LATIN The classical and cultural language of Western Europe, a member of the INDO-EUROPEAN language family, and the precursor of the ROMANCE LANGUAGES. Particularly since the Renaissance, Latin has also been the scholarly and literary seed-corn for the VERNACULAR European languages. English has proved to be the most receptive among the GERMANIC LANGUAGES to direct as well as indirect Latin influence.

Nature and influence

Latin is a highly inflected language noted for conciseness of expression: for example, the one word amābunt translates the three English words they will love, while its passive form amābuntur translates they will be loved. For centuries, formal education in the British Isles has been closely associated with the teaching and learning of Latin. Especially in England, this training was provided in grammar schools, in which the term grammar was virtually synonymous with Latin. Such institutions in the 16c bear close comparison with 19–20c English-medium schools in such countries as India and Nigeria, and with contemporary grammar-based ways of teaching English in such countries as Japan and Korea. Both the terms and the style of the traditional grammatical study of English derive from Latin, and the formal analysis of English grammar widely taught until recent decades owes much to a Latin grammatical model derived in its turn from a GREEK model.

Latin and English

In the 4c, St Jerome's Vulgate Bible became the model for Christian writing in Latin. This model was further developed by St Augustine of Hippo (4–5c), a teacher of RHETORIC, in works like Civitas Dei (The City of God). His example was followed in England by such scholars as Aldhelm (7c), Bede (7–8c), Alcuin (8–9c), and AELFRIC (10–11c), while the translations from Latin into OLD ENGLISH by King ALFRED of Wessex (9c) laid the foundation of early English prose writing. The fluid interplay of languages in Britain during the Middle Ages is illustrated by three events in the 12c, all associated with the cycle of mythic and legendary material known as the Matter of Britain. First, the Oxford cleric Galfridus Monemutensis (Geoffrey of Monmouth), an Englishman with Welsh and Breton connections, wrote the Latin prose work Historia regum Britanniae (History of the kings of Britain, c.1135). He claimed that he translated this work from a very old book ‘in the British tongue’: that is, in a form of Celtic similar to Welsh. The History begins with the settlement in Britain of a great-grandson of the Trojan hero Aeneas, whose name was Brutus and who purportedly gave his name to the island. It ends with the legendary King Arthur, a Celtic hero adopted by the Anglo-Normans. The History was then translated into FRENCH, and further romanticized, as the Roman de Brut (1155) by Wace, an Anglo-Norman from Jersey in the CHANNEL ISLANDS. This work then served as the source for the Brut, an alliterative poem in the late 12c by the Worcestershire priest Layamon, in what is now called MIDDLE ENGLISH.

Latin continued to be the primary language of scholarship until the end of the 17c. Such scholars as William Camden wrote by preference in Latin, considering that to use English was to write in sand, and for major contributors to the canon of English literature, such as John Milton, Latin was an essential professional tool. In the late 17c, Sir Isaac Newton chosen Latin as the medium for Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (Mathematical principles of natural philosophy), better known as the Principia (1687), and this work was not translated into English until 1729. He chose Latin to ensure that the Principia would be widely read, but later wrote Opticks in English, its date of publication (1704) marking the point at which significant scholarly work began to appear in English first and, in due course, without any translation into Latin. Because of familiarity with the Classics, however, writers continued to evoke in English the images and phrases of ancient Rome, often only slightly adapted, and to allude fluently to topics that, until well into the 20c, their readership could generally grasp without editorial help. In addition, numerous Latin quotations and tags have enjoyed an extended life in English to the present day.

Latin in English

A large part of the lexicon of Latin has entered English in two major waves: mainly religious vocabulary from the time of Old English until the Reformation, and mainly scientific, scholarly, and legal vocabulary (slightly different in English and Scottish law), from the Middle Ages onwards. In the 17c, such makers of English dictionaries as John Bullokar deliberately converted Latin words into English, building on the already strong French component of the vocabulary so as to create a Latinate register of education and refinement. In it, words like fraternity and feline were set lexically and stylistically ‘above’ words like brotherhood and cat. These lexicographers' methods were straightforward: they turned the endings of Latin words into Anglo-French endings, a practice that has continued with minor modifications ever since: thus, alacritas became French-like alacritie (later alacrity), catalogus (Greek in origin) became catalogue (later catalog in AmE), incantatio became incantation, onerosus became onerous, puerilis became puerile, and ruminare (through its past participle ruminatus) became ruminate.

Many Latin-derived words in English occur in ‘families’. For example, from the verb cantare/cantatum (to sing) come such words as cant, canticle, cantor, descant, incantation, accent, incentive, precentor, recant (with enchant, enchantment through French, and cantata, canto through Italian). From monēre/monitum (to warn) come monitor, admonish, admonition, admonitory, premonition. From agere/actum (to do, act) come agent, agency, agile, agility, agitate, act, actor, action, enact, exact, inaction, inactivity. From currere/cursum (to run) come current, currency, cursive, cursor, cursory, concur, incur, excursion, occurrence, precursor, recurrent. From claudere/clausum (to close, with the forms -clud-/-clus-after a prefix) come clause, include, exclude, preclude, seclusive, conclusion. From dominus/domini (master) and dominare/dominatum (to master) come dominion, dominate, domination, dominie, domineering (through French and Dutch), domain (through French). From caput/capitis (head) come capital, capitalism, capitalize, decapitate, decapitation (and through French cattle, chapter, chattel, chief). From avidus/avidi (greedy) come avid, avidity; from rigidus/rigidi (stiff) come rigid, rigidity, from audax/audacis (bold) come audacious, audacity; from ferox/ferocis (fierce) come ferocious, ferocity.

In addition, many words that in Latin actually perform grammatical functions have been turned into nouns in English: caveat (beware) as a synonym for a warning, floruit (he/she flourished) to mark the period when someone was in his or her prime (usually when precise birth and death dates are not known), imprimatur (let it be printed) for someone's approval of a published text, quorum (of whom) the minimum number of people necessary for a committee or similar meeting, tandem (at length) for a bicycle built for two. Similarly, many phrases and sentences of Latin are perpetuated as tags and mottoes: ad astra per aspera to the stars through hardships (the motto of the US state of Kansas), per ardua ad astra through difficulties to the stars (the motto of the Royal Air Force); habeas corpus you may have the body (a technical term in law); ipse dixit he said it himself (as a sometimes caustic comment); non sequitur it does not follow (a name for a certain kind of logical FALLACY). Further phrases have been abbreviated, and are part of the currency of everyday life, including writing: AD (for anno Domini in the year of the Lord, as part of calendar dating), a.m. (for ante meridiem before midday), p.m. (post meridiem after midday), e.g. (exempli gratia for the sake of example), i.e. (id est that is).

Currently, continuing a process of de-Latinization that has gathered momentum since the 18c (mainly because of the spread of LITERACY beyond the schools where Latin was a core subject), there is a tendency to translate such expressions into English (time flies rather than tempus fugit; don't despair, don't give up rather than nil desperandum), and to make Latin words more conventionally English: the plurals cactuses and referendums rather than cacti and referenda. In the train of such changes, and because the influence of Latin is still tenacious, there is often uncertainty and friction regarding usage: for example, in such vexed issues as the use of data and media as singular or plural nouns. See BORROWING, CLASSICAL ENDING, DERIVATION, HISTORY OF ENGLISH, LATINATE, LATINISM, LATIN TAG, NEO-LATIN.

Latin. Although Ireland had not been wholly isolated from the Roman world, Latin came to Ireland with the 5th‐century Christianization. The earliest surviving Latin works written in Ireland are St Patrick's Confession and Letter to Coroticus. Recent research suggests that Patrick's apology, in the former, for his rusty Latin should not be taken at face value, the apparently awkward style concealing a close attention to the number of syllables in each phrase.

Writings in Latin by native Irishmen first appear in the 7th century. The Irish, unlike inhabitants of the former Roman empire, had to learn their Latin from scratch. Hence their writings reveal a particular interest in grammar, while their written Latin, though recognizably medieval in its grammar and syntax, is generally correct, with very little borrowing from Irish, other than in place and personal names. The same fascination with language, and particularly with Greek and Hebrew, led Irishmen in the early medieval period to employ what is sometimes called ‘Hisperic Latin’, distinguished by its exotic vocabulary, mainly Latinized forms of Greek words. Two products of this fascination with language are the Hisperica famina (Western Sayings), and the enigmatic writings of Virgilius Maro (fl. C.650), whose work is thought to parody the pedantry of contemporary grammarians. Saints' lives were mostly, though not always, written in Latin, beginning with Cogitosus's Life of Brigid (written c.680). Columbanus was the first Irish Latinist to write outside Ireland. Although he was probably not the author of the poems traditionally attributed to him, with their echoes of classical Latin verse, his five surviving letters reveal a good knowledge of patristic authors and a fine command of Latin. The Irish played a role in the revival of Latin learning that marked the reign of Charlemagne and his successors. Most influential was the philosopher and translator of Pseudo‐Dionysius, John Scottus Eriugena. Sedulius of Liége produced around 80 lively poems, displaying a knowledge of several classical authors, and other scattered poems by Irishmen survive in Carolingian manuscripts. Dicuil's De mensura orbis terrae (On the Measurement of the Earth) (c.825) describes voyages by Irish monks in the north Atlantic, while Virgil ( Fergal), bishop of Salzburg (d.784), has been credited with the influential Cosmography attributed to Aethicus Ister.

Latin writings by Irishmen tail off by the 11th century. After the partial colonization of the Anglo‐Normans, Latin writings, mostly the work of the settlers, offer isolated examples of particular genres. The intellectual life of the universities is reflected in the writings of Richard Fitzralph, in Maurice O'Fihelly's commentaries on Duns Scotus, and in the brief philosophical treatises of Peter of Ireland, who taught Thomas Aquinas at Naples. However, it is now suspected that William of Drogheda, author of Summa aurea (Golden Compilation), a casebook of ecclesiastical law, may not have been Irish. Richard de Ledrede, bishop of Ossory (1317–c.1361) left a collection of lively hymns as well as an account of his feud with the Kyteler family, while Simon Fitzsimon (Simeon Simionis) gives an account of his journey from Clonmel to the Holy Land. There are also some half‐dozen chronicles in Latin, notably those of John Clyn and the so‐called Annals of Multyfarnham.

Latin remained the language of learning and intellectual debate into the early modern period, being employed for example in the historical writings of Philip O'Sullivan Beare, John Lynch, and Richard Stanihurst. The controversies surrounding the Confederation of Kilkenny provoked a lively pamphlet war in Latin, while the Commentarius Rinuccianus, compiled by Richard O'Ferrall and Robert O'Connell, is an invaluable, if biased, source for the history of the confederation. Luke Wadding's Annales ordinis minorum (History of the Franciscan Order) (1625–54) and Scriptores ordinis minorum (Writers of the Franciscan Order) (1650) are still consulted by scholars. John Colgan's Acta sanctorum Hiberniae (Acts of the Saints of Ireland) (1645) and Trias thaumaturga (1647), Lives of Patrick, Brigid, and Columba, helped initiate modern hagiographical studies. Other important Latin works were the historical and bibliographical writings of Sir James Ware, and Roderick O'Flaherty's Ogygia, with its bizarre mixture of Irish and classical mythology.

During the 17th century Latin gradually gave way to English as the language of scholarship. Archbishop Ussher's vast output of scholarly works contained rather more Latin than English writings. In 1692, on the other hand, William Molyneux made a last‐minute decision to write his Dioptrica nova (New Optics) in English. Latin continued to dominate the curricula of schools, universities, and seminaries well into the 19th century, and was abandoned as the liturgical language of the Roman Catholic church only after the second Vatican Council. References by Edmund Campion, Richard Stanihurst, and several 16th‐ and 17th‐century visitors to Ireland to the use of an ungrammatical spoken Latin among the rural Irish must be viewed with scepticism, but should not be totally discounted.

Bibliography

Bieler, L. , ‘Hibernian Latin’, Studies, 43 (1954)
Lapidge, M., and and Sharpe, R. , A Bibliography of Celtic‐Latin Literature 400–1200 (1985)
Millett, B. , ‘Irish Literature in Latin 1550–1700’, in T. W. Moody et al. (eds.), New History of Ireland, iii (1991)

A. B. Scott

LATIN

LATIN. Latin continued to be taught, studied, and even spoken in the early modern period. Knowledge of Latin was a sign of social prestige. It was the international language used to conduct the day-to-day business of church and state. It was, above all, the language of the educated and governing classes. University courses were taught in Latin, scholars wrote in Latin, and most official correspondence was conducted in Latin.

Latin remained a living language throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period. Medieval Latin, however, differed considerably from the language spoken within the Roman Empire. New words had filtered their way into the language to meet the needs of political, ecclesiastical, and academic institutions, which were almost entirely medieval products. Words had changed meaning over the centuries, some of the grammatical rules had been altered, vernacular words had crept in, and spelling and pronunciation were inconsistent. Efforts were made by humanist scholars to stress the importance of classical Roman authors, particularly Cicero, Virgil, and Horace, as models for their own writings. Medieval Latin was considered by many humanists to be barbarous in comparison with the elegance of classical Latin. Not all scholars agreed, however. Many expressed their concern that an emphasis on the beauty of pagan classical Latin would corrupt the church and its theology.

Lorenzo Valla's (1407–1457) ambitious Elegantiae linguae latinae libri sex (printed 1471; Six books of the elegances of the Latin language) was a widely circulated work that proposed such reforms. Valla, like Desiderius Erasmus (1466?–1536), never advocated a slavish imitation of the classical authors. Other humanists, however, were proponents of Ciceronianism, the view that Cicero, considered by many to be the best Latin author of the classical world, should be the model for contemporary Latin usage. This meant that Ciceronians would only use words and constructions found in Cicero's writings. This movement was especially popular in Rome since Ciceronian language lent the majesty and authority of imperial Rome to the ideology and theology of the Renaissance papacy.

New Latin grammars were written with the hope of replacing the popular medieval grammars, such as the Doctrinale (c. 1199) of Alexander de Villa Dei, but this did not achieve wide success until the second half of the sixteenth century. Likewise, medieval spellings of certain words continued to be used into the sixteenth century despite efforts to restore the classical spelling. Latin pronunciation, too, varied significantly from region to region, as speakers tended to follow the norms of their mother tongue. Therefore, when Englishmen, Germans, and Italians were in the same room, they spoke Latin to each other, but with such different pronunciations that they sometimes could not be understood. The Italian pronunciation was most widely accepted because many people studied Latin in Italy, where they acquired this pronunciation.

By the seventeenth century, however, the attempts by humanists to restore classical Latin became overshadowed by the rise of the vernacular languages and the discoveries of the scientific revolution. Many European vernacular languages, such as French, English, and Italian, were highly developed and had become classical languages in their own right by this time. Each could boast of their own great writers, such as Dante (1265–1321) and Shakespeare (1564–1616). Furthermore, people still had to come up with new words to describe the new discoveries in science and technology that surpassed those of the Romans. Although scholars of the scientific revolution were trained in classical Latin, the number of academic works written in the vernacular began to increase rapidly. For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) published some of his scientific results in Italian, Isaac Newton (1642–1727) in English, and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716) in French. It took a long time before Latin was altogether replaced by the vernacular languages. In the early modern period, the choice of Latin still offered a writer several advantages. First, a work in Latin reached a broader audience since Latin was an international language. Second, Latin offered a more stable and standardized medium, while the vernacular languages were in a state of flux and changing rapidly. As society changed, the need for knowing Latin declined, and by the nineteenth century the vernacular languages had all but taken over.

See also Classicism ; Erasmus, Desiderius ; Humanists and Humanism .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Benner, Margareta, and Emin Tengström. On the Interpretation of Learned Neo-Latin. Göteborg, 1977.

Grafton, Anthony. "The New Science and the Traditions of Humanism." In The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism, edited by Jill Kraye, pp. 203–223. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1996.

Jensen, Kristian. "The Humanist Reform of Latin Teaching." In The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism, edited by Jill Kraye, pp. 63–81. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1996.

The Right Way of Speaking Latin and Greek: A Dialogue. In Collected Works of Erasmus, vol. 26. Edited by Maurice Pope. Toronto, 1985.

Tunberg, Terence. "Neo-Latin Literature and Language." In Encyclopedia of the Renaissance, edited by Paul F. Grendler et al. Vol. 4, pp. 289–294. New York, 1999.

Milton Kooistra

Latin language member of the Italic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. Latin was first encountered in ancient times as the language of Latium, the region of central Italy in which Rome is located (see Italic languages ). Roman conquests later spread Latin throughout Italy and the vast Roman Empire. Numerous documents, such as Latin inscriptions and literary works, furnish much information about the language, as do the comments of ancient scholars and various related dialects and languages. After the ancient Romans began to develop a literature (in the 3d cent. BC), a gap emerged between literary, or classical, Latin and Vulgar Latin, which was the popular (spoken) form of the language. This division had become considerable by the beginning of the Roman Empire. It is especially from Vulgar Latin, carried by the soldiers and colonists of Rome throughout the Roman Empire, that the modern Romance languages are descended.

Classical Latin

Classical Latin, distinguished by its formality and elegance, was greatly influenced in vocabulary, grammar, and style by Greek. By the end of the Roman Republic (1st cent. BC) classical Latin had become a suitable medium for the greatest poetry and prose of the day. Grammatically, classical Latin featured five declensions and six cases in its inflection of the noun; there was no definite article. Noun subclassifications included three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and two numbers (singular and plural). Verb inflection was highly developed, expressing tense, mood, voice, person, and number. Latin is written in the Roman alphabet, which was apparently derived from the Etruscan alphabet. The latter, in turn, was adapted from the Greek alphabet (see Greek language ).

Vulgar Latin

Vulgar Latin differed from classical Latin in its increased use of prepositions, its less frequent employment of inflection, its greater regularity of word order, and, to some extent, in its vocabulary. Classical Latin was more formal and elegant stylistically. With the triumph of Christianity in the 4th cent. AD, Vulgar Latin grew in literary significance, as evidenced by the Vulgate, St. Jerome's translation of the Bible into Vulgar Latin. The new religion stressed equality before God, and its advocates tried to reach as many in the empire as possible through the everyday speech of the common people.

Latin in the Modern World

Latin survives as the official tongue of Vatican City and as the official language of communication of the Roman Catholic Church. Until the 1960s, it was also the language of the Roman Catholic liturgy and is still so used under certain conditions. During the Middle Ages it flourished as the language of the universities, scholars, and writers. It was the language of diplomacy in Europe as late as the 17th cent. and was still widely used in scholarly writing in the 19th cent. Today, although the language has a diminished role in the school curriculum, Latin roots continue to serve as a major source for the derivation of new terms in the sciences and technologies.

Bibliography

See C. D. Buck, Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin (3d ed. 1948); E. Pulgram, The Tongues of Italy: Prehistory and History (1958); A. M. Gessman, The Tongue of the Romans (1970); R. S. Conway, The Making of Latin (1983); L. R. Palmer, The Latin Language (new ed. 1988).

Latin. The language of government and the courts, Latin was also the normal spoken language of many people in the W. provinces of the Roman Empire. It was naturally used as one of the languages of the early Christians, though it was only in the 4th cent. that it superseded Greek. By then Classical Latin had given way to Late Latin and the more popular spoken language had been adopted into literary use. In the late 4th cent. a series of major figures writing in Latin established it as the language of the W. Church: Sts Hilary, Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome, whose Vulgate translation of the Bible quickly spread throughout the W. Church. In the same period Latin translations were made of Greek theological writers, such as Origen. From about this time until the Reformation Latin held a dominant place in the W. For centuries it was not only the language of biblical study, theology, and the liturgy; it was the only language of literacy in much of W. Europe.

With the fragmentation of the W. Empire, spoken Latin increasingly diverged from the written standard as the many Romance dialects of Italian, French, and Spanish emerged. The spread of Christianity beyond the areas of Romance speech, however, meant that Latin was being studied to be written and spoken as the learned language of the Church. Under Charlemagne strenuous efforts were made to establish a common core to the liturgy and an established pronunciation of Latin for the whole Carolingian Empire. From the 8th to the 13th cent. Latin was used for almost all literary activity in the W. Church; in the late 11th and 12th cent. it was also cultivated as a spoken language in Church courts, schools, and universities.

In the 13th cent. increasing literacy in W. Europe gave rise to a literature in the vernacular, and in the 15th and 16th cent. the use of Latin became increasingly academic. With the Reformation it was all but abandoned for liturgical purposes in the Reformed Churches. The restriction of its use to academic and formal purposes is as apparent in RC as Protestant countries. In official documents in the RC Church the Latin text serves as the authority for vernacular translations worldwide. The Second Vatican Council declared that the use of Latin was to be maintained in the liturgy, but allowed for some use of the vernacular, which, in the event, has almost entirely displaced Latin.

Latin the language of ancient Rome and its empire, widely used historically as a language of scholarship and administration.

Latin is a member of the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. After the decline of the Roman Empire it continued to be a medium of communication among educated people throughout the Middle Ages in Europe and elsewhere, and remained the liturgical language of the Roman Catholic Church until the reforms of the second Vatican Council (1962–5); it is still used for scientific names in biology and astronomy. The Romance languages are derived from it.
Latin Church the Christian Church which originated in the Western Roman Empire, giving allegiance to the Pope of Rome, and historically using Latin for the liturgy; the Roman Catholic Church as distinguished from Orthodox and Uniate Churches.
Latin cross a plain cross in which the vertical part below the horizontal is longer than the other three parts.
Latin square an arrangement of letters or symbols that each occur n times, in a square array of n² compartments so that no letter appears twice in the same row or column.

Lat·in / ˈlatn/ • n. 1. the language of ancient Rome and its empire, widely used historically as a language of scholarship and administration. 2. a native or inhabitant of a country whose language developed from Latin, esp. a Latin American. ∎  music of a kind originating in Latin America, characterized by dance rhythms and extensive use of indigenous percussive instruments. • adj. of, relating to, or in the Latin language: Latin poetry. ∎  of or relating to the countries or peoples using languages, esp. Spanish, that developed from Latin. ∎  of, relating to, or characteristic of Latin American music or dance: snapping his fingers to a Latin beat. ∎  of or relating to the Western or Roman Catholic Church (as historically using Latin for its rites): the Latin patriarch of Antioch. ∎ hist. of or relating to ancient Latium or its inhabitants. DERIVATIVES: Lat·in·ism / -ˌizəm/ n. Lat·in·ist / -ist/ n.

Latin Language of ancient Rome, the Roman Empire, and of educated medieval European society. It belongs to the family of Indo-European languages. Its earliest written records are inscriptions and legal formulas of the late 6th century bc. As Rome extended its rule throughout Italy, Latin gained supremacy. The richest phase of Latin literature was the Augustan age (43 bc–ad 14). Spoken Latin was used throughout the Roman Empire. It eventually broke up into numerous dialects, which formed the basis of the Romance languages. Latin remained the language of the Church, science, medicine, law, education, and most written transactions in Europe throughout the Middle Ages. It was still used in some scholarly and diplomatic circles in the 19th century, and the Roman Catholic mass was in Latin until the 1960s.

Latin The language originally of the people of Latium, the Latini, who occupied territory with several towns in Italy in the neighbourhood of Rome. The Romans gradually extended their hold over the whole area and in 340 BCE defeated the Latins at the battle of Mount Vesuvius. The language spoken by these peoples, many of whom moved into the capital, was adopted by the educated, by administrators, and by soldiers, although Greek remained the principal language amongst people generally in the first centuries BCE and CE.

Latin pert. to Latium or the ancient Romans; sb. the Latin language. XIII. —(O)F. latin or L. Latīnus, f. Latium designation of the portion of Italy which included Rome. In OE. the learned form latin occurs occas.; the pop. repr. was lǣden Latin, language, ME. leden speech, utterance.
So Latinist XVI. —medL. Latinista. Latinity XVII. — L.

Latin •assassin • Yeltsin • sasine •Solzhenitsyn • rebbetzin •biomedicine, medicine •ceresin •ricin, Terramycin •tocsin, toxin •Wisconsin • oxytocin • niacin •moccasin • characin • Capuchin •Latin, satin •plantain • captain •marten, martin •cretin •pecten, pectin •Quentin •clandestine, destine, intestine •sit-in • quintain • bulletin • chitin •Austen, Mostyn •fountain, mountain •gluten, highfalutin, Rasputin •Dustin, Justin •biotin • legatine • gelatin • keratin •certain, Curtin •Kirsten • Gethin • lecithin • Bleddyn •Gavin, ravin, ravine, savin, spavin •Alvin, Calvin •Marvin •Bevin, Kevin, levin, Previn, replevin •kelvin, Melvin •riboflavin • covin • Mervyn