenton, J. R. Strayer, G. Tellenbach, and Lynn Thorndike. See also bibliographies under such related articles as countries, e.g., France, Germany, and peoples, e.g., Anglo-Saxons, Moors.

Middle Ages The period in Europe from c.700 to c.1500. The decline of the Roman empire in the West and the period of barbarian invasions in the 5th and 6th centuries (DARK AGES) was followed by the emergence of separate kingdoms and the development of forms of government. The coronation of CHARLEMAGNE in AD 800 is held to mark the end of anarchy and the revival of civilization and learning. England, under ALFRED, similarly saw the encouragement of learning and the establishment of monastic houses. Territorial expansion by VIKINGS and NORMANS throughout Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries, initially violent and disruptive, led to their assimilation into local populations. Trade and urban life revived.

The High Middle Ages (12th and 13th centuries) saw a growth in the power of the papacy, which led to clashes between the pope and secular rulers over their respective spheres of jurisdiction. The creation of new monastic orders encouraged scholarship and architecture. The obsession with pilgrimage to holy shrines was the impetus behind the CRUSADES, in which thousands of Christian knights went to Palestine to fight the Muslims and convert them to Christianity. Society was organized on a military basis, the FEUDAL SYSTEM, in which land was held in return for military service. But although war dominated this period, it also saw the growth of trade (notably the English wool trade), the foundation of universities, and the flowering of scholarship, notably in philosophy and theology (SCHOLASTICISM). Gothic art and architecture had its finest expression in the cathedrals built from the 12th century for the following 300–400 years.

During the 13th and 14th centuries various factors combined to cause social and economic unrest. The BLACK DEATH, and the HUNDRED YEARS WAR between France and England, resulted in a falling population and the beginnings of anticlericalism. In the 15th and 16th centuries the RENAISSANCE in Italy marked a new spirit of sceptical enquiry and the end of the medieval period.

Middle Ages Period in European history covering roughly 1000 years between the disintegration of the Roman Empire in the Dark Ages of the 5th century and the period of the Renaissance in the 15th century. The Middle Ages are sometimes divided into Early (up to the 10th century), High (10th–14th centuries) and Late Middle Ages. The Middle Ages were, above all, the age of the Christian Church, whose doctrine was widely accepted in Europe, and of the social-political structure known as the feudal system. In the arts, the Middle Ages encompassed the Gothic period (from the 11th century), and in science and learning, the predominance of Islam. See also Crusades; medieval music; scholasticism

Middle Ages, the period from the Roman decadence (5th cent. ad) to the Renaissance (about 1500), to designate the period between the end of classical culture proper and its revival at the Renaissance. The high point of its culture is the 12th and 13th cents. The earliest use of ‘Middle Age’ in this sense yet discovered is in one of Donne's sermons (1621), but the corresponding Latin terms, medium aevum, media aetas, etc., are found in the 16th cent. The term is sometimes restricted to the 11th–15th cents, the earlier part of the period being called the Dark Ages.

Mid·dle Ag·es • pl. n. the period of European history from the fall of the Roman Empire in the West (5th century) to the fall of Constantinople (1453), or, more narrowly, from c.1100 to 1453.