Close

Create a link to this page

Copy and paste this link tag into your Web page or blog:

<a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-CREOLE.html" title="Facts and informations about CREOLE">CREOLE</a>

CREOLE

CREOLE A term relating to people and LANGUAGES especially in the erstwhile colonial tropics and subtropics, in the Americas, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Oceania. In Portuguese, crioulo appears to have referred first to an animal or person born at home, then to a black African slave in Brazil who was born in his or her master's house. In the 17–18c, particularly in the West Indies, the term creole could mean both a descendant of European settlers (a white creole) or a descendant of African slaves (a creole Negro or Negro creole). Later, it came to apply also to life and culture in creole societies: for example, the (French) Creole cuisine of Louisiana. Since the later 19c, the term has extended to include a language spoken by creoles and has acquired a new sense in LINGUISTICS, associated with the development of PIDGIN languages.

Creole languages

In sociolinguistic terms, these languages have arisen through contact between speakers of different languages. This contact first produces a makeshift language called a pidgin; when this is nativized and becomes the language of a community, it is a creole. Such languages are often known locally as pidgin or creole, but may have such specific names as AKU in Gambia and Papiamentu in the Netherlands Antilles. They are usually given labels by sociolinguists that refer to location and principal lexifier language (the language from which they draw most of their vocabulary): for example, JAMAICAN CREOLE, in full Jamaican Creole English or Jamaican English Creole, the English-based creole spoken in Jamaica. Haitian Creole French is spoken in Haiti and is French-based. Creoles based on English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese occur in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

Creole English

There are many English-based creoles. In West Africa, they include Aku in GAMBIA, KRIO in SIERRA LEONE, Kru English in LIBERIA, and KAMTOK in CAMEROON. In the Caribbean and the neighbouring mainland they include BAJAN in BARBADOS, CREOLESE in GUYANA, MISKITO COAST CREOLE in Nicaragua, Sranan in SURINAM, Trinbagonian in TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, and the creoles of the Bay Islands of Honduras. In North America, they include Afro-Seminole, Amerindian Pidgin English, and GULLAH. In Oceania, they include BISLAMA in Vanuatu, BROKEN in the Torres Straits, HAWAII CREOLE ENGLISH, KRIOL in Northern Australia, PIJIN in the Solomon Islands, and TOK PISIN in Papua New Guinea. It has been argued that AFRICAN-AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH in the US has creole origins since it shares many features with English-based creoles in the Caribbean. In the UK, British Black English, spoken by immigrants from the Caribbean and their children, has features inherited from CARIBBEAN ENGLISH CREOLE.

Shared features

Typical grammatical features in European-based creoles include the use of preverbal negation and subject-verb-object word order: for example (from Sranan in Surinam) A no koti a brede He didn't cut the bread. Many use the same item for both existential statements and possession: for example, get in Guyanese Creole Dem get wan uman we get gyal pikni There is a woman who has a daughter. They lack a formal passive: for example, in Jamaican Creole no distinction is made in the verb forms in sentences such as Dem plaan di tri (They planted the tree) and Di tri plaan (The tree was planted). Creoles tend to have no copula and adjectives may function as verbs: for example, Jamaican Creole Di pikni sik The child is sick. Most creoles do not show any syntactic difference between questions and statements: for example, Guyanese Creole I bai di eg dem can mean ‘He bought the eggs’ or ‘Did he buy the eggs?’ (although there is a distinction in intonation). Question words in creoles tend to have two elements, the first generally from the lexifier language: for example, Haitian Creole ki kote (from qui and cˆté, ‘which’ and ‘side’) meaning where, and Kamtok wetin (from what and thing) meaning what. It has been claimed that many syntactic and semantic similarities among creoles are due to an innate ‘bioprogram’ for language, and that creoles provide the key to understanding the original evolution of human language.

Creolization

The process of becoming a creole may occur at any stage as a make-shift language develops from trade jargon to expanded pidgin, and can happen under drastic conditions, such as where a population of slaves speaking many languages has to develop a common language among slaves and with overseers. In due course, children grow up speaking the pidgin as their main language, and when this happens it must change to meet their needs. Depending on the stage at which creolization occurs, different types of structural expansion are necessary before the language can become adequate. In the case of Jamaican Creole, it is thought that a rudimentary pidgin creolized within a generation, then began to de-creolize towards general English. Tok Pisin, however, first stabilized and expanded as a pidgin before it became creolized; in such cases, the transition between the two stages is gradual rather than abrupt.

The term is also applied to cases where heavy borrowing disrupts the continuity of a language, turning it into a creole-like variety, but without a prior pidgin stage. Some researchers have argued that Middle English is a creole that arose from contact with Norse during the Scandinavian settlements (8–11c) and then with French after the Norman Conquest (11c). In addition to massive lexical borrowing, many changes led to such simplification of grammar as loss of the Old English inflectional endings. It is not, however, clear that these changes were due solely to language contact, since other languages have undergone similar restructurings in the absence of contact, as for example when Latin became Italian.

De-creolization is a further development in which a creole gradually converges with its superstrate or lexifier language: for example, in Hawaii and Jamaica, both creoles moving towards STANDARD ENGLISH. Following the creolization of a pidgin, a POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM may develop when, after a period of relatively independent linguistic development, a post-pidgin or post-creole variety comes under a period of renewed influence from the lexifier language. De-creolization may obscure the origins of a variety, as in the case of American Black English.

Conclusion

Pidgin and creole languages were long neglected by the academic world, because they were not regarded as ‘real’ or ‘fully-fledged’ languages, but their study is currently regarded as significant for general linguistics as well as the study of such languages as English. The study of pidgins and creoles has been rapidly expanding as linguists interested in language acquisition, language change, and universal grammar have taken more notice of them. Since pidgins and creoles are generally spoken in Third World countries, their role and function are intimately connected with a variety of political questions concerned with national, social, and economic development and transition into post-colonial societies. Some countries give official recognition to pidgin and creole languages, among them PAPUA NEW GUINEA, VANUATU, and Haiti. Pidgin and creole languages also function as symbols of solidarity in many parts of the world where their use is increasing.

See ABORIGINAL ENGLISH, ACROLECT, AFRICAN ENGLISH, ATLANTIC CREOLES, BAHAMAS, BASILECT, BELIZE, CAYMAN ISLANDS, GHANA, HAWAIIAN ENGLISH, JAMAICAN ENGLISH, MAURITIUS, MELANESIAN PIDGIN ENGLISH, MESOLECT, MONTSERRAT, NEW ORLEANS, NIGERIA, SAINT CHRISTOPHER AND NEVIS, SAINT LUCIA, SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES, SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH, TALK, WEST AFRICAN ENGLISH, WEST AFRICAN PIDGIN ENGLISH.

Related newspaper, magazine, and trade journal articles from HighBeam Research

(Including press releases, facts, information, and biographies)

	Codeswitching on the web; English and Jamaican Creole in e-mail communication.(Brief Article)(Book Review) Magazine article from: Reference & Research Book News; 2/1/2007; 119 words ; 9027253900 Codeswitching on the web; English and Jamaican Creole in e-mail communication. Hinrichs, Lars. John Benjamins Publishing Co. 2006 301 pages $138.00 Hardcover Pragmatics & beyond; v... Read more
	Law's example of victory by compromise. (Cardinal Bernard Law)(Column) Magazine article from: National Catholic Reporter; 9/22/1995; ; 700+ words ; ...and the church. Marriage counseling, for example, can't work if one of the spouses adamantly...ecclesiastical scene, the cardinal's gesture was an example of what it means to practice a faith in...And that is what makes the cardinal's example so compelling. The second item concerns... Read more
	Below is a recent example of Garry Trudeau's Doonesbury.(The Week) Magazine article from: National Review; 5/3/2004; 33 words ; * Below is a recent example of Garry Trudeau's Doonesbury. You can form your own commentary. As for us, we'll only say, Oh, the things they get away with! ( they being liberals, of course). [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Read more
	How to Be an Effective Mentor.(the best mentors are those who wish to help and can set a good example) Magazine article from: Current Health 2, a Weekly Reader publication; 10/1/1999; ; 700+ words ; ...the best mentors know how to set a good example, live up to strong moral and ethical standards...younger students achieve personal goals--for example, higher grades, greater confidence, and...knowledge with others. Last year, for example, 50 students (sophomores and above) in... Read more
	The supervisor's role: leadership by example. Magazine article from: Flying Safety; 8/1/2003; 474 words ; ...knowledge and experience to draw upon and set the examples to be followed. Leadership by example is one of the most important functions of the...placed upon leaders. The product of leadership by example is the molding of the minds of trainee technicians... Read more
	Council workers will set a good example! Newspaper article from: Yorkshire Evening Post (Leeds, England); 9/11/2007; 365 words ; ...project. The council is to launch Leeds by Example, a corporate social responsibility programme...to establish such a programme. Leeds by Example will launch a programme of activities...employer, it is right that we lead by example, but we also want every business in Leeds... Read more
	Ruby by Example: Concepts and Code.(Brief article)(Book review) Magazine article from: California Bookwatch; 8/1/2007; 108 words ; Ruby by Example: Concepts and Code Kevin C. Baird No Starch Press 555 DeHaro #250, San...better understand the basics of Ruby would do well to consider RUBY BY EXAMPLE, a learn-by-doing guide which analyzes a series of Ruby scripts, examining... Read more
	Taylor's pledge to lead by example. Newspaper article from: Sunderland Echo (Pennywell, England); 10/16/2007; 172 words ; ...Steven Taylor says he is learning to lead England's Under-21s by example. Taylor will captain Stuart Pearce's side against the Republic...but also what I do off it - and I like to try and lead by example. I'll demand what's best for the team and our country. Pearce... Read more
	Lead by example; 50 ways great leaders inspire results.(Brief article)(Book review) Magazine article from: Reference & Research Book News; 2/1/2009; 124 words ; 9780814412947 Lead by example; 50 ways great leaders inspire results...compassion and the ability to set the right example. The author notes that leaders are judged...and he provides practical tips and example for inspiring a following and achieving... Read more
	Defend I.T.: Security by Example.(Brief article)(Book review) Magazine article from: Security Management; 3/1/2006; ; 229 words ; ****# Defend I.T.: Security by Example. By Ajay Gupta and Scott Laliberte; published...titled book uses plentiful real-world examples to bring the reader into the world of...threats is advised to read this book of example problems. The point is to learn by example... Read more

For more facts and information, see all related premium articles

Related entries from encyclopedias, dictionaries, and thesauruses

	CARIBBEAN ENGLISH CREOLE Book article from: Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language CARIBBEAN ENGLISH CREOLE, also Caribbean Creole English , Caribbean Creole , Creole English , West Indian Creole , Creole . The technical term for an English-based CREOLE or group of creoles in the Commonwealth Caribbean, the Samaná peninsula... Read more
	JAMAICAN CREOLE Book article from: Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language JAMAICAN CREOLE, also Jamaican English Creole , Jamaican Creole English , Jamaican , Patois , Patwa , NATION LANGUAGE . The general and technical term for the English-based CREOLE vernacular of Jamaica, a Caribbean country and member of the COMMONWEALTH... Read more
	Creoles and Creolization Dictionary entry from: Dictionary of American History CREOLES AND CREOLIZATION CREOLES AND CREOLIZATION. A "Creole" was originally a person of European or African origin born in America. The term referred to the French cr é oles of Louisiana, the African creoles of preemancipation Jamaica, or the... Read more
	POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM Book article from: Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM A chain of language varieties which arises linking a CREOLE (also known as the BASILECT ) to its SUPERSTRATE...as the MESOLECT : for example, the Jamaican post-creole continuum, ranging from Jamaican creole proper to... Read more
	Creole Slave Case Dictionary entry from: Dictionary of American History CREOLE SLAVE CASE CREOLE SLAVE CASE. On 7 November 1841 Madison Washington and eighteen of the 135 slaves aboard the Creole rose up against the white crew on its voyage from Hampton Roads, Virginia... Read more

See all related entries