Hideki Tojo

Hideki Tojo (1884-1948), a Japanese general and premier during World War II, was hanged as a war criminal. He symbolized, in his rise to leadership of the Japanese government, the emergence of Japanese militarism and its parochial view of the world.

Hideki Tojo was born in Tokyo on Dec. 30, 1884, the eldest son in a family of samurai descent. Tojo entered military school in 1899, following in the footsteps of his father, a professional military man who served as a lieutenant colonel in the Sino-Japanese War and as a major general in the Russo-Japanese War. Tojo likewise saw service, though briefly, in the latter war. In 1915 he graduated with honors from the army war college and was subsequently sent abroad for 3 years (1919-1922) of study in Europe. After his return he served as an instructor in military science at the war college.

Brusque, scrupulous, and hardworking, Tojo came to be known as kamisori (the razor) for the sharp, decisive, impatient qualities that he manifested as he rose rapidly through the military hierarchy. He was assigned first to the War Ministry and subsequently to the general staff and various command posts. Promoted to lieutenant general in 1936, Tojo became chief of staff of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria, where he worked effectively to mobilize Manchuria's economy and strengthen Japan's military readiness in the event that war broke out with the Soviet Union. When full-scale hostilities broke out instead between China and Japan following the Marco Polo Bridge incident, Tojo in his first real taste of combat experience led two brigades in a blitzkrieg that quickly brought the whole of Inner Mongolia under Japanese control. In 1938 he was recalled from field service to become vice-minister of war, a position in which he pressed resolutely for preparations that would allow Japan to wage a two-front war against both China and the Soviet Union.

In mid-1940 Tojo was appointed war minister in the second Fumimaro Konoe government, which proceeded at once to sign the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. Relations with the United States gradually worsened during succeeding months as Japanese troops moved south into Indochina; but Tojo hewed to a hard line. Convinced of the righteousness of the imperial cause and of the implacable hostility of the Americans, the British, the Chinese, and the Dutch, he stoutly opposed the negotiations and concessions that Konoe contemplated. Speaking for the army command, Tojo demanded a decision for war unless the United States backed away from its embargo on all exports to Japan. When Konoe hesitated, Tojo is reported to have told him that "sometimes it is necessary to shut one's eyes and take the plunge." Konoe, however, was reluctant to take the plunge and instead tendered his resignation.

Leadership in War

An imperial mandate was then given to Tojo in October 1941 to become premier and form a new Cabinet. It was thought that only Tojo had full knowledge of recent developments and an ability to control the army. Tojo was given an imperial command to "wipe the slate clean, " review all past decisions, and work for peace. But a reconsideration of Japanese policy failed to reveal alternatives acceptable to the army, and the decision for war was taken. Within hours after the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Tojo broadcast a brief message to his countrymen, warning them that "to annihilate this enemy and to establish a stable new order in East Asia, the nation must necessarily anticipate a long war."

Tojo had great power at the beginning of the war and in the West was often likened to Hitler and Mussolini. Besides serving as premier, he was a general in the army, war minister, and, for a short time, home minister. Later in the war he also served as chief of the general staff. In 1942 a tightly restricted national election resulted in a pro-Tojo Diet. Nonetheless, while wielding great power, Tojo was still not a dictator like Hitler or Mussolini. The senior statesmen, the army and navy general staffs, and, of course, ultimately the Emperor still exercised considerable power independent of Tojo.

Defeat and Dishonor

By early 1944 even though the tide of battle had turned decisively against Japan, and Tojo admitted to the Diet that the nation faced "the most critical situation in the history of the Empire, " he stood firmly opposed to increasing sentiment in favor of negotiation. The fall of Saipan in July 1944, however, put American bombers within range of the home-land, and the senior statesmen together with ministers in Tojo's Cabinet forced him into retirement.

With the end of the war Tojo awaited at his Tokyo residence his arrest by the occupation forces. On Sept. 11, 1945, when Gen. MacArthur ordered his arrest, Tojo attempted to shoot himself. After his recovery he was held in Sugamo prison until his trial as a suspected war criminal by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East began in May 1946. After proceedings which stretched out over 2 years, during which Tojo willingly accepted his responsibility for much of Japan's wartime policy while declaring it legitimate self-defense, he was found guilty of having "major responsibility for Japan's criminal attacks on her neighbors" and was sentenced to death by hanging. The sentence was carried out on Dec. 23, 1948.

Further Reading

The definitive work on Tojo is Robert J. C. Butow, Tojo and the Coming of the War (1961). A compilation of the 1941 policy conference records, in which Tojo played a leading role, may be found in Nobutaka Ike, ed., Japan's Decision for War (1967). For a revisionist interpretation of the role of the military in foreign-policy decisions see James B. Crowley, Japan's Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy, 1930-1938 (1966). □

Tojo, Hideki (1884–1948) a Japanese soldier and prime minister. After graduating from the Imperial Military Academy and the Military Staff College, Tojo was briefly a military attaché at the Japanese embassy in Berlin after World War I, but, noted as a talented administrative and skilled field commander, he became commander of the 1st Infantry Regiment of the Japanese Army. Having served as chief of staff of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria during Japan's occupation, he returned to Japan to take up his duties as vice-minister of war in 1938 and actively supported Japan's Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy (1940). Premier Prince Konoe Fumimaro appointed him to his cabinet as minister of war, and Tojo became prime minister in 1941. An efficient bureaucrat and committed militarist, Tojo led Japan's war effort after its attack on the U.S. military installation at Pearl Harbor (1941), and, after initial victories in the Pacific arena, Japan's fortunes turned. and he became chief of the General Staff. He was removed from that position after the U.S. invasion of the Marianas Islands in mid-July 1944, and his entire cabinet resigned only two days later. Having failed in a suicide attempt after Japan's surrender in September 1945, Tojo recovered and was then indicted and tried for war crimes in April 1946 by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. He was found guilty as charged and hanged.

Tojo, Hideki (1884–1948), Japanese general of the army and prime minister.Tojo, a graduate of the Japanese Military Staff College, was promoted to lieutenant general in 1936. By that time, he had become both pro‐German and an ardent advocate of Japanese military expansionism in China. In 1937, Tojo became chief of staff of the Kwantung Army in China, and in October 1941, he forced out and succeeded Prince Fumimaro Konoye as Japanese prime minister. Tojo took his country into World War II with the United States with the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and he remained prime minister until July 1944, after the fall of Saipan. In 1945, he attempted suicide, but was brought before the International Military Tribunal, Far East, for war crimes and hanged in 1948.

Historians depict Tojo as a militant and expansionist nationalist who underestimated the United States's determination and industrial capacity to fight total war to defeat Japan. In a narrow sense, Tojo was a competent administrator (nicknamed “Razor Tojo”), but he was neither an imaginative strategist nor a skillful political leader. He accelerated Japan's atomic research, worshipped the emperor, and to the end clung to his belief in the innate spiritual strength and victory of the Japanese.

Bibliography

Robert J. C. Butow , Tojo and the Coming of the War, 1961.

Saki Dockrill

Hideki Tojo , 1884–1948, Japanese general and statesman. He became prime minister after he forced Konoye's resignation in Oct., 1941. His accession marked the final triumph of the military faction which advocated war with the United States and Great Britain. As the most powerful leader in the government during World War II, he approved the attack on Pearl Harbor and pushed the Japanese offensive in China, SE Asia, and the Pacific. His military coordination with Nazi Germany was weakened by mutual mistrust and divergent Russian policies. At home, the Japanese government asserted totalitarian control. Tojo resigned in July, 1944, after the loss of Saipan in the Marianas. In Apr., 1945, he recommended that the war be fought to a finish. He attempted suicide in Sept., 1945, but he was arrested by the Allies as a war criminal, tried, convicted, and executed.

Bibliography: See R. J. C. Butow, Tojo and the Coming of the War (1961).

Tojo, Hideki (1885–1948) Japanese statesman and general, prime minister (1941–44). He was chief of staff (1937–40) in Manchuria, and minister of war (1940–41). As prime minister, Tojo approved the attack on Pearl Harbor and was responsible for all aspects of the war effort. In July 1944, he resigned after Japan lost Saipan. In 1945, Tojo was arrested by the Allies, tried for war crimes, found guilty, and hanged.