South America

South America Fourth-largest continent, the southern of the two continents of America, in the Western Hemisphere, connected to North America by the isthmus of Panama.

Land

South America is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea (n), the Atlantic Ocean (e), and the Pacific Ocean (w). Politically, it divides into 12 independent nations: Brazil and Argentina (the two largest), Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay, and Venezuela, plus the French overseas department of French Guiana. It is c.7650km (4750mi) long (Punta Gallinas, Colombia to Cape Horn, Chile), and at its widest (near the Equator) c.5300km (3000mi).

Structure and geology

South America's w edge towers above the rest of the continent, which slopes downwards towards the Atlantic Ocean, except for the Guiana and Brazilian Highlands which form the continental shield. The Andes, which stretch from Colombia to Chile, contain the highest peaks of the Americas, and Aconcagua (Argentina) is the tallest mountain outside Asia. Patagonia, a semi-arid plateau composed of rocky terraces, lies to the e of the Andes. A series of lowlands, including the Gran Chaco, marks the middle of the continent. The Atacama Desert, a coastal strip in n Chile, is the driest place on Earth. Major islands include the Falkland Islands (a British Crown Colony) and the Galápagos Islands (a territory of Ecuador).

Lakes and rivers

Excluding Lake Maracaibo (13,512sq km/5217sq mi) as an extension of the Gulf of Venezuela, the largest lake in South America is Lake Titicaca, on the Peru-Bolivia border, covering 8290sq km (3200sq mi). Lengthy rivers combine to form three major systems that reach the Atlantic. The Amazon is the world's second-longest river (after the Nile). With its many substantial tributaries, it drains the biggest of the world's river basins. Flowing s is the Paraguay-Paraná system, and ne is the Orinoco.

Climate and vegetation

Except in the mountains and the s, the climate remains generally warm and humid. Much of the n supports tropical rainforest, while lowlands in the extreme n and the central region have a cover of tropical grass. The Pampas, s of the Tropic of Capricorn, are temperate grasslands, but vegetation is scarce to the far se of the mountains. Pine and other temperate forests grow along the sw coast. People Some Incas (Quechuas) still remain in the Andes, as do some Mapucho (Araucanians) in Chile. But the majority of the population is mestizo (of dual Indian and European descent), except in Argentina, s Brazil, Chile and Uruguay, whose population is primarily European. Since the early 19th century, many Europeans (especially Italians) and Asians (particularly Japanese) migrated to Argentina and Brazil. Sizeable black populations exist in Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, and Venezuela – descendants of slaves brought from Africa to work in the sugar cane, coffee, rubber and cotton plantations. The majority of South Americans live in urban areas close to the coast. São Paulo is the world's fastest-growing city. Latin American Spanish and Portuguese are the dominant languages and Roman Catholicism is the major religion.

Recent history

The early 1900s saw a number of conflicts within and between countries of the region. Notable among these were the territorial Chaco Wars (1928–30, 1932–35) between Bolivia and Paraguay. South American republics only became world powers after World War 2, helped by the formation of the United Nations in 1945, and the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1948. Many countries swung between military dictatorships and democratic governments, mainly caused by wildly fluctuating economic fortunes, which in turn brought about extremes of wealth and poverty, leading to unrest and instability. The periodic repressive regimes have been the focus for international condemnation of human rights abuses. In the 1980s and 1990s, international pressure, particularly from the USA, was brought to bear on those governments, notably Bolivia and Colombia, who were either unwilling or unable to control the production and export of vast quantities of cocaine.

Economy

Subsistence farming is important, with c.30% of the workforce working 15% of the land, most of which is owned by Europeans. Chief exports include cash crops, such as coffee, bananas, sugar cane, and tobacco. The drugs industry is also important: Peru and Colombia are major cultivators of coca leaves, and Colombia supplies more than 50% of the world's illegal trade in cocaine. Historically, Europe and the USA dominated industrial development and mineral exploitation. Since 1945, South American countries sought greater economic independence, yet reliance on banking finance often led to a burden of debt. Another drawback is the scarcity of continental coal reserves and the overdependence on petroleum, especially from Venezuela's Maracaibo region. The Guiana and Brazilian highlands have large deposits of iron ore, and the Andes range has many copper reserves. Bolivia has large tin mines, and Brazil has reserves of manganese. However, despite the industrialization of some countries, particularly Brazil, Venezuela and Argentina, most countries remain industrially underdeveloped. In the 1970s and 1980s, the rush for economic growth and industrialization was often at the expense of the continent's rainforests. Worldwide treaties in the 1990s attempted to slow down the deforestation, but with little success. Also, industrialization exacerbated South America's high inflation and huge debt crises. Total area: c.17,793,000sq km (6,868,000sq mi); Highest mountain Aconcagua 6960m (22,834ft) Longest river Amazon 6450km (4010mi) Population (2001) 351,000,000 Largest cities population (metropolitan area) São Paulo 17,878,703; Buenos Aires 13,755,993; Rio de Janeiro 10,894,156.