programmed instruction
programmed instruction method of presenting new subject matter to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information. Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used. Computer-assisted instruction, which both tests students' abilities and marks their progress, may supplement classroom activity or help students to develop ideas and skills independently.
The first teaching machine was invented (1934) by Sydney L. Pressey, but it was not until the 1950s that practical methods of programming were developed. Programmed instruction was reintroduced (1954) by B. F. Skinner of Harvard, and much of the system is based on his theory of the nature of learning. As programming technology developed, so did the range of teaching machines and other programmed instruction materials. Programs have been devised for the teaching of spelling, reading, arithmetic, foreign languages, physics, psychology, and a number of other subjects. Some programs are linear in concept, allowing advancement only in a particular order as the correct answer is given. Others are branching, giving additional information at the appropriate level whether a correct or incorrect answer is given.
Although there has been considerable controversy regarding the merits of programmed instruction as the sole method of teaching, many educators agree that it can contribute to more efficient classroom procedure and supplement conventional teaching methods. Teaching machines enable students to work individually, calling for active participation of the learner. In industry and the armed services, programmed instruction is often used to train personnel.
Bibliography: See P. Callender, Programmed Learning (1969); L. Thomas, Self-Organized Learning (1985).
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The Pentateuch in the Twentieth Century: The Legacy of Julius Wellhausen
Magazine article from: Journal of Biblical Literature; 7/1/2001; ; 700+ words
; ...Pentateuch in the Twentieth Century: The Legacy of Julius Wellhausen, by Ernest Nicholson. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998...twentieth century, highlighting the contributions of Julius Wellhausen, Gerhard von Rad, and Martin Noth (the works of...
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Die Pharisaer. Ihr Verstandnis als Spiegel der christlichen und judischen Forschung seit Wellhausen und Graetz
Magazine article from: Trinity Journal; 4/1/1999; ; 700+ words
; ...Spiegel der christlichen und jdischen Forschung seit Wellhausen und Graetz. WUNT 101. Tibingen: Mohr-Siebeck...theologians and historians as well as on Jewish historians: Julius Wellhausen, Emil Schurer, Wilhelm Bousset ((1, 40-147...
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Prolegomena to the History of Israel, with a reprint of the article "Israel" from the Encyclopaedia Britannica
Magazine article from: Journal of Biblical Literature; 7/1/2005; ; 700+ words
; Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel...at least we know what the name "Wellhausen" stands for in Hebrew Bible studies...than not we have read summaries of Wellhausen's argument, and any number may be...
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The Pharisees and the Sadducees: An Examination of Internal Jewish History
Magazine article from: Journal of Biblical Literature; 7/1/2003; ; 700+ words
; ...Internal Jeivish History, by Julius Wellhausen. Translated by Mark E. Biddle...Although the editors claim that Wellhausen's short work on Pharisees...indisputable that "the influence of Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918) as Orientalist...
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Writing the History of Israel
Magazine article from: The Catholic Biblical Quarterly; 10/1/2007; ; 700+ words
; ...following individuals: (1) Julius Wellhausen from the late nineteenth century...historians. According to B., Wellhausen shared the assumptions of nineteenth...reconstructed. B. believes that Wellhausen set in motion the secular approach...
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How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now.(Book review)
Newspaper article from: Reviewer's Bookwatch; 4/1/2008; ; 700+ words
; ...nineteenth century German theologian, Julius Wellhausen, who proposed that the Pentateuch...extensive linguistic analysis, Wellhausen concluded that there were at...This is why, according to Wellhausen's hypothesis, the Bible has...
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Reading from Right to Left
Newspaper article from: Jerusalem Post; 3/6/1997; ; 700+ words
; ...explains the theory developed by Julius Wellhausen, a 19th-century German Protestant...together out of four basic sources. Wellhausen also related these sources to...Yehezkel Kaufmann, refined Wellhausen's theory, and he also raises...
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The Spiritual Vision of Chronicles: Wholehearted, Joy-filled Worship of God
Magazine article from: The Catholic Biblical Quarterly; 1/1/2007; ; 700+ words
; ...historiography, especially the work of Julius Wellhausen.2 One of his most imaginative...symposium marking the centenary of Wellhausen's Prolegomena to the History...second Temple era. But listen to Wellhausen's description: [It was...
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Writing the History of Israel.(Book review)
Magazine article from: Hebrew Studies Journal; 1/1/2008; ; 700+ words
; ...historiography were centered in Germany. Julius Wellhausen's relationship to this tradition...Likewise, the discussions of Wellhausen, Noth, and Bright are good...around them. In the case of Wellhausen, his interest in Israel as a...
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Vertrag, Treueid und Bund: Studien zur Rezeption des altorientalischen Vertragsrechts im Deuteronomium und zur Ausbildung der Bundestheologie im Alten Testament
Magazine article from: The Catholic Biblical Quarterly; 10/1/2009; ; 700+ words
; ...phases. In the first phase, Julius Wellhausen and Max Weber illustrated one...questions about covenant. For Wellhausen, covenant represents a late...of God with the people (cf. Wellhausen, Perlitt). Second, in the...
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Julius Wellhausen
Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of World Biography
Julius Wellhausen Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), an important nineteenth-century scholar, was a historian, linguist, and textual critic. He devoted his life to the study of the ancient and early medieval history of the Semitic peoples...
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Wellhausen, Julius
Book article from: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
Wellhausen, Julius (1844–1918). German biblical critic. Wellhausen put forward the theory in his Die Composition des Hexateuchs (1887) that the Pentateuch was compiled from four separate sources. Although his views were to a...
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criticism, biblical
Book article from: A Dictionary of the Bible
...prophets. The classical 19th-cent. view of the source criticism of the Pentateuch was the work of Karl Graf and Julius Wellhausen . The traditional view that these books were written by Moses was shown to be untenable. Archaeological discoveries...
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historical criticism
Book article from: A Dictionary of the Bible
...Vocabulary and style must be scrutinized. A major achievement of the 19th cent. was the recognition by Karl Graf and Julius Wellhausen that the Pentateuch was compiled from different sources and reached its final form after the time of the great prophets...
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Abd al-Malik
Encyclopedia entry from: Encyclopedia of World Biography
...There is no work no Abd al-Malik in English. The sources for the events of his reign are studied in detail in Julius Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall (1902; trans. 1927). There are brief accounts in such works as Carl Brockelmann...
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