Walker, Alice 1944–

Alice Walker 1944–

Author

At a Glance…

Early Influences

Objections to Her Portrayal of Black Males

Subject Matter Evolved

The Color Purple Became a Pulitzer Prize winner

Selected writings

Sources

Recognized as one of the leading voices among black American women writers, Alice Walker has produced an acclaimed and varied body of work, including poetry, novels, short stories, essays, and criticism. Her writings portray the struggle of black people throughout history, and are praised for their insightful and riveting portraits of black life, in particular the experiences of black women in a sexist and racist society. Her most famous work, the award-winning and best-selling novel The Color Purple, chronicles the life of a poor and abused southern black woman who eventually triumphs over oppression through affirming female relationships. Walker has described herself as a “womanist”—her term for a black feminist— which she defines in the introduction to her book of essays, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose, as one who “appreciates and prefers women’s culture, women’s emotional flexibility… women’s strength” and is “committed to [the] survival and wholeness of entire people, male and female.”

A theme throughout Walker’s work is the preservation of black culture, and her female characters forge important links to maintain continuity in both personal relationships and communities. According to Barbara T. Christian in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Walker is concerned with “heritage,” which to Walker “is not so much the grand sweep of history or artifacts created as it is the relations of people to each other, young to old, parent to child, man to woman.” Walker admires the struggle of black women throughout history to maintain an essential spirituality and creativity in their lives, and their achievements serve as an inspiration to others. In Our Mother’s Gardens, Walker wrote: “We must fearlessly pull out of ourselves and look at and identify with our lives the living creativity some of our great-grandmothers were not allowed to know. I stress some of them because it is well known that the majority of our great-grandmothers knew, even without ‘knowing’ it, the reality of their spirituality, even if they didn’t recognize it beyond what happened in the singing at church—and they never had any intention of giving it up.”

Walker’s women characters display strength, endurance, and resourcefulness in confronting—and overcoming— oppression in their lives, yet Walker is frank in depicting the often devastating circumstances of the “twin afflictions”

At a Glance…

Full name, Alice Malsenior Walker; born February 9, 1944, in Eatonton, GA; daughter of Willie Lee and Minnie Tallulah (Grant) Walker (sharecroppers); married Melvyn Rosenman Leventhal (a civil rights lawyer), March 17, 1967 (divorced, 1976); children: Rebecca Grant. Education: Attended Spelman College, 1961-63; Sarah Lawrence College, B.A., 1965.

Voter register in Liberty County, GA, and worker in New York City welfare department, c. 1965-66; black literature consultant for Friends of the Children of Mississippi, 1967; writer in residence at Jackson State College, Jackson, MS, 1968-69, and Tougaloo College, Tougaloo, MS, 1970-71; lecturer in literature at Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA, and University of Massachusetts—Boston, both 1972-73; distinguished writer at University of California—Berkeley, Afro-American studies department, spring, 1982; Fannie Hurst Professor of Literature at Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, fall, 1982; co-founding publisher of Wild Trees Press, Navarro, CA, 1984-88. Lecturer and reader at universities and colleges. Board of trustees member at Sarah Lawrence College.

Awards: National Endowment for the Arts grants, 1969 and 1977; Radcliffe Institute fellowship, 1971-73; honorary Ph.D. from Russell Sage College, 1972; National Book Award nomination and Lillian Smith Award from Southern Regional Council, both 1973, both for Revolutionary Petunias and Other Poems; Richard and Hinda Rosenthal Foundation Award from American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, 1974, for In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women; Guggenheim Award, 1977-78; National Book Critics Circle Award nomination, 1982, Pulitzer Prize, 1983, and American Book Award, 1983, all for The Color Purple; honorary doctorate from University of Massachusetts, 1983; O. Henry Award, 1986, for “Kindred Spirits.”

Addresses: Home —San Francisco, CA.

of racism and sexism. “Black women are called, in the folklore that so aptly identifies one’s status in society, ‘the mule of the world,’ because we have been handed the burdens that everyone else—everyone else—refused to carry,” Walker stated in Our Mothers’ Gardens. Mary Helen Washington in Sturdy Black Bridges: Visions of Black Women in Literature noted that “the true empathy Alice Walker has for the oppressed woman comes through in all her writings.… Raising an ax, crying out in childbirth or abortion, surrendering to a man who is oblivious to her real name—these are the kinds of images which most often appear in Ms. Walker’s own writing.” Washington adds that the strength of such images is that Walker gives insight into “the intimate reaches of the inner lives of her characters; the landscape of her stories is the spiritual realm where the soul yearns for what it does not have.”

Early Influences

Walker’s beginnings as a writer are in the small rural town of Eatonton, Georgia, where she was the youngest of eight children of impoverished sharecroppers. Both of her parents were storytellers, and Walker was especially influenced by her mother, whom she described in Our Mothers’ Gardens as “a walking history of our community.” A childhood accident at the age of eight left Walker blind and scarred in one eye, which, partially corrected when she was fourteen, left a profound influence on her. “I believe … that it was from this period—from my solitary, lonely position, the position of an outcast—that I began really to see people and things, really to notice relationships and to learn to be patient enough to care about how they turned out…. I retreated into solitude, and read stories and began to write poems.” Walker has commented that as a southern black growing up in a poor rural community, she possessed the benefit of “double vision.” She explained in Our Mothers’ Gardens: “Not only is the [black southern writer] in a position to see his own world, and its close community … but he is capable of knowing, with remarkably silent accuracy, the people who make up the larger world that surrounds and suppresses his own.”

Walker was an excellent student, and received a scholarship to Spelman College in Atlanta, and later to Sarah Lawrence College in the Bronx, New York. While in college, she became politically aware in the Civil Rights Movement and participated in many demonstrations. Her first book of poems, Once, was written while she was a senior at Sarah Lawrence and was accepted for publication the same year. Walker wrote many of the poems in the span of a week in the winter of 1965, when she wrestled with suicide after deciding to have an abortion. The poems recount the despair and isolation of her situation, in addition to her experiences in the Civil Rights Movement and of a trip she had made to Africa. Though not widely reviewed, Once marked Walker’s debut as a distinctive and talented writer. Carolyn M. Rodgers in Negro Digest noted Walker’s “precise wordings, the subtle, unexpected twists…and shifting of emotions.” Christian remarks that already in Once, Walker displayed what would become a feature of both her future poetry and fiction, an “unwavering honesty in evoking the forbidden, either in political stances or in love.”

Walker returned to the South after college and worked as a voter register in Georgia and an instructor in black history in Mississippi. She was inspired by Martin Luther King Jr.’s message, as she recounted in Our Mothers’ Gardens, that being a southern black meant “I… had claim to the land of my birth.” Walker continued to write poetry and fiction, and began to further explore the South she came from. She described in Our Mothers’ Gardens of being particularly influenced by the Russian writers, who spoke to her of a “soul…directly rooted in the soil that nourished it.” She was also influenced by black writer Zora Neale Hurston, who wrote lively folk accounts of the thriving small, southern black community she grew up in. Walker stated in Our Mothers’ Gardens how she particularly admired the “racial health” of Hurston’s work: “A sense of black people as complete, complex, undiminished human beings, a sense that is lacking in so much black writing and literature.”

Objections to Her Portrayal of Black Males

With the help of a 1967 McDowell fellowship, Walker completed her first novel, The Third Life of Grange Copeland, published in 1970. The novel depicts cycles of male violence in three generations of an impoverished southern black family (the Copelands), and displays Walker’s interest in social conditions that affect family relationships, in addition to her recurring theme of the suffering of black women at the hands of men. The novel revolves around a father (Grange) who abandons his abused wife and young son (Brownfield) for a more prosperous life in the North, and returns years later to find his son similarly abusing his own family. Christian writes that the men in the novel are “thwarted by the society in their drive for control of their lives—the American definition of manhood—[and] vent their frustrations by inflicting violence on their wives.” Critics praised the realism of the novel, including CLA Journal contributor Peter Erickson, who noted that Walker demonstrated “with a vivid matter-of-factness the family’s entrapment in a vicious cycle of poverty.” However, Walker was also faulted for her portrayal of black men as violent, an aspect which is frequently criticized in her work. Walker responded to such criticism in an interview with Claudia Tate in Black Women Writers at Work: “I know many Brownfields, and it’s a shame that I know so many. I will not ignore people like Brownfield. I want you to know I know they exist. I want to tell you about them, and there is no way you are going to avoid them.”

Walker’s short story collections, In Love and Trouble (1973) and You Can’t Keep a Good Woman Down (1981) expand upon the problems of sexism and racism facing black women. In Love and Trouble features thirteen black women protagonists—many of them from the South—who, as Christian notes, “against their own conscious wills in the face of pain, abuse, even death, challenge the conventions of sex, race, and age that attempt to restrict them.” In Our Mothers’ Gardens, Walker stated that her intent in the stories was to present a variety of women—“mad, raging, loving, resentful, hateful, strong, ugly, weak, pitiful, and magnificent”—as they “try to live with the loyalty to black men that characterizes all of their lives.” Barbara Smith in Ms. praised the collection, stating it “would be an extraordinary literary work if its only virtue were the fact that the author sets out consciously to explore with honesty the textures and terror of black women’s lives.” Smith added: “The fact that Walker’s perceptions, style, and artistry are also consistently high makes her work a treasure.”

Subject Matter Evolved

The stories in You Can’t Keep a Good Woman Down represented an evolution in subject matter, as Walker delved more directly into mainstream feminist issues such as abortion, pornography, and rape. Although a number of critics remarked that the polemic nature of the stories detracted from their narrative effect, Walker again demonstrated, according to Christian, “the extent to which black women are free to pursue their own selfhood in a society permeated by sexism and racism.”

Walker explored similar terrain in her acclaimed 1976 novel, Meridian, in which she recounts the personal evolution of a young black woman against the backdrop of the politics of the Civil Rights Movement. Structurally complex, the novel raises questions of motherhood for the politically-aware female, and the implications for the individual of being committed to revolution. Writing in the New York Times Book Review, Marge Piercy praised Meridian as “a fine, taut novel that accomplishes a remarkable amount” and noted that Walker “writes with a sharp critical sense as she deals with the issues of tactics and strategy in the civil rights movement, with the nature of commitment, the possibility of interracial love and communication, the vital and lethal strands in American and black experience, with violence and nonviolence.” The novel received much critical recognition and was praised for its deft handling of complex subject matter. Years after its publication, Robert Towers commented in the New York Review of Books that Meridian “remains the most impressive fictional treatment of the ‘Movement’ that I have yet read.”

In her 1982 novel, The Color Purple, Walker brought together many of the characters and themes of her previous works in a book which Peter S. Prescott in Newsweek proclaimed “an American novel of permanent importance.” The Color Purple is a series of letters written by a southern black woman (Celie), reflecting a history of oppression and abuse suffered at the hands of the men. The book was resoundingly praised for its masterful recreation of black folk speech, in which, as Towers noted, Walker converts Celie’s “subliterate dialect into a medium of remarkable expressiveness, color, and poignancy.” Towers added: “I find it impossible to imagine Celie apart from her language; through it, not only a memorable and infinitely touching character but a whole submerged world is vividly called into being.”

The Color Purple Became a Pulitzer Prize winner

The novel charts Celie’s resistance to the oppression surrounding her, and the liberation of her existence through positive and supportive relations with other women. Christian notes that “perhaps even more than Walker’s other works, [The Color Purple] especially affirms that the most abused of the abused can transform herself. It completes the cycle Walker announced a decade ago: the survival and liberation of black women through the strength and wisdom of others.” The novel won both the Pulitzer Prize and the American Book Award, and was made into a popular motion picture which received several Academy Award nominations.

Her 1989 novel, The Temple of My Familiar, described by Walker as “a romance of the last 500,000 years,” represents a departure of sorts for the author, and critical opinion was mixed upon its publication. J. M. Coetzee in the New York Times Book Review described it as “a mixture of mythic fantasy, revisionary history, exemplary biography and sermon” which is “short on narrative tension, long on inspirational message.” In the novel, Walker features six characters, three men and three women, who relate their views on life through recounting memories of ancestors and spirits from past cultures. While a number of reviewers faulted the ideological weight of the novel, others commented that the book remained faithful to the concerns of Walker’s works. Luci Tapahonso noted in the Los Angeles Times Book Review that the novel focuses on familiar Walker themes, such as “compassion for the oppressed, the grief of the oppressors, acceptance of the unchangeable and hope for everyone and every thing.”

While Walker’s works speak strongly of the experiences of black women, critics have commented that the messages of her books transcend both race and gender. According to Gloria Steinem in Ms., Walker “comes at universality through the path of an American black woman’s experience… She speaks the female experience more powerfully for being able to pursue it across boundaries of race and class.” Jeanne Fox-Alston in the Chicago Tribune Book World called Walker “a provocative writer who writes about blacks in particular, but all humanity in general.” In her 1988 prose collection, Living by the Word: Selected Writings, 1973-1977, Walker discusses, through essays and journal entries, topics such as nuclear weapons and racism in other countries. Noel Perrin in the New York Times Book Review wrote that although Walker’s “original interests centered on black women, and especially on the ways they were abused or underrated… now those interests encompass all creation.” Derrick Bell commented in the Los Angeles Times Book Review that Walker “uses carefully crafted images that provide a universality to unique events.” Living by the Word presents “vintage Alice Walker: passionate, political, personal, and poetic.”

Selected writings

Poetry

Once; Poems, Harcourt, 1968.

Revolutionary Petunias and Other Poems, Harcourt, 1973.

Goodnight, Willie Lee, I’ll See You in the Morning, Dial, 1979.

Horses Make a Landscape Look More Beautiful, Harcourt, 1984.

Fiction

The Third Life of Grange Copeland (novel), Harcourt, 1984.

In Love and Trouble: Stories of Black Women, Harcourt, 1973.

Meridian (novel), Harcourt, 1976.

You Can’t Keep a Good Woman Down (stories), Harcourt, 1981.

The Color Purple (novel), Harcourt, 1982.

To Hell with Dying (juvenile story), Harcourt, 1988.

The Temple of My Familiar (novel), Harcourt, 1989.

Other

Langston Hughes: American Biography (for children), Crowell, 1973.

(Editor) I Love Myself When I’m Laughing…and Then Again When I Am Looking Mean and Impressive; A Zora Neale Hurston Reader, Feminist Press, 1979.

In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose essays, Harcourt, 1983.

Living by the Word: Selected Writings, 1973-1987 (essays and journal entries), Harcourt, 1988.

Media adaptations

The Color Purple was made into a film and released by Warner Bros. in 1985.

Contributor to numerous books, anthologies, and periodicals; contributing editor to periodicals, including Freedomways and Ms.

Sources

Books

Bell, Roseann P., Bettye J. Parker, and Beverly GuySheftall, editors, Sturdy Black Bridges: Visions of Black Women in Literature, Anchor Press, 1979.

Bestsellers 89, Issue 4, Gale, 1989.

Contemporary Authors New Revision Series, Volume 27 (entry contains interview), Gale, 1989.

Contemporary Literary Criticism, Gale, Volume 5, 1976; Volume 6, 1976; Volume 9, 1978; Volume 19, 1981; Volume 27, 1984; Volume 46, 1988.

Dictionary of Literary Biography, Gale, Volume 6: American Novelists since World War II, 2nd series, 1980; Volume 33: Afro-American Fiction Writers after 1955, 1984.

Evans, Mari, editor, Black Women Writers (1950-1980): A Critical Evaluation, Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984.

Periodicals

Chicago Tribune Book World, August 1, 1982; September 15, 1985.

CLA Journal, September 1979.

Los Angeles Times Book Review, May 29, 1988; May 21, 1989.

Ms., February 1974; June 1982.

Negro Digest, September/October 1968.

Newsweek, June 21, 1982.

New York Review of Books, August 12, 1982.

New York Times Book Review, May 26, 1976; June 5 1988; April 30, 1989.

—Michael E. Mueller