SLANG

SLANG An everchanging set of COLLOQUIAL words and phrases generally considered distinct from and socially lower than the standard language. Slang is used to establish or reinforce social identity and cohesiveness, especially within a group or with a trend or fashion in society at large. It occurs in all languages, and the existence of a short-lived vocabulary of this sort within a language is probably as old as language itself. In its earliest occurrences in the 18c, the word slang referred to the specialized vocabulary of underworld groups and was used fairly interchangeably with CANT, flash, ARGOT.

Defining slang

The word is widely used without precision, especially to include informal usage and technical JARGON, and the social and psychological complexities captured in slang vocabulary make the term difficult to define. For linguistic purposes, slang must be distinguished from such other subsets of the lexicon as regionalisms or dialect words, jargon, profanity or vulgarity, COLLOQUIALISM, cant, and argot, although slang shares some characteristics with each of these. It is not geographically restricted (like BrE lift, AmE elevator), but is often regional (BrE bloke, AmE guy). It is not jargon (vocabulary used in carrying out a trade or profession), but it frequently arises inside groups united by their work.

Although slang synonyms abound in the taboo subjects of a culture, not all slang terms violate social propriety; Mickey Mouse meaning ‘easy’ and dough for ‘money’ may be inappropriate in some contexts, but they are not usually offensive. Slang belongs to the spoken part of language, but not all colloquial expressions are slang: shut up for ‘be quiet’ would rarely be written except in dialogue, but it is not slang, which is often the usage of the young, the alienated, and those who see themselves as distinct from the rest of society.

Transience

Despite the difficulty of defining the term, slang does have some consistent characteristics. Foremost, taken as a whole, the slang vocabulary of a language is ephemeral, bursting into existence and falling out of use at a much more rapid rate than items of the general vocabulary. This rapid change requires a constant supply of new words, sometimes replacing or adding to already established slang words, like a waste case for a ‘drunk’, and sometimes extending to new areas of meaning, like jambox, ghetto blaster, or Brixton suitcase for a portable stereo tape player. This makes novelty, or innovation, an often cited characteristic of slang and freshness a large part of its appeal. Yet some slang items have long lives. Thus, bones as slang for dice was used by Chaucer in the 14c and is still slang. But when such items remain in the language for years, they often lose their slang status: for example, jeopardy from gambling and crestfallen from cockfighting have even acquired a learned tinge.

Sounds

Although, for the most part, slang items conform to the general constraints on sound combinations that govern English, the venturesome spirit behind much slang includes playing with sounds. Onomatopoeia accounts for many slang terms, including these for ‘vomit’: barf, ralph. The American linguist Roger Wescott has noticed that some sounds appear to give words a slangier flavour, most noticeably: z, in words like scuz from ‘scum’, and zap from ‘slap’ or ‘whap’; the replacement or addition of a vowel with oo, in words like bazooms from ‘bosom’ and smasheroo from ‘smasher’. Rhyming, however, is the favourite sound effect of slang, as in boob tube television, frat rat member of a US college fraternity. The rhymers par excellence have been the Cockneys of London, who have developed an elaborate and colourful collection of slang terms based on rhyme, such as trouble and strife for ‘wife’ and mince pies for ‘eyes’. See COCKNEY.

Semantics

The intricate interplay of exclusivity, faddishness, and flippancy which breeds and supports slang guarantees semantic and etymological complexity. Nevertheless, slang items often diverge from standard usage in predictable ways, especially by generalization and melioration. In generalization, a term acquires a wider range of referents: for example, in the 19c dude was ‘a dapper man, a dandy’ but in current US slang, via Black usage, it can be applied to any male. Schiz out is to have any kind of mental or emotional breakdown; it is not restricted to schizophrenia. Evaluative words in slang sometimes become so generalized in application that they lose specific meaning and retain only a value: for example, AmE awesome, heavy, key, and solid, BrE ace, brill, and triff, and def in both varieties, all mean ‘worthy of approval’. Generalization often operates in conjunction with melioration, a process in which the connotations of a word become more favourable. Many words enter general slang from the taboo words of subcultures. Through increased use and broad application, they can lose their shock value and become more positive; the verb jam a century ago had specific sexual referents, but now means ‘to dance, play music, have a good time, succeed’. Yet many words in slang remain negative, especially the large and constantly replenished set of epithets available at all time in slang: for example, the pejorative boob, dork, dweeb, jerk, nerd, scuzbag, slimeball, wimp.

Another characteristic of the semantics of slang is the tendency to name things indirectly and figuratively, especially through metaphor, metonymy, and irony. Couch potato one who lies around doing little except watch television, coffin nail a cigarette, are metaphors. Brew and chill (beer) take their meaning by association and are metonyms. Irony, in its simplest form, categorizes the tendency in slang for words to evoke opposite meanings: bad, wicked, killer can all mean ‘good’ when signalled with appropriate ironic intonation. The influence of semantic fields on productivity in slang is also important, as they provide an established framework to shape the form and meaning of new words. In English, the semantic field ‘destruction’ sets the pattern for the proliferation of terms for being drunk, such as blitzed, bombed, fried, hammered, polluted, ripped, slammed, smashed, toasted, wasted. Slang also often evokes meaning by drawing on the shared cultural knowledge of its users. The verb bogart (to take an unfair share, originally of a marijuana cigarette) alludes to the American actor Humphrey Bogart's tough-guy image in films.

Functions

The aim of using slang is seldom the exchange of information. More often, slang serves social purposes: to identify members of a group, to change the level of discourse in the direction of informality, to oppose established authority. Sharing and maintaining a constantly changing slang vocabulary aids group solidarity and serves to include and exclude members. Slang is the linguistic equivalent of fashion and serves much the same purpose. Like stylish clothing and modes of popular entertainment, effective slang must be new, appealing, and able to gain acceptance in a group quickly. Nothing is more damaging to status in the group than using old slang. Counterculture or counter-establishment groups often find a common vocabulary unknown outside the group a useful way to keep information secret or mysterious. Slang is typically cultivated among people in society who have little real political power (like adolescents, college students, and enlisted personnel in the military) or who have reason to hide from people in authority what they know or do (like gamblers, drug addicts, and prisoners).

See BACK SLANG, COCKNEY, DICTIONARY OF SLANG AND UNCONVENTIONAL ENGLISH, PARTRIDGE, POLARI, RHYMING SLANG.