Russian Americans

Russian Americans

ETHNONYMS: Russians, Russkie, Rossiyane, Velikorusy (Great Russians)

Orientation

Identification and Location.

The term Russians can be used to refer to the members of any ethnic group that lived in the former Soviet Union (including Ukrainians, Belarusans, Jews, and peoples of the Caucasus region) for whom the Russian language is the main vehicle of communication in the home environment. Russians have been living in the United States since the sale of Alaska in 1867. The first of four massive waves of immigration occurred at the end of the Russian Revolution (1917), the second took place at the end of World War II, a third wave (1950s-1960s) consisted of those who left the Soviet Union on Israeli visas, and a post-Cold War fourth wave was economically motivated.

Demography. According to the annual reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration and Census Data, 95,137 Russians lived in the United States in 1910 and 171,075 in 1920. About 40,000 Russians came in the 1920s, and 14,000 arrived in the 1930s. Around 20,000 former World War II prisoners and slave laborers in Germany refused to return to Russia and arrived in the United States between 1947 and 1952. According to the 1990 census, 2,114,506 Russian Americans lived in the United States, of whom 1,919,722 were native-born and 194,784 were foreign-born. Among the foreign-born, 128,249 entered the country before 1980 and 66,535 entered between 1980 and 1990; 123,415 were naturalized citizens, and 71,369 were not citizens. Preliminary data from the 2000 census estimate 2,987,143 people of Russian ancestry in the United States.

Linguistic Affiliation. Russian belongs to the Eastern Slavic group of the Indo-European language family and has more than 270 million speakers. According to the 1990 census, the total number of people above age four years speaking Russian at home in the United States was 241,798. The Russian language is maintained primarily by the Russian Orthodox Church, which offers instruction in that language in parish schools on weekends. There are also full-time churchrun schools in cities such as New York and San Francisco. Small groups of Russian-speaking Doukhobors, an Old Believer sect, settled in the Canadian province of British Columbia at the turn of the twentieth century. They have preserved their language and culture because of their isolation from English-speaking Canadian communities and militant resistance to assimilation.

History and Cultural Relations

During the development of the West and the California gold rush many Russian laborers came to Hawaii and the mainland United States and Canada to work on sugar plantations and build railroads. Later immigration quotas were introduced that favored immigrants from Western Europe and discriminated against immigrants from Asia and Africa. After the Russo-Japanese war (1905-1907) about five thousand Russian Molokans left Russia for Los Angeles.

Whereas pre-World War I emigration from Russia consisted largely of peasants, the Russian refugees of the 1920s included a high proportion of middle- and upper-class people with good educations and professional qualifications. The biggest problem for the refugees was poverty. The largest and best-organized community in the United States was in New York City. After World War II many so-called displaced persons from Europe (especially Germany) and Asia (especially China) found new homes in the United States.

Among the more famous Russian immigrants to the United States were the inventors Igor Sikorsky (1889-1972) and Vladmir Zworykin (1889-1982), the writer Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977), the actor Yul Brynner (1915-1985), and the actress Natalie Wood (1938-1981). In 1923 Sikorsky formed a corporation to produce one of the first twin-engine airplanes in the United States. The contribution of Russian scholars has been great: in history Valentin Karpovitch at Harvard, Valentin Riasanovsky at the University of Oregon, and Michael Rostovtzev and George Vernadsky at Yale; in linguistics and literary theory Roman Jakobson at MIT; and in sociology P. Sorokin at Harvard. The founder of modern ballet, Michel Fokine (1880-1942), came to New York City in 1923. The composer and musician Dimitri Tiomkin (1899-1979) settled in Los Angeles and became one of the most prolific composers for Hollywood films. Boris Bakhmeteff, a professor of mechanics and hydraulics, joined Columbia University in 1936. A former Soviet ambassador, he created a $1,400,000 fund at that university to expand the Russian studies program and foster the advancement of Russian culture in the United States. The Russian Classroom at the University of Pittsburgh was officially opened in July 1938 and featured furniture, embroidery, and ornamental hardware in the Russian tradition. The Tolstoy Foundation was established in 1939 to assist refugees. The Russian American Youth Theater was founded in 1968 in New York City by Tamara Levitskaia. In 1970 there were thirty-one Russian American publications—twenty-five in Russian and six in English—with a total circulation of 65,128. In New York City there is a Russian high school (gymnasium) run by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad.

Illegal immigration has increased because of the economic downturn in Russia, which causes people to look for better economic opportunities elsewhere. Some Russians come as "tourists" and then try to arrange a fictitious marriage with an American citizen and apply for a "green card," which allows a person to stay in the United States as an immigrant and work legally. Others ask for political asylum, knowing in advance that the request will be denied by the immigration authorities. However, several years may pass before an immigration judge becomes available to hear the case, and in the meantime the petitioners are allowed to stay and work in the United States.

One legal way to immigrate to the United States is to invest in an American business; this allows a person to enter the United States and stay as long as he or she stays in business there. Eventually such a person may petition to stay in the country permanently. These petitions are usually granted if the petitioner shows that he or she has paid all taxes due, has not engaged in criminal activities, and is otherwise a "solid citizen."

The existence of Russia Abroad was a unique phenomenon of the twentieth century. The question of what constituted the essence of traditional Russian culture was one that affected the emigrants. Even among those for whom religion was not a central concern, Russia's ecclesiastical past could not be forgotten. The émigrés maintained the traditions of their ancestors from the late 1800s and early 1900s. They have embodied the creative spirit of the Silver Age and the early innovative years of the Soviet regime. In the West the émigrés were free to create whatever they wanted. For the first time writers and artists enjoyed freedom from censorship. Russian émigrés had an impact on the countries that took them in, and their cultural achievements are becoming known in the former Soviet Union.

Settlements

The largest communities of Russian Americans are in California, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. Their housing is of the normal American and European type, with the exception that Russian Orthodox icons are placed in the krasnyi ugol (red corner) of the living room.

Economy

Subsistence. The economic life of Russian émigrés is based on small businesses and wage labor. Russian families try to give their children at least a secondary education, after which the children enter the work force. In the United States, Russians are employed in many industries as unskilled laborers, social service workers, and factory workers. To find employment in professional fields such as law and medicine, Russians have had to pass professional qualification examinations that are very difficult for those with a limited knowledge of English.

Commercial Activities. For the most part commercial activities are limited to operating small family-run businesses such as restaurants and retail stores. Today a number of Russians in the United States are involved in joint ventures funded with Russian and American capital. These businesses usually involve the trading operations of products such as fish, timber, and computers.

Industrial Arts. The first Association of Russian Painters and Artists included seventy painters, sculptors, and decorators. The honorary president was Nicholas Roerich. In New York the societies and unions tended to not break apart into right and left factions but maintained two branches under one roof.

Trade. Trade activities are focused on the former Soviet Union and on serving the needs of the Russian-speaking community. The most popular trading items are books, videos, and souvenirs.

Division of Labor. Most Russians in the first wave of immigrants worked in coal mining and the iron and steel industries. Immigration Commission reports from 1909 indicate that Russians also were involved in meatpacking, sugar refining, iron and ore mining, oil refining, construction work, and the manufacturing of clothing, wool and worsted goods, cotton goods, agricultural implements, cigars and tobacco products, leather, glass, footwear, silk goods, and furniture. Russian American workers were members of the United Mine Workers and Steel Workers' Union and other labor unions associated with garment workers, stonemasons, window washers, and house demolition workers. Earlier immigrants had established Russian branches of some unions, including the Russian Branch of Clockmakers, Russian Branch of Garment Workers, Society of Russian Boot Makers, Society of Russian Mechanics, and New York Union of Russian Longshoremen.

Immigration quotas were very low during the Depression, and aliens were encouraged to become Americans in order to be eligible for jobs. It was reported in 1923 that 40 percent of White Russian émigrés wished to become auto mechanics. Others became taxi drivers, restaurant workers, milliners, house painters, janitors, and construction workers. Women became language teachers, nurses, and social workers. Some men and women found jobs in universities. Quite a few immigrants were engineers. The current émigrés tend to be more educated.

Kinship

Kin Groups and Descent. The father is usually the head of the family and is helped by his wife, who keeps house and looks after the children and who also may have an outside job. Kinship links are very strong, and the concept of the extended family is still prevalent, with several generations of family members living in the same residence or close by. Elderly parents used to live with their children until death, and it is common for a son-in-law or daughter-in-law to live with the spouse's family. More recent immigrant families have tended to borrow some practices from Americans, and young people more often live independently of their parents. The concept of kinship is extended to include close friends of the family such as godparents.

Kinship Terminology. The husband's mother is called svekrov', and his father is called svekr. The wife's mother is called tioshcha, and her father is referred to as test Both sets of parents call each other svoiaki. A husband's sister is zolovka and his brother is called dever', whereas his wife's sister is called svoiachnitsa and her brother is shurin. Kinship relations and terminology are a source of many jokes and anecdotes.

Marriage and Family

Marriage. Many of the earlier emigrants were men, and most were single. The poor and unstable finances of the majority of the refugees discouraged marriage. Single émigrés lived in great social isolation, often in barracks. They were reluctant to assimilate and always hoped to go back "home." A consequence of this situation in regard to marriage was the very low proportion of children among Russians abroad.

Until 1917 marriage partners were chosen almost exclusively within the Russian community since it was assumed that the family would return to Russia after accumulating sufficient resources. This was also true of Russians who came to the United States after the Russian Revolution, who hoped that the communist regime would not survive and that they would be able to return home. Today Russian parents do not oppose marriage with members of other nationalities since this is considered a way to facilitate assimilation into the American mainstream. Russians who think about emigration and those who have already entered the United States often look for Americans to date and then marry.

Domestic Unit. The Russian family in the United States is patriarchical as it was in Russia, where the husband traditionally was considered the head of the family. Today, especially among the younger generation, the holder of that position can be of either sex, depending on who is the main source of support for the family.

Inheritance. In prerevolutionary Russia inheritance took place along the male line. During that time the family received land according to the number of men, and it was always the son who inherited the father's possessions. Daughters could expect a trousseau before marriage. In Russia the process of making a will is not common, but Russian immigrants have adopted the American custom of writing a will.

Socialization. The first émigrés were not eager to accept American values because they expected to return to Russia, but those in the second and third waves willingly assimilated into American society. Since the 1990s the scale of immigration from Russia has increased dramatically, and some groups of immigrants live in Russian communities such as Brighton Beach, New York, and do not want to assimilate. They work in Russian stores, cafés, and restaurants; speak Russian with Russian shop personnel, waitresses, and neighbors; and feel no need to learn English. This attitude is more common among older people. Their children do not differ much from Americans in their lifestyle.

Sociopolitical Organization

Social Organization. Nauka, the largest Russian cultural and educational society, was organized in New York City in 1905. The Russian Orthodox Catholic Women's Mutual Aid Society was founded in Pittsburgh in 1907 as an insurance society and philanthropic organization. Societies such as these were organized in other cities as well. The Russian Collegiate Institute in New York City and the Chicago Fund for the Relief of Russian Writers and Scientists sponsored lectures and concerts and obtained donations. In the 1930s Russian émigrés created a large number of associations for mutual aid and support. The Russian Independent Mutual Aid Society was founded in Chicago in 1931 and had about 1,500 members. These societies were concerned with every sphere of life: social, cultural, political, and economic. Refugees also received help from a number of private and public philanthropic organizations, such as the International Red Cross and the Young Men's Christian Association. The Russian Center in San Francisco was founded as a social group in the 1950s.

Political Organization. Although in the 1930s to the 1950s most of the Russian American community was anticommunist, negative publicity associated with raids by the U.S. Department of Justice on the Communist Party of America and the Communist Labor Party and the arrests of party members led to the tainting of the entire community as disloyal radicals. Two anticommunist organizations were organized in New York City: the American Society for Russian Naval History and the All-Union Monarchist Front. The Russian Armed Services Union was very active. In New York, Russian Americans formed the Society of the Russian Imperial Guard, the Russian Naval Officers Group, and the Society for Aid to Invalids.

Conflict. Before perestroika and the breakup of the Soviet Union conflicts took place between immigrants who had been forced to leave for political reasons and those who continued to recognize Soviet authority.

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Beliefs. The first Russian Orthodox parishes were organized in Alaska in 1794 and in New York City in 1870. The Russian Orthodox bishop was moved from Sitka to San Francisco in 1872. At that time the Orthodox religion in America was known as the American Ecclesiastical Province of the Moscow Patriarchate. Before World War I it was estimated that there were 169 Russian Orthodox churches with about 50,000 members in the United States. The 1916 census recorded 169 Russian Orthodox churches with 99,681 parishioners. In 1936, the Commerce Department of statistics counted 229 churches with 89,510 parishioners. The Russian Orthodox Church was an anchor for exiles, providing spiritual and social sustenance. It was also the preserver of the Russian language and culture. Often there were libraries, schools, theaters, and clubs attached to the churches.

The American Ecclesiastical Province was granted autocephalous status and began to be called the Orthodox Church of America. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad, which was formed in Europe in 1920, also plays a significant role in the religious life of Russian Americans. It was founded by bishops and priests who left Russia with the White armies, and for the most part its adherents were monarchists. It moved to the United States after World War II and has many parishes as well as a monastery, the Holy Trinity Monastery of Jordanville, New York, which publishes Orthodox Life and Pravoslavnaia zhizn'. In California the Orthodox press of Berkeley issues Po stopam Khrista (In Christ's Footsteps), and in Los Angeles Soglasie (Concord), an anticommunist monthly, appears. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad has remained hostile to the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church and demands its repentance for collaborating with the Soviet government and the Communist Party.

Significant numbers of Russian immigrants, especially among the intellectual leadership, experienced a revival of interest in and a commitment to religion and the church. Religious institutions were looked to for both material and spiritual assistance. Many exiles returned to the Russian Orthodox Church for worship and for the preservation of their cultural traditions. They began to regard the church with greater respect and were willing to assist in expanding its social, material, and cultural (particularly educational) roles.

The Orthodox confession includes a number of small groups and sects, such as the Starovery (Old Believers), Baptists, Piatidesiatniki, Molokane, and Seventh-Day Adventists. Some Russian Americans are members of other religious sects and faiths, including Catholicism, Judaism, and Islam.

Religious Practitioners. The highest rank in the Orthodox Church is the Arkhierei (archbishop or bishop). The Arkhierei rules the eparchy (the administrative district), appoints priests, conducts services, and passes judgments on religious questions. A priest in a parish is called a Ierei, the chief priest is the Protoierei, and a monk is a Ieromonakh.

Ceremonies. Most émigrés—even those who do not go to church—are likely to follow old traditions and celebrate religious holidays and church ceremonies. On the baptizing holiday (January 19) there is a ceremony of water crossing, and many people come to church to take "saint water." On Easter morning there is zautrenia, a service that takes place before dawn. Both Russians and Americans are attracted by the pageantry, the priests' clothing, the icons and implements, and the singing. Many family ceremonies take place in church, including weddings, baptisms, and funerals.

Arts. Icon painting is a well-developed art. The first icons for Russian churches in the United States were brought from Russia, but the first wave of émigrés organized their own icon-painting shops. Church architecture was developed by émigrés, who built churches in New York, Seattle, San Francisco. There are small embroidery and metal craft shops in the women's monastery in San Francisco and the men's monastery in Jordanville, New York.

Death and Afterlife. Death rituals in the Orthodox Church are similar to those in other Christian confessions. The deceased is buried in a coffin.

For the original article on Russian Americans, see Volume 1, North America.

Bibliography

Davis, Jerome (1922). The Russian Immigrant. New York: Macmillan.

Glad, John (1999). Russia Abroad: Writers, History, Politics. Tenafly, NJ: Hermitage; Washington, DC: Birchbark Press.

Hassell, James E. (1991). "Russian Refugees in France and the United States between the World Wars," Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. v. 81, pt. 7, 96 p.

Karlowich, Robert A. (1990). A Guide to Scholarly Resources on the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union in the New York Metropolitan Area. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

—— (1991). We Fall and Rise: Russian-Language Newspapers in New York City, 1889-1914. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.

Raeff, Marc (1990). Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919-1939. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schlogel, Karl (1994). Der grosse Exodus: Die russische Emigration und ihre Zentren 1917 bis 1941. Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck.

Wertsman, Vladimir (1977). The Russians in America, 1727-1975. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications.

AMIR KHISAMUTDINOV