woods and forests formed the original postglacial natural or ‘climax’ vegetation over most of Ireland, but have been progressively destroyed by 5,000 years of human land use, particularly during the last 300 years. Thus despite plantings of exotic hardwoods and conifers by landlords during the 18th and 19th centuries, and more recent state afforestation programmes in both parts of Ireland, the country remains one of the least wooded in Europe, with approximately 4 per cent of its land area forested.

None of the post‐glacial climax woodlands survive in their original form, but palaeobotanical research has indicated a complex sequence of species change and colonization in response to climatic fluctuations following the retreat of the local ice caps by the end of the last, Midlandian, cold phase c.10,000 years bp (before present). Late glacial sea levels were much lower than they are today, and these species either colonized Ireland via the land bridge thus created over part of the Irish Sea, or else spread back from their refuge areas far to the south‐west of modern‐day Ireland.

As temperatures rose, the sub‐glacial tundra was colonized by juniper, willow, and birch. These were themselves increasingly replaced by hazel and pine between 9,000 and 8,500 years bp. As climatic warming continued, oak and elm replaced hazel on the heavier soils, while alder became increasingly confined to wetland margins, pine to lighter, sandier soils, and ash to limestone. Around 7,000 years bp, Ireland's climate became wetter, and this encouraged a final sequence of species change which culminated in the creation of a climax deciduous woodland of hazel, oak, alder, and elm.

This species mix remained remarkably stable for about 2,000 years, until either climatic change, selective clearance by early farmers, or disease resulted in a dramatic fall in the numbers of elmtrees, the so‐called ‘elm decline’. More fundamentally, from this point on, Ireland's woodlands came under progressively more sustained attack as the country's population gradually rose and land was cleared for agriculture. The process was neither simple nor linear and, during prehistoric times at least, involved the frequent abandonment of previously cleared land as part of a cycle of shifting agriculture. In turn this permitted the regrowth of secondary woodland to create a complex mosaic of farmland, virgin woodland, and secondary scrub. Clearance was progressive, however, and by the 8th century ad Brehon law tracts were classifying different types of tree according to their social value and specifying penalties for damaging specific varieties such as oak or ash. This suggests that by this time, some types of woodland were perceived as an increasingly scarce and important resource.

Woodland clearance continued during the Middle Ages, particularly under the aegis of the Cistercians and as manorialism in general encouraged commercial farming. The most rapid destruction, however, occurred during and after the plantations. By 1600, approximately 12 per cent of Ireland's lowlands were still forested, but by 1800 this had dropped to around 2 per cent, as a result of accelerated clearance for industrial and agricultural as much as strategic purposes. Thus specialized 17th‐century industries such as the charcoal‐fired iron smelting in Co. Cork, together with the more general demands for timber generated by coopers, tanners, shipbuilders, and housebuilders, contrived to turn Ireland from a net timber exporting country in the 17th century to a net importer in the 18th. Contemporary descriptions of the open or ‘champion’ nature of much of Ireland's landscape reflect this transformation.

Bibliography

Mitchell, F. , Shell Guide to Reading the Irish Landscape (2nd edn., 1986)

Lindsay Proudfoot

WOODS AND FORESTS

A comprehensive term for a large collection of trees in their natural setting and the property on which they stand.

State and federal laws govern the harvesting, reforestation, and other uses of woods and forests. The federal government maintains a system of national forests under the direction of the Forest Service, and most states also have forested land set aside as reserves.

State Regulation

A state may properly compel and encourage private owners to participate in programs for the reforestation of land. It can mandate that private property owners who are engaged in commercial lumbering operations provide for reforesting by leaving a certain number of trees for reseeding purposes, or by restocking the area with seedlings. The property owner's logging permit can be granted with the condition that he participate in the reforestation program.

A state can also give its forestry department the authority to arrange for the planting of roadside trees and to regulate the cutting and trimming of trees along the highways. In addition, various state statutes have been enacted to provide for the nurture and protection of shade and ornamental trees on public streets and highways. These statutes are based on a state's police power, which is to be used to promote the general welfare of its citizens.

State laws require precautions to be taken against forest fires. The state can prevent property owners from setting fires during the summer without permission, or it can authorize a state forester to determine whether an owner of forest land has provided sufficient protection against fire. During drought periods, when the fire danger is increased, the public may be prohibited from entering forests and woodlands.

National and State Forests

Since the early twentieth century it has been federal policy to reserve federally owned wooded areas as national forests. The goal is to improve and protect these areas so they can provide timber to be used by the public. Congress has the authority to provide for the development and maintenance of national forests and to acquire land for such purposes. Federal laws and regulations concerning national forests and their protection are paramount and preempt conflicting state laws. The Forest Service, which is a branch of the agriculture department, manages and regulates national forests and grasslands.

When a national forest is created, the reserved land is no longer subject to use for private purposes, except according to applicable statutes and regulations. The Forest Service can, therefore, issue permits for the occupancy of and the cutting of timber within national forests.

The granting of logging rights to private companies has proved controversial since the mid-1960s, when the practice of clearcutting was introduced. Clearcutting is a method of harvesting and regenerating timber in which all trees are cleared from a site and a new, even-aged stand of timber is grown. Many conservation and citizen groups object to clearcutting in the national forests, citing soil and water degradation, unsightly landscapes, over-harvesting, destruction of diversity of plants and animals, and other damages and abuses. Clearcutting accounted for sixty-three percent of the national forest area harvested between 1984 and 1994. Beginning in 1992, however, the Forest Service modified its policies to reduce clearcutting.

A portion of the proceeds from the use of national forests is given to the state in which the forest is located. The funds are to be spent for the benefit of public schools and roads in the counties that encompass the forest.

Generally a state can create forest reserves when they are reasonably necessary to promote the public welfare. A state can also levy taxes for the support of such forests.

cross-references

Environmental Law.