Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

The Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) was a convinced Stoic philosopher, and at his accession there was widespread rejoicing that at last Plato's dream of a philosopher-king had become reality.

Born Marcus Annius Verus on April 26, 121, of a noble family originally Spanish, Marcus Aurelius grew up close to the center of power. When he was a child, the emperor Hadrian noticed him and punned on his name, Verus ("True"), calling him Verissimus ("Truest") for his uprightness. In his final arrangement Hadrian, who had difficulty in choosing a successor, destined Marcus for ultimate rule, for when he adopted Marcus's uncle by marriage, Antoninus (soon to be known as Antoninus Pius), he had Antoninus adopt Marcus Aurelius along with the young Lucius Ceionius Commodus, later called Lucius Verus.

Youth and Accession

Marcus Aurelius had an excellent education, numbering among his tutors M. Cornelius Fronto, the rhetorician; the very wealthy Herodes Atticus, whose Odeon still stands in Athens; Plutarch's grandson Sextus of Chaeronea; and Diognetus, the painter and Stoic philosopher. Under Diognetus's influence young Marcus became a precocious Stoic at the age of 11 and remained a devoted follower of stoicism for the rest of his life.

Antoninus Pius was that rarity among emperors, one who had his acknowledged heir beside him throughout his reign. He had the title Caesar conferred on Marcus in 139, only a year after his own accession, and betrothed him to his own daughter Faustina; Marcus and Faustina were married probably in 140. Through the reign of Antoninus (138-161) Marcus worked most closely with him.

Though Antoninus at his death seems to have designated Marcus as sole heir, Marcus insisted that his adoptive brother Verus also be given full power. Thus for the first time Rome had two exactly equal emperors, colleagues like the consuls of old. That this arrangement, which had sometimes caused trouble even with merely annual magistrates, did not produce friction between lifetime equals was due in large measure to the good nature of Verus and his deference to Marcus's seniority in years and judgment.

Foreign Wars

The reign opened with floods on the Tiber and a variety of other natural disasters, but the overshadowing problem was the Eastern question. Parthia, the only large, organized power that Rome faced, was always a rival for dominance in Armenia, and now, in 162, Parthia attacked, defeated the Romans in Cappadocia, and overran the rich province of Syria. Marcus Aurelius, for reasons which still are not entirely clear, remained at Rome and sent Verus to take charge of the war in the East. Verus was no soldier, but Marcus supplied him with able subordinates, and the war went well though slowly; the Roman counteroffensive did not get under way until 163, but then Armenia was occupied and a vassal king installed.

In 164 three Roman armies, one headed by the able Avidius Cassius, cleared northern Mesopotamia; in 165 southern Mesopotamia and the chief Parthian capitals were taken; finally, in 166, Media was overrun. But in late 165 a terrible plague broke out among the Roman troops, a plague which they were to carry back with them and which would carry off a quarter or more of the population of the empire. Rome recalled its armies with Parthia defeated but not conquered. Nevertheless, Marcus and Verus celebrated a magnificent triumph.

The Parthian War had ended none too soon, for the German War, which was to run with only the briefest of intervals for the rest of the reign, had already begun. Another of those great waves of unrest which occasionally troubled the barbarians beyond the frontier was setting the Germans in motion, and in 167 a group of tribes crossed the Danube, destroyed a Roman army, and actually besieged Aquileia in Italy. The danger was critical, for the plague was raging, particularly in the army camps, and the imperial treasury, always short of money, was worse off than usual.

Marcus raised new legions, even accepting slaves and gladiators, auctioned off furnishings from the imperial palaces to raise funds, and in 168 went with Verus to the front. Verus died in early 169, and Marcus was left to face the war alone. The barbarians were driven back, but still the war dragged on in a mixture of victories and defeats, with Marcus living mainly at the front, sometimes on the Danube, sometimes on the Rhine as the focus of crisis shifted. Gradually the Romans gained the upper hand, and by 175 we are told that Marcus was intending to annex the lands of the tribes nearest the frontier when he was suddenly forced to call off the war because of the revolt of Avidius Cassius in the East.

Revolt of Avidius Cassius

After distinguished service in the Parthian War, Avidius Cassius, himself a Syrian, had been made governor of Syria and, with the deepening of the German crisis, had gradually been raised to the position almost of viceroy for the entire East. In 175 Marcus grew sick, and rumor went round that he was dying or dead; partly for this reason Avidius was hailed emperor and accepted by most of the East, including Egypt—Rome's granary—thus threatening Rome itself with famine. Marcus had to break off the war in Germany with less than total victory and hurry eastward.

Cassius was murdered after only 3 months, and the immediate danger passed; but Marcus could not avoid showing himself in the East and making a fairly extended sojourn there. He exhibited his customary leniency in dealing with Cassius's supporters and returned to Rome in late 176, where he celebrated a splendid triumph with his son Commodus, who was soon given the title Augustus and made an equal sharer of power. Thus through his own act Marcus Aurelius ended his reign as he had begun it, with a partner his equal in power but not in virtue.

In 177 began a serious persecution of the Christians. Much ink has been spilled trying to reconcile Marcus's kindness and high principles with his evident hostility toward the Christians; but the fact remains that he considered the Christians to be dangerous fanatics, subversive alike of society and the state—and on the evidence available to him, how should he not? Then, too, if his persecution was more severe than those that went before, this was partly because the Christians were more numerous and more visible than before.

Renewed German War and Death

The German War erupted again in 177, and Marcus shortly returned to the front. Once again he had the war almost won; but his death, which occurred on March 17, 180, precluded final victory over the Germans. He was given a grand funeral and deified, and memorials of him are yet visible in Rome—the column celebrating his German victories in the Piazza Colonna and his equestrian statue where Michelangelo placed it on the Capitoline.

Marcus Aurelius's reign was marked by near, rather than complete, success and marred both by his fondness for sharing power with unworthy partners and by a willingness to forgive carried at times beyond the point of prudence in one responsible for the well-being of millions; but there can be no question of his personal goodness or of the greatness of his soul.

The Meditations

The reason for which Marcus Aurelius deservedly is most remembered is the collection of his thoughts or reflections, usually entitled the Meditations. Apparently jotted down from time to time as inclination or opportunity offered, the thoughts form no organized system of philosophy; rather, they are the record of a spirit whose principles were elevated above the somewhat grim rectitude of stoicism by a warm love of mankind and a philosophy closely akin to religion.

To Marcus, happiness was to be achieved by living "according to nature," in harmony with the principle which ordered the universe; the serenity of one who so lived could not be really affected by the buffetings of fate. Since the Meditations were composed in bits, they are best read so; they are to be savored rather than downed at a gulp.

Further Reading

There is no good surviving ancient treatment of Marcus Aurelius. His life is included in the collection known as The Scriptores Historiae Augustae (trans., 3 vols., 1921-1932), and his reign in the fragments of books 70-71 in the general history of Cassius Dio. Otherwise there are his own Meditations and the surviving letters he exchanged with his old tutor Fronto. Among modern works are Henry Dwight Sedgwick, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (1921); C. Clayton Dove, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus: His Life and Times (1930); Arthur Spencer Loat Farquharson, Marcus Aurelius: His Life and His World (1951), a posthumous work dealing with Marcus's youth up to his accession; and Anthony Birley's full and interesting Marcus Aurelius (1966). □

Marcus Aurelius. Over-life-size bronze statue (Capitoline Mus., Rome) of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius mounted on horseback, probably made during his reign (ad 161–80). It is the only bronze equestrian statue to survive from antiquity, although another one, the Regisole (Sun King), survived in Pavia until 1797, and two marble equestrian statues were excavated at Herculaneum in the 1740s (they are now in the Archaeological Museum in Naples). The Marcus Aurelius is also one of the few famous antique statues that always remained unburied and visible after the fall of the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages it was commonly thought to represent Constantine, the first Christian emperor, and this perhaps saved it from destruction. The history of the statue can be traced back to about the 10th century, although early references to it are vague. For centuries it stood outside the Lateran Palace in Rome, but in 1538 Pope Paul III ( Alessandro Farnese) had it transferred to the Capitoline Hill, where Michelangelo made it the focal point of the piazza he created there; he also designed a new base for the statue. It remained in the open air until 1981, when—because it was being damaged by atmospheric pollution—it was transferred to the Capitoline Museum. A full-size copy was erected in the piazza in 1997, as part of the celebrations to mark the 2,750th anniversary of the traditional date of the foundation of Rome. The original statue was too fragile for a cast to be taken from it, so the copy was made with the aid of moulds created from computerized photographs. From the 15th century the Marcus Aurelius was one of the most copied and reproduced of ancient works—in statuettes, engravings, and other forms. It influenced the two greatest equestrian monuments of the Renaissance—Donatello's Gattamelata and Verrocchio's Colleoni—and many others subsequently. Such influence has usually been general rather than precise, but it is fairly specific in Sir Richard Westmacott's two equestrian statues of George III (1818–22, Monument Place, Liverpool, and 1824–30, Windsor Great Park, Berkshire). For the Column of Marcus Aurelius, see Trajan's Column.

Marcus Aurelius Over-life-size bronze statue (Capitoline Mus., Rome) of the emperor Marcus Aurelius on horseback, probably made during his reign (ad161–80). It is the only bronze equestrian statue to survive from antiquity (although another one, the Regisole, survived in Pavia until 1797) and one of the few famous antique statues that always remained unburied and visible after the fall of the Roman empire. During the Middle Ages it was commonly thought to represent Constantine, the first Christian emperor, and this perhaps saved it from destruction. The history of the statue can be traced back to about the 10th century, although early references to it are vague. For centuries it stood outside the Lateran Palace in Rome, but in 1538 Pope Paul III (Alessandro Farnese) had it transferred to the Capitoline Hill, where Michelangelo made it the focal point of the piazza he created there; he also designed a new base for the statue. It remained in the open air until 1981, when—because it was being damaged by atmospheric pollution—it was transferred to the Capitoline Museum. A full-size copy was erected in the piazza in 1997, as part of the celebrations to mark the 2,750th anniversary of the traditional date of the foundation of Rome. The original statue was too fragile for a cast to be taken from it, so the copy was made with the aid of moulds created from computerized photographs. From the 15th century the Marcus Aurelius was one of the most copied and reproduced of ancient works—in statuettes, engravings, and other forms. It influenced the two greatest equestrian monuments of the Renaissance—Donatello's Gattamelata and Verrocchio's Colleoni—and many others subsequently. Such influence has usually been generalized rather than precise, but it is fairly specific in Sir Richard Westmacott's two equestrian statues of George III (1818–22, Monument Place, Liverpool, and 1824–30, Windsor Great Park, Berkshire).

Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus) , 121–180, Roman emperor, named originally Marcus Annius Verus. He was a nephew of Faustina, the wife of Antoninus Pius , who adopted him. Marcus married Antoninus' daughter, another Faustina. From youth he was a diligent student and a zealous Stoic. With his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, as colleague, Marcus succeeded Antoninus in 161. Verus allowed him to dominate, and from 169 Marcus was sole emperor. His reign was spent defending the empire against Parthians, Germans, and Britons. He won a victory over the Marcomanni (167–168), which was commemorated by the Antonine column (Piazza Colonna, Rome), erected by his son and successor, Commodus . Devoted to his duty and humanitarian in his conception of it, Marcus Aurelius was concerned with improving living conditions for the poor, particularly minors. He was always lenient with political criminals and tried to decrease the brutality at gladiatorial shows. He did, however, persecute the Christians, whom he regarded as natural enemies of the empire. His Meditations, available in several translations, expresses with great beauty and humanity a philosophy with a Stoic basis. The virtuous character of Marcus Aurelius is revealed in his letters to his tutor Fronto .

Bibliography: See biography by A. R. Birley (1966); study by J. H. Oliver (1970).

Marcus Aurelius (121–80), Roman Emperor from 161. He was a professed Stoic, though influenced by other philosophies. Under him Christians suffered sporadic persecution. Some scholars see dark allusions to them in his Meditations, and one text (11.3) specifically imputes to them a spirit of refractory opposition; it may be a gloss and no clear view of his opinions on Christianity can be extracted from his writing. A number of ‘Apologies’ were addressed to him by Christian writers.

Marcus Aurelius (121–180) Roman Emperor (161–180) and philosopher of the Stoic school, b. Marcus Annius Verus. From 161 to 169, he ruled as co-emperor with his adoptive younger brother, Lucius Aurelius Verus (d.169). The much-admired Meditations, his one surviving work, is a collection of philosophical thoughts and ideas that occurred to him during his campaigns, on the last of which he died.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (ad 121–80), Roman emperor 161–80 and Stoic philosopher, was the author of twelve books of ‘Meditations’. For his philosophy, see Stoicism.

Marcus Aurelius see Marcus Aurelius .

Marcus Aurelius See AURELIUS, MARCUS.