virginity tests Any patrilineal society inevitably values (or over-values) virginity in its females. Tests to detect virginity (or its absence) are as widespread historically as they are unreliable medically. They occur in folklore, in law, in literature, and in medical textbooks, falling into four groups: textile proof of bleeding; gynaecological examination by a jury of women; proof by magical ability on the part of the virgin; and somatic responses to ingested fluid or inhaled fumes. This last is what is usually meant by ‘virginity test’, and arose in response to the unreliability of the first three.

Mosaic law decreed that the bride's family should display the ‘proof of her virginity’ (i.e. blood-stained sheets) in public; inability to do so resulted in the bride being stoned to death (Deuteronomy 21: 13–21). The custom was still recognizable in early modern England. Katherine of Aragon kept her wedding sheets for over 30 years, producing them as evidence in the divorce case brought by Henry VIII against her; Shakespeare critics believe that the red-on-white of the strawberry-patterned linen handkerchief in Othello emblematizes Desdemona's virginity (hence, her failure to produce the handkerchief results in her death).

This test of the ‘first night's bloody napkin’ or pannum menstruatum prima nocte ( Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy of 1621) was relatively easy to fake. Farmyard kitchens offered access to chicken blood, and Jacobean drama provides the solution of bed-trick substitution, as in Middleton and Rowley's The Changeling (published 1622), where the virgin maid protects her mistress, the unchaste bride, by spending the wedding night with the groom. Unchaste brides could also cheat on a gynaecological test, for the bride had only to wear a veil for modesty's sake, as did Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, in a notorious example in 1613. Her attempt to annul her marriage to Robert Devereux, third Earl of Essex, was controversial, not least because of Frances's reputation for promiscuity. Public opinion held that a veiled substitute submitted to the physical examination on the Countess's behalf, thereby enabling her to pass the test and declare herself virgo intacta.

If gynaecological examinations were open to deceit, they were further compromised in that they were carried out by women (allegedly united in conspiratorial mendacity). Folklore offered a third type of virginity-test — magic. Virgins were credited with miraculous herbal healing powers; they could tame savage beasts or calm stinging swarms; they could wear clothing and accessories that would not fit unchaste women (for example, the magic mantle in the King Arthur legend, the magic girdle in Spenser's Faerie Queene). Unsurprisingly, this seems not to have been a prevalent option in real life. Thus the physician's virginity test came into medical prominence.

Essentially this last type of virginity test involves giving the woman a diuretic potion to drink, and seeing if she can contain her urine. Recipes for preparing and administering the potion are found in Pliny the Elder's History of the World; recipes in medieval and Renaissance books tend to be translations or derivatives of Pliny. Powdered jet (i.e. black lignite) is a staple ingredient: ‘if a woman drink it fasting presently it provoketh urine, if she be [not] a pure virgin’. The medieval Book of Secrets by St Albertus Magnus finds tactile contact with the stone sufficient to test virginity: ‘if the stone be broken and washed, or be given to a woman to be washed, if she be not a virgin, she will piss soon, if she be a virgin, she will not piss’. Variant ingredients include white amber, purslane seeds, or burdock leaves, the last two administered through inhalation rather than ingestion, but the effect — urination — is consistent.

Clearly such a test owes more to metaphor than to medicine. The vestal virgins were allegedly able to carry water in a sieve. (Like the bloody napkin and the physical examination, this test is not as foolproof as it sounds: one simply anoints the sieve with lanolin to provide a seal.) Queen Elizabeth publicized her status as Virgin Queen in a famous portrait in 1579 in which she holds a sieve in her left hand. Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (1611) provides a woodcut illustration of Chastity: she carries a whip in her right hand (presumably to deter Cupid who sits blindfolded at her feet), and, like Queen Elizabeth, she holds a large sieve in her left hand. The paired paintings by Godfried Schalken (1643–1706), The Wasted Lesson in Morals and The Medical Examination (Mauritshuis, The Hague) use the same iconography to depict the loss of chastity. In the first painting an elderly woman wags her finger at a young woman, cautioning her against opening a casket (symbolizing her virginity). The admonition is evidently unheeded for in the second painting the girl weeps while the doctor examines a flask of her urine. Thus, the chaste woman was sealed, impermeable; the unchaste woman was porous, incontinent. Given the effects on pelvic floor muscles and bladder of repeated childbearing and unsophisticated obstetrical instruments, the equation of unchastity with incontinence was self-fulfilling. A popular Elizabethan proverb held that ‘a ship and a woman are ever repairing’.

Renaissance literature frequently refers to virginity tests, and The Changeling actually stages one; however, it alters the effect of the potion from micturition to the more stageworthy sneezing, gaping, and yawning. Early modern culture extended the image of the open, unchaste woman as a urinating, leaking vessel to equate the speaking woman with unchastity; the logic was that a woman who had the temerity to open one orifice (her mouth) would readily open another (her vagina). Middleton's Revenger's Tragedy compresses the sequence of female speech/sex/virginity-test/urination into two lines: ‘Tell but some woman a secret over night, / Your doctor may find it in the urinal i’ the morning' (1.3.83–4). The trope is one of containment, with one body part functioning metonymically for another; women cannot control their tongues, their sexual desires, or their bladders.

From here it was an easy step for early modern suspicion to extend to all female bodily fluids: tears, menstruation, lactation. Despite empirical evidence to the contrary, Galen held that female fluids were related. Breasts and uterus were thought to be connected by tubes (white breast milk was transmuted menstrual fluid), as were tear ducts and bladder (an Elizabethan proverb proclaims, ‘Let her cry she'll piss the less’). Thus female leakiness was not just localized proof of loss of virginity but an innate condition signifying the first female transgression in Eden. Incontinence was both proof and punishment — evidence of loss of innocence and chastisement for it.

The virginity test in The Changeling is attributed to Antoine Mizauld (c.1520–78), a French doctor who studied medicine in Paris and published many works on medicine, mathematics, and astrology. The play uses his name simply to lend authority to the stage test, which does not correspond, in precise details, with any recipe or experiment in Mizauld's published works, although the broad outlines are authentic in the literature from Pliny onwards. By the seventeenth century the new scientists began to view virginity tests sceptically. Sir Thomas Browne (1605–82), who studied medicine in Leiden and practised in Norwich, wrote: ‘I find the triall of the Pucellage and Virginity of women, which God ordained the Jewes is very fallible’ (Religio Medici, 1643). He is referring specifically to the proof of the first night's ‘bloody napkin’, but his suspicion about reliability may be applied to virginity tests in general. Dale Randall points out that by the 1630s plays such as James Shirley's Hyde Park (1632) ‘endorse a far pleasanter kind of diagnosis’, what we might call ‘trial by temptation’: when asked if he can detect a woman's virginity, the hero replies, ‘I'll know't by a kiss, / Better than any doctor by her urine’.

Laurie Maguire

Bibliography

Paster, G. K. (1993). The body embarrassed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY.
Randall, D. B. J. (1984). Some observations on the theme of chastity in The Changeling. English Literary Renaissance, 14, 347–66.
Tilley, M. P. (1950). A dictionary of the proverbs in England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor MI.

Virgins

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Virgins are individuals of both sexes who have never had sexual intercourse, most commonly defined as vaginal penetration. Historically, virginity—particularly female— has been important in many cultures. The virginity of a bride has often been regarded as a mark of her purity, a sign of her family’s honor, and as a means of guaranteeing the passage of her husband’s bloodlines to her children. For Christians, male and female virginity has long been associated with spiritual purity, and most Christian religions today still place a high value on premarital virginity, even in societies where the vast majority of individuals do not remain virgins until marriage. In many contemporary societies, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, premarital female virginity still has tremendous cultural significance. In other cultures, especially North American and European societies, it is uncommon for people to remain virgins much past late adolescence. However, in such societies, there remains a double standard that encourages women to remain virgins longer than men.

In the United States, contemporary definitions of virginity are fluid. Some regard any sexual activity short of vaginal penetration as compatible with maintaining virginity, whereas others believe that participation in oral or anal sex constitutes a loss of virginity. Although heterosexuals are more likely to link virginity to vaginal penetration, most homosexuals do not consider those who have engaged in oral or anal sex to be virgins. For some, whether one gives or receives oral sex affects the potential loss of virginity. Similarly, in the case of anal sex between two men, there is sometimes debate as to whether one must penetrate or be penetrated in order to lose one’s virginity.

In most cases one’s status as a virgin is linked to lack of experience with certain sexual activities. In some instances, however, virginity is more closely tied to emotional or spiritual definitions. Some men and women, including many victims of rape, do not believe that non-consensual sexual intercourse can be counted as losing one’s virginity. Certain Christians who, after losing their virginity, decide to abstain from sex before marriage, consider themselves to have regained their virginity, becoming “born-again virgins” and thereby tying the notion of virginity to a personal spiritual state rather than a physical act.

In the United States today, loss of virginity is much less likely to be considered medically than emotionally or physically. In many cultures (and in earlier U.S. history), however, loss of virginity has been associated with the breaking of the hymen, a ring of tissue partially occluding the vagina. Though there is no necessary correlation between virginity and an intact hymen, some women have opted to undergo vaginal reconstruction surgery, which repairs or replaces the hymen. Although some do equate this procedure with a restoration of virginity, many others believe that restoring the hymen cannot make one a virgin.

Female virginity has long been of great importance to many cultures. Anthropologists suggest that a society’s attitude toward virginity is an indication of the social roles of men and women: In traditional, patriarchal societies a woman’s virginity is often considered a commodity that enhances a woman’s desirability, enables a prestigious marriage, cements interfamily alliances, and ensures the legitimacy of heirs. In the Kanuri society of Africa virginal brides were considered more prestigious than older, divorced women because they were believed to be more submissive to their husbands. In China, well into the twentieth century, a bride’s virginity was thought to be something owed to her husband; a man would consider it beneath his dignity and honor to wed a woman who was not a virgin.

In societies that place a high value on virginity, ritual verification of a bride’s virginity were common; such tests persist in some traditional cultures. In many cultures throughout the world the virginity of a woman was verified on or before her wedding night. As late as the 1950s the bedsheets of Kurdish brides were examined after the wedding night, and a handkerchief smeared with hymenal blood was presented to the groom’s mother as evidence of the bride’s virginity. A bride who failed to prove her virginity was returned to her family, where she was killed. African Amhara women who were discovered to not be virgins on their wedding nights were returned to their families to be beaten. Brides among the Bulgarian Gypsies and the African Twi were required to present proof of virginity, in the form of stained bedclothes, to their husbands’ families after the wedding night. Bedouin men tested their brides’ virginity with togas wrapped around their forefingers. Though such rituals of virginity verification are rare in North American and European societies and disappearing in other areas of the world, some cultures, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, continue to practice them.

SEE ALSO Gender; Human Sacrifice

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blank, Hanne. 2007. Virgin: The Untouched History. New York: Bloomsbury.

Carpenter, Laura M. 2005. Virginity Lost: An Intimate Portrait of First Sexual Experiences. New York: New York University Press.

Chozick, Amy. 2005. U.S. Women Seek a Second First Time with Hymen Surgery. Wall Street Journal, December 15.

Holtzman, Deanna, and Nancy Kulish. 1997. Nevermore: The Hymen and the Loss of Virginity. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

Maureen Lauder

680. Virginity (See also Chastity, Purity.)

1. Agnes, St. patron saint of virgins. [Christian Hagiog.: Brewer Dictionary, 16]
2. Atala Indian maiden learns too late she can be released from her vow to remain a virgin. [Fr. Lit.: Atala ]
3. Athena goddess who had no love affairs and never married, called Parthenos, ‘the Virgin.’ [Gk. Myth.: Benét, 60]
4. Cecilia, St. consecrated self to God, bridegroom followed suit. [Christian Hagiog.: Attwater, 81–82]
5. Chrysanthus and Daria, Sts. sexless marriage for glory of God. [Christian Hagiog.: Attwater, 86]
6. Drake, Temple chastity makes her the object of attacks. [Am. Lit.: Sanctuary ]
7. garden, enclosed wherein grow the red roses of chastity. [Christian Symbolism: De Virginibus, Appleton, 41]
8. Josyan steadfastly retains virginity for future husband. [Br. Lit.: Bevis of Hampton ]
9. Lygia foreign princess remains chaste despite Roman orgies. [Polish Lit.: Quo Vadis, Magill I, 797–799]
10. lily symbol of Blessed Virgin; by extension, chastity. [Christian Symbolism: Appleton, 57–58]
11. ostrich egg symbolic of virgin birth. [Art: Hall, 110]
12. red and white roses, garland of emblem of virginity, esp. of the Virgin Mary. [Christian Iconog.: Jobes, 374]
13. Vestals six pure girls; tended fire sacred to Vesta. [Rom. Hist.: Brewer Dictionary, 1127]
14. Virgin Mary, Blessed mother of Jesus. [Christianity: NCE, 1709]

vir·gin / ˈvərjən/ • n. a person, typically a woman, who has never had sexual intercourse. ∎  a naive, innocent, or inexperienced person, esp. in a particular context: a political virgin. ∎  (the Virgin) the mother of Jesus; the Virgin Mary. ∎  a woman who has taken a vow to remain a virgin. ∎  (the Virgin) the zodiacal sign or constellation Virgo. ∎  Entomol. a female insect that produces eggs without being fertilized. • adj. 1. being, relating to, or appropriate for a virgin: his virgin bride. 2. not yet touched, used, or exploited: acres of virgin forests virgin snow. ∎  (of clay) not yet fired. ∎  (of wool) not yet, or only once, spun or woven. ∎  (of olive oil) obtained from the first pressing of olives. ∎  (of metal) made from ore by smelting.

virgin unmarried or chaste woman or girl XIII; adj. XVI. — AN., OF. virgine, -ene (mod. vierge) — L. virgō, -gin-,
So virginal XV. — (O)F. or L. (see -AL1); as sb. (sg. and pl.) applied to a musical instrument (XVI), perh. so called because it was intended for young ladies. virginity XIII. — (O)F. virginité — L. virginitās.

vir·gin·i·ty / vərˈjinətē/ • n. the state of never having had sexual intercourse: he lost his virginity in college. ∎  the state of being naive, innocent, or inexperienced in a particular context: his political virginity.

virgin •Aladdin • stand-in •Dunedin, lead-in •Blondin, Girondin •Odin •paladin, Saladin •Borodin • Baffin • elfin •biffin, griffin, tiffin •boffin, coffin •dolphin • endorphin • bowfin •yellowfin •muffin, puffin •ragamuffin • paraffin • perfin •bargain • Begin • Kosygin •hoggin, noggin •imagine • margin • engine •pidgin, pigeon, smidgen, wigeon •stool pigeon • wood pigeon • origin •Pugin • virgin

virginity •banditti, bitty, chitty, city, committee, ditty, gritty, intercity, kitty, nitty-gritty, Pitti, pity, pretty, shitty, slitty, smriti, spitty, titty, vittae, witty •fifty, fifty-fifty, nifty, shifty, swiftie, thrifty •guilty, kiltie, silty •flinty, linty, minty, shinty •ballistae, Christie, Corpus Christi, misty, twisty, wristy •sixty •deity, gaiety (US gayety), laity, simultaneity, spontaneity •contemporaneity, corporeity, femineity, heterogeneity, homogeneity •anxiety, contrariety, dubiety, impiety, impropriety, inebriety, notoriety, piety, satiety, sobriety, ubiety, variety •moiety •acuity, ambiguity, annuity, assiduity, congruity, contiguity, continuity, exiguity, fatuity, fortuity, gratuity, ingenuity, perpetuity, perspicuity, promiscuity, suety, superfluity, tenuity, vacuity •rabbity •improbity, probity •acerbity • witchetty • crotchety •heredity •acidity, acridity, aridity, avidity, cupidity, flaccidity, fluidity, frigidity, humidity, hybridity, insipidity, intrepidity, limpidity, liquidity, lividity, lucidity, morbidity, placidity, putridity, quiddity, rabidity, rancidity, rapidity, rigidity, solidity, stolidity, stupidity, tepidity, timidity, torpidity, torridity, turgidity, validity, vapidity •commodity, oddity •immodesty, modesty •crudity, nudity •fecundity, jocundity, moribundity, profundity, rotundity, rubicundity •absurdity • difficulty • gadgety •majesty • fidgety • rackety •pernickety, rickety •biscuity •banality, duality, fatality, finality, ideality, legality, locality, modality, morality, natality, orality, reality, regality, rurality, tonality, totality, venality, vitality, vocality •fidelity •ability, agility, civility, debility, docility, edibility, facility, fertility, flexility, fragility, futility, gentility, hostility, humility, imbecility, infantility, juvenility, liability, mobility, nihility, nobility, nubility, puerility, senility, servility, stability, sterility, tactility, tranquillity (US tranquility), usability, utility, versatility, viability, virility, volatility •ringlety •equality, frivolity, jollity, polity, quality •credulity, garrulity, sedulity •nullity •amity, calamity •extremity • enmity •anonymity, dimity, equanimity, magnanimity, proximity, pseudonymity, pusillanimity, unanimity •comity •conformity, deformity, enormity, multiformity, uniformity •subcommittee • pepperminty •infirmity •Christianity, humanity, inanity, profanity, sanity, urbanity, vanity •amnesty •lenity, obscenity, serenity •indemnity, solemnity •mundanity • amenity •affinity, asininity, clandestinity, divinity, femininity, infinity, masculinity, salinity, trinity, vicinity, virginity •benignity, dignity, malignity •honesty •community, immunity, importunity, impunity, opportunity, unity •confraternity, eternity, fraternity, maternity, modernity, paternity, taciturnity •serendipity, snippety •uppity •angularity, barbarity, bipolarity, charity, circularity, clarity, complementarity, familiarity, granularity, hilarity, insularity, irregularity, jocularity, linearity, parity, particularity, peculiarity, polarity, popularity, regularity, secularity, similarity, singularity, solidarity, subsidiarity, unitarity, vernacularity, vulgarity •alacrity • sacristy •ambidexterity, asperity, austerity, celerity, dexterity, ferrety, posterity, prosperity, severity, sincerity, temerity, verity •celebrity • integrity • rarity •authority, inferiority, juniority, majority, minority, priority, seniority, sonority, sorority, superiority •mediocrity • sovereignty • salubrity •entirety •futurity, immaturity, impurity, maturity, obscurity, purity, security, surety •touristy •audacity, capacity, fugacity, loquacity, mendacity, opacity, perspicacity, pertinacity, pugnacity, rapacity, sagacity, sequacity, tenacity, veracity, vivacity, voracity •laxity •sparsity, varsity •necessity •complexity, perplexity •density, immensity, propensity, tensity •scarcity • obesity •felicity, toxicity •fixity, prolixity •benedicite, nicety •anfractuosity, animosity, atrocity, bellicosity, curiosity, fabulosity, ferocity, generosity, grandiosity, impecuniosity, impetuosity, jocosity, luminosity, monstrosity, nebulosity, pomposity, ponderosity, porosity, preciosity, precocity, reciprocity, religiosity, scrupulosity, sinuosity, sumptuosity, velocity, verbosity, virtuosity, viscosity •paucity • falsity • caducity • russety •adversity, biodiversity, diversity, perversity, university •sacrosanctity, sanctity •chastity •entity, identity •quantity • certainty •cavity, concavity, depravity, gravity •travesty • suavity •brevity, levity, longevity •velvety • naivety •activity, nativity •equity •antiquity, iniquity, obliquity, ubiquity •propinquity