GI BILL

The GI Bill created a comprehensive package of benefits, including financial assistance for higher education, for veterans of U.S. military service. The benefits of the GI Bill are intended to help veterans readjust to civilian life following service to their country and to encourage bright, motivated men and women to volunteer for military duty. This legislation came in two parts: the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 and the Montgomery GI Bill.

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944

The first GI Bill was proposed and drafted by the american legion, led by former Illinois governor John Stelle, during world war ii. The public remembered a post-World War I recession, when millions of veterans returned to face unemployment and homelessness. Twice as many veterans would return from World War II, and widespread economic hardship was a real concern. A healthy postwar economy, it seemed, would depend on providing soldiers with a means to support themselves once they were back home.

Newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst became the bill's most ardent and vocal supporter. Hearst and his nationwide string of newspapers lobbied the public and members of Congress to support those who served their country, and his effort was a success. The bill unanimously passed both chambers of Congress in the spring of 1944. President franklin d. roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 22, 1944, just days after the D-Day invasion of Normandy (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, ch. 268, 58 Stat. 284).

The original GI Bill offered veterans up to $500 a year for college tuition and other educational costs—ample funding at the time. An unmarried veteran also received a $50-a-month allowance for each month spent in uniform; a married veteran received slightly more. Other benefits included mortgage subsidies, enabling veterans to purchase homes with relative ease.

Despite initial misgivings over its success, the GI Bill proved to be enormously effective. Prior to its passage, detractors feared that paying the education expenses of veterans would lead to overcrowding at colleges, which before World War II were accessible predominantly to members of society's upper class. Critics were concerned that veterans would wreak havoc on

educational standards and overburden campuses with their lack of preparation for the rigors of higher learning.

College campuses did become grossly over-crowded in the postwar years: approximately 7.8 million World War II veterans received benefits under the original GI Bill, and 2.2 million of those used the program for higher education. By 1947 half of all college students were veterans. Prefabricated buildings and Quonset huts were used as classrooms, and military barracks were often converted into dormitories. However, having spent a large part of their youth engaged in battle, World War II veterans were highly motivated. GIs in their late twenties and early thirties returned to the United States in droves, anxious to catch up with their nonmilitary peers, marry, settle down, and support a family. The benefits provided by the GI Bill facilitated these goals.

Veterans were not the only beneficiaries of the GI Bill. Colleges, with increased enrollments, received years of financial security following its enactment. Veterans demanded more practical college course work, and this need led to a changed concept of higher education, with more emphasis on degree programs like business and engineering. The lines of race, class, and religion blurred as higher education became attainable for all veterans. No longer was a college degree—and the higher paying jobs that normally follow it—limited to members of the upper class. Federal income increased as the average income of taxpayers in the United States increased, and as the veterans graduated from colleges, women and members of minorities enrolled to fill the gaps they left. The GI Bill's mortgage subsidies led to an escalated demand for housing and the development of suburbs. One-fifth of all single-family homes built in the 20 years following World War II were financed with help from the GI Bill's loan guarantee program, symbolizing the emergence of a new middle class.

Montgomery GI Bill

Following the United States involvement in the vietnam war and the end of the military draft in 1973, the number of qualified young adults willing to voluntarily serve in the military declined. In 1984 Representative G. V. ("Sonny") Montgomery (D-MS), chairman of the House Veterans Affairs Committee, proposed a new GI Bill to encourage military service, even in times of peace. That year President ronald reagan signed into law the Montgomery GI Bill (38 U.S.C.A. § 1401), which as of the early 2000s continues to provide optional benefits for qualified U.S. veterans.

The Montgomery GI Bill is a voluntary plan that requires a contribution from the soldier who chooses to take part. Upon entry into the armed services, including the national guard and military reserves, participants may elect to have their military pay reduced by $100 each month of the first 12 months of service. This sacrifice makes them eligible to receive up to $400 a month for 36 months toward tuition and other educational expenses. To receive these benefits, soldiers must receive an honorable discharge, earn a high school diploma or its equivalent, and serve in active duty for the length of their enlistment. The federal government supplies funding but does not set standards or administer the plan; the veterans administration determines whether a veteran is eligible, and the colleges and universities (including religious and vocational schools) make admissions policies and keep track of expenditures.

Effects of the GI Bill

The GI Bill, in both its versions, is widely regarded as a success. Military recruiters routinely promote its benefits as a way to attract and enlist the best and brightest young adults: in 1996, 95 percent of new armed services recruits were high school graduates and 94.8 percent of eligible recruits chose to enroll in the education program. (Three-fourths of all women and men who have enlisted since the program began have enrolled.)

In 2000, President bill clinton signed an amendment to the Montgomery GI Bill that allows for a "Top-Up" benefit. This benefit, which equals the difference between the total cost of a particular course and the amount of tuition assistance paid by the military, effectively allows enrollees to receive 100 percent tuition assistance. In 2001, President george w. bush signed two additional bills. The Veterans' Opportunities Act of 2001 (Pub. L. 107-14) became law on June 5, 2001 and the 21st Century GI Enhancement Act (Pub. L. 107-103) became law on December 27, 2001. Both bills amended Title 38 to provide greater benefits to service men and women.

Beneficiaries of the GI Bill include Presidents george h. w. bush and gerald r. ford; Vice President albert gore jr.; Chief Justice william h. rehnquist and Justice john paul stevens, both of the U.S. Supreme Court; Secretary of State Warren M. Christopher; journalists David Brinkley and John Chancellor; actors Clint Eastwood, Paul Newman, and Jason Robards Jr.; and former Dallas Cowboys football coach Tom Landry.

further readings

Asch, Beth J., et al. 2000. An Assessment of Recent Proposals to Improve the Montgomery GI Bill. Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand.

Bennett, Michael J. 1996. When Dreams Come True: The GI Bill and the Making of Modern America. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's Inc.

Evans, Philip G., II. 1989. "The New GI Bill: The Trojan Horse of the 1900s?" Army Law 17 (October).

Hyman, Harold M. 1986. American Singularity: The 1787 Ordinance, the 1862 Homestead and Morrill Acts, and the 1944 GI Bill. Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press.

Veterans Administration, GI Bill. Available online at <www.gibill.va.gov> (accessed October 14, 2003).

cross-references

Armed Services; Veterans Affairs Department.

GI BILL OF RIGHTS

Reason for Development

The GI Bill of Rights was established for two main reasons. First, it was considered appropriate to compensate veterans of World War II for their services and sacrifices. Second, it was absolutely necessary to reintegrate military personnel into the civilian economy. Even before servicemen had been sent to Europe and the Pacific during the war, it became obvious that some plan would have to be developed to absorb the sixteen million veterans after the war was over. Thus, the seventy-eighth U.S. Congress enacted the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, or the GI Bill of Rights, which President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed into law in June.

Options

Originally Congress desired simply to reward each veteran with a bonus payment, but a more ambitious plan emerged from debate: the establishment of a program to help veterans help themselves. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act provided for tuition, fees, books, and a monthly subsistence payment while veterans were in school; it also provided the vets with the opportunity to set up their own businesses, buy their own homes, and receive financial aid. The GI Bill was much more far-reaching than any other plan for veterans' benefits previously drafted by Congress. It benefited able-bodied veterans, and it used nonmilitary institutions throughout the country without federal intervention in admission or educational policies.

Provisions

The provisions of the bill were staggering: any veteran who had served at least ninety days after 16 September 1940 and had received anything other than a dishonorable discharge could take advantage of this benefit. Veterans were entitled to one full year of training plus a period equal to their time in the service, up to a maximum entitlement of forty-eight months. During this period the act was carried out by the Veterans Administration, which paid tuition, laboratory and library fees, and other school costs up to a maximum of $500 a year for the duration of a veteran's entitlement. Additionally, the bill provided a monthly stipend of $50 for single veterans and $75 for a veteran with dependents. In December 1945 Public Law 268 was passed to increase the allowances. Veterans without dependents who were receiving full-time training could receive $65; those with dependents could get $90 per month. These limits were raised again two years later.

Application

Millions of veterans participated, slightly more than half of those eligible, and the average length of time during which a veteran received support was nineteen months. Up to the entitlement cutoff date of 25 July 1947, the total cost of the program came to $14.5 billion. Historians have praised the GI Bill as one of the most enlightened pieces of legislation ever enacted by the U.S. Congress.

Difficulties

There were occasional abuses of the program. For instance, while 1947 was a record-setting year in terms of enrollment at American colleges and universities, tuition prices also reached record highs. The United States Office of Education reported that tuition had increased 27 percent in private schools, 29 percent in public schools, and 46 percent in law schools since 1939 and warned that once the government stopped doling out millions of dollars under the GI Bill, colleges and universities would have to slash their prices or admit only the affluent. Still, the greatest difficulty administering the GI Bill resulted from the sheer number of students it attracted. American colleges, universities, and vocational training institutions were in many instances unable to handle the enormous influx of new students. They did not have enough professors, nor did they have the variety of educational and training courses that were suddenly demanded. New programs were begun, including night classes and year round programs. The increased demand for higher education also spurred the growth of junior colleges and community colleges.

Junior Colleges

The first junior college was opened in Joliet, Illinois, in 1902. Subsequently, the idea spread, first to California, then to other states that saw the benefit of postsecondary schooling providing vocation-based training usually lasting two years. In 1940 there were 456 junior colleges in the United States among the 1,708 institutions of higher learning, and by the end of the decade another 52 junior colleges were established. They served some 217,000 students by 1950, about 10 percent as many students as were at four-year colleges and universities. Education at a junior college was less expensive than at a college or university, so they drew a wider variety of students than more expensive institutions.

Community Colleges

As they grew, the junior colleges began to add to their previous functions; while they continued to provide courses capable of being transferred for university credit, they also increased opportunities for training or retraining adults in the many technical jobs needed after the war—a purpose most have retained. Those schools that are publicly funded and have evolved into ends in themselves rather than stepping-stones to universities have tended since the late 1940s to be called community colleges.

Special High Schools

Many battle veterans of Europe and the Pacific were just a few credits short of a high-school diploma. So that they would not have to attend high school with teenagers, the Detroit School Board, with money allocated by the GI Bill, set up special classes at schools where vets could choose what courses they needed and move through them as quickly as possible. These servicemen were given condensed texts and teachers trained specifically for this purpose.

Investigation of Problems

Even with the rapid growth of institutions of higher education, however, difficulties with the GI Bill eventually became so numerous that on 28 August 1950 the Select Committee to Investigate the Educational and Training Program under the GI Bill was established. The Korean conflict and the need for more military personnel made this committee's task vital. The select committee was directed in January 1951 "to conduct a full and complete investigation, evaluation, and study of the alleged abuses in the education and training and loan guaranty programs of World War II veterans, and of action taken, or the lack of action taken…to prevent abuses.…"

Benefits of the Bill

Despite all of the problems, the GI Bill was still an important way for the government to compensate military personnel for their services. When veterans were able to further their educations, they became more marketable and received better-paying jobs, which resulted in more taxes to finance the government. The GI Bill created a massive socio-economic shift upward for the American working class.

FOREIGN LANGUAGES

During World War II thousands of GIs learned to speak even difficult languages, such as Thai, quickly by listening to records. While many American language teachers laughed at the armys methods, they seem to have been effective. Therefore, in 1947, 225 colleges and 300 high schools began using the army's records in their language courses. Cornell University had students listen to the records to the point of near-exhaustion and found that students could learn twice as quickly in this manner as compared to the old method. The records dealt only with commonplace needs, such as ordering meals, seeing sights, and locating restrooms.

Sources:

S. E. Frost, Jr., and Kenneth P. Bailey, Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Western Education (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1973);

John D. Pulliam, History of Education in America (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1982).

GI BILL

The GI Bill has been called the single most significant legislation passed by Congress in the twentieth century. It created benefits for veterans of U.S. military service, including financial assistance for higher education. The GI Bill is composed of two pieces of legislation, the Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944 and the Montgomery GI Bill. It is intended to help veterans leaving military service readjust to civilian life and to encourage qualified individuals to volunteer for military duty.

When World War I (1914–1918) ended, millions of veterans returned from fighting overseas and were faced with unemployment and homelessness. The country went into an economic recession. Twice as many veterans returned from World War II (1939–1945), creating a concern that the economy would be even harder hit by economic difficulties. In order to keep the economy strong and to help returning veterans, the American Legion, led by former Illinois governor John Stelle, proposed and drafted the Serviceman's Readjustment Act. The bill unanimously passed both houses of Congress in 1944.

This was the original GI Bill. Among its benefits, veterans were eligible for up to $500 in educational costs, a monthly allowance, and mortgage subsidies. Despite initial concerns that college campuses would become overcrowded, the bill was a success. Not only did it positively affect education, but it also changed the face of society as well.

Colleges benefited from the high increase in student enrollments, which assured them financial security for years to come. Over 2.2 million of the 7.8 million World War II veterans receiving benefits used the program for higher education. All eligible veterans could now go to college. As a result, education became more equal, less divided by restrictions of class, race, or religion. The increase in education and skill led to an increase in average taxpayer income, which in turn increased federal income.

The mortgage subsidies provided through the Serviceman's Readjustment Act increased demand for housing and led to development of the suburbs. One fifth of all single-family homes built in the twenty years after World War II were financed with the assistance of the GI Bill's loan guarantee program. All of these factors led to the creation of a new middle class in the United States.

After the Vietnam War (1964–1975) and the end of the draft in 1973, the number of qualified adults willing to serve in the military declined. Representative G.V. "Sonny" Montgomery, chairman of the House Veterans' Affairs Committee, proposed a new GI Bill in 1984 to encourage military service, even in times of peace. That same year, President Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) signed the Montgomery GI Bill into law.

The Montgomery GI Bill is a voluntary plan. Upon entry into military service, a participant may elect to have $100 deducted from pay each month for the first twelve months of service. In return, the participant is eligible to receive up to $400 per month, for a period of thirty-six months, toward educational expenses. The federal government does not set standards or administer the plan. The Veterans' Administration determines candidate eligibility and schools handle admission and track expenditures.

See also: Recession, Suburbs, World War II

GI BILL OF RIGHTS

GI BILL OF RIGHTS. The initials "GI" originally stood for anything of "government issue." Eventually, they came to designate an enlisted soldier in the U. S. armed forces. In 1944 Congress passed the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, the so-called GI Bill of Rights, which provided government aid for veterans' hospitals and vocational rehabilitation; for the purchase by veterans of houses, farms, and businesses; and for four years of college education for veterans. Later, the act extended to veterans of the Korean War. The Readjustment Benefits Act of 1966 gave similar rights to all veterans of service in the U. S. armed forces, whether during wartime or peacetime. Subsequent acts provided for additional benefits. With the abolition of the draft in 1973, benefits were tied to length of service.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hyman, Harold M. American Singularity: The 1787 Northwest Ordinance, the 1862 Homestead and Morrill Acts, and the 1944 GI Bill. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986.

ChristopherLasch/a. e.

See alsoBonuses, Military ; Pensions, Military and Naval ; Veterans Affairs, Department of .