Denis Sassou-Nguesso 1943?-, Congolese army officer and president (1979-92, 1997-) of Congo (Brazzaville). He served (1977-79) as the minister of national defense. As president he won approval for a new Marxist constitution and signed (1981) a friendship treaty with the USSR, while maintaining the Congo's strong economic ties with France. The increasing economic impoverishment of the Congo, however, led to a national political conference (1991) that stripped him of many powers. In 1992 he ran for reelection in a democratic contest and came in third. Prolonged fighting and unrest following disputed parliamentary elections in 1993 ultimately led to a victory by Sassou-Nguesso's forces in 1997, and he again became president.

Congo A country in western central Africa, it came under French control through the explorer Savorgnan de Brazza (b. 1852, d. 1905) in 1880. It acquired its present borders in 1887, when it became known as the Congo Français (French Congo). It became part of French Equatorial Africa in 1910, administered from its own capital, Brazzaville. In 1946 it received greater autonomy and its first political rights. In 1956 all adults were enfranchised. They voted overwhelmingly to join the French Community as an autonomous republic in 1958, and on 20 September 1960 it became fully independent. It subsequently experienced great difficulty in maintaining political stability, as evidenced by the occurrence of frequent coups or coup attempts. A coup in 1963 brought Massamba-Débat to power. He was deposed and replaced by Marien Ngouabi in 1968. Massamba-Débat then instigated the murder of Ngouabi in 1977, and was himself killed soon afterwards.

Between 1963 and 1979, five new constitutions were passed. Underlying this political instability was the existence of an unusually well-educated, articulate population for whom the weak economy had little employment, and which in its frustration could be easily mobilized against the current regime. Until 1990 the leadership paid lip-service to Communism and Marxism, though its socialism was largely confined to the national ownership of many companies, which bound the support of key sections of the population working in these industries to the regime. Under its leader Denis Sassou Nguesso (b. 1943), who came to power after a coup in 1979, economic policies became more pragmatic, as Western aid and technology was increasingly preferred to that from the USSR or China. Inefficient policies led to a virtual collapse of the economy in the late 1980s, however, and necessitated a drastic economic restructuring. In four years, 1985–9, state expenditure was reduced by two-thirds. The 1993 elections were won by Pascal Lissouba (b. 1931), though they were never recognized by Sassou Nguesso and the opposition owing to accusations of electoral fraud. A civil war erupted between supporters of Sassou Nguesso, who was supported by militias from neighbouring Zaïre and French oil interests, and the government. These became more violent in 1997, when Sassou Nguesso's troops forced Lissouba to flee. Sassou Nguesso established a transitional government, and proceeded to strengthen his own political powers while attempting to reintegrate the erstwhile warring fractions back into society. In 2001 a Constitution was proclaimed which strengthened the powers of the President.

Congo

Land and climate

Congo generally has a hot, wet equatorial climate. Its narrow, treeless coastal plain is dry and cool due to the Benguela Current, which flows n along the coast. Inland, the River Niari has carved a fertile valley through the forested highlands. Central Congo consists of luxuriant savanna. Tree species include the valuable okoumé and mahogany. The n contains large swamps in the tributary valleys of the Congo and Ubangi rivers.

History and Politics

The Loango and Bakongo kingdoms dominated the Congo when the first European arrived in 1482. The coast became a centre for the slave trade. In 1880 Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza explored the area and it became a French protectorate. In 1910 Brazzaville became the capital of the federation of French Equatorial Africa. In 1960 the Republic of Congo gained independence. In 1964 Congo adopted Marxism-Leninism as the state ideology. The military, led by Marien Ngouabi, seized power in 1968. Ngouabi created the Congolese Workers Party (PCT) and was assassinated in 1977. The PCT retained power under Colonel Sassou-Nguesso. In 1990 it renounced Marxism and Sassou-Nguesso was deposed. The Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS), led by Pascal Lissouba, won multi-party elections in 1992. In 1997 Sassou-Nguesso overthrew Lissouba and the Congo plunged into civil war. In 2002 the Congo adopted a new constitution and Sassou-Nguesso was re-elected.

Economy

Congo is a lower-middle-income developing country (2000 GDP per capita, US$1100). Over 60% of the workforce engages in subsistence agriculture. Major food crops include bananas, cassava, maize and rice, while cash crops are coffee and cocoa. Congo's main exports are oil (70% of the total) and timber.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.embassyofcongo.org