dinosaur [Gr., = terrible lizard], extinct land reptile of the Mesozoic era . The dinosaurs, which were egg-laying animals, ranged in length from 2 1/2 ft (91 cm) to about 127 ft (39 m). Recognized discoveries of fossilized dinosaur bones date only to the 1820s; Sir Richard Owen, a Victorian anatomist, coined the term dinosaur.

Dinosaur Traits and Classification

Fossil remains of dinosaurs have been found in rock strata of every continent, indicating that they differed widely in structure, habitat, and diet. Their brain sizes varied, with some predators having brain-to-body ratios equivalent to those of some modern birds and animals. Many species built nests. Many theories regarding dinosaurs and their behavior are hotly debated by the experts. These include the debate over the grouping of birds with dinosaurs, the question of whether nonavian dinosaurs were cold-blooded (ectothermic) or warm-blooded (endothermic), the question of whether dinosaurs protected and nurtured their young in the nest after hatching or whether the young were mobile and self-sufficient at birth, and the reason for the disappearance of nonavian dinosaurs.

No complete fossil dinosaur has ever been discovered. Inferences must be made from fragments or pieces that have been compressed and distorted. Information about the diet has been gleaned from stomach contents and coprolites (fossilized dinosaur feces) and by comparing the teeth to those of living animals, for example, relating the large grinding teeth of hadrosaurs to those of living herbivores. Fossilized dinosaur footprints, such as the trackways found at Davenport Ranch in Texas, have been interpreted as evidence that dinosaurs traveled in herds. What is known about dinosaurs is that, far from being evolutionary failures, they dominated their habitats for most of their 160 million years of existence (the human species Homo sapiens has existed for approximately 150,000-200,000 years).

Although all dinosaurs were originally classified in a single order, it was later discovered that the group contained two distinct types distinguished by structural differences. The pelvis in the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs resembles that of still-extant reptiles, but in the ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaurs the pubic bone of the pelvis has forward and backward extensions that resemble those found in birds. It was later determined, however, that the backward-tilting hips of ornithischian dinosaurs and birds were the result of convergent evolution and not inheritance. Many other shared characteristics have been noted between birds and saurischians, and it is now believed by many paleontologists that modern birds are in fact extant dinosaurs of the saurischian order.

The jaws and teeth of the two dinosaur orders also differ. The saurischian order, which includes both herbivores and carnivores, has teeth around the entire jaw or confined to the front of the mouth. Ornithischians have "cheek teeth" along the sides of the jaw, but never in the front; the bones at the front of the mouth sometimes developed into the horny beaks typical of modern turtles. All known ornithischians were herbivores.

Dinosaurs are further classified into some common groupings. In the saurischian dinosaurs, some were theropods [Gr., = beast feet], a group sharing hind feet with only three functional toes (e.g., the carnivorous bipeds Tyrannosaurus , Velociraptor , Deinonychus , and possibly the living birds); others were sauropods [Gr., = lizard feet] with small heads and long necks (e.g., the herbivorous quadrupeds Apatosaurus [Brontosaurus] and Diplodocus ). Among the ornithischians, there were ornithopods (bird-footed dinosaurs), such as Iguanodon ; thyreophorans (armored dinosaurs), such as Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus ; and ceratopsians (horned dinosaurs), such as Triceratops . The total number of dinosaur genera that existed is unknown; new species are discovered every year, but some species, on further examination, are found to be redundant with earlier finds. One estimate of the possible number of distinct genera exceeds 1,800.

Similarities of dinosaurs found on what are now different continents have given scientists clues to the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea, which began about 170 million years ago. For example, the discovery of a 130-million-year-old African dinosaur similar to the North American Allosaurus suggests that the African plate was connected to the northern continents (Laurasia) longer than had been believed previously.

The Extinction of the Dinosaurs

Many explanations have been offered for the worldwide extinction of the dinosaurs after 160 million years of existence. The most popular theory is that one or more asteroids or comets hit the earth, lifting massive amounts of debris and sulfur in the air and blocking the sunlight from reaching the earth's surface. The 1991 discovery of the Chicxulub crater on the Yucatán peninsula in Mexico lent support to this idea. The second currently popular theory is that the extinctions followed the huge volcanic eruptions that created the lava flows of the Deccan Traps in what is now India. (See mass extinction for more information.) No theory perfectly describes why dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and many marine organisms were affected by the extinction, when many mammals and other animals (e.g., turtles and crocodiles) survived.

Bibliography

See R. Bakker, The Dinosaur Heresies (1986); D. Lambert, The Ultimate Dinosaur Book (1993); D. Lessem and D. Glut, The Dinosaur Encyclopedia (1993); M. A. Norell et al., Discovering Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History (1995); J. R. Horner, Dinosaur Lives (1997); P. Taquet, Dinosaur Impressions (1994; tr. by K. Padian, 1998); D. B. Weishampel et al., ed., The Dinosauria (2d ed. 2004).

dinosaur Any of a large number of reptiles that lived during the Mesozoic era, between 225 and 65 million years ago. They appeared during the Triassic period, survived the Jurassic, and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. There were two orders: Saurischia (‘lizard hips’), included the bipedal carnivores and the giant herbivores; the Ornithiscia (‘bird hips’) were smaller herbivores. Their posture, with limbs vertically beneath the body, distinguish them from other reptiles. Many theories are advanced to account for their extinction. It is possible that, as the climate changed, they were incapable of swift adaptation. A more catastrophic theory is that they died because of the devastating atmospheric effects from the impact of a large meteor. See also apatosaur; Diplodocus; tyrannosaurus

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs; http://www.nhm.ac.uk; http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/dino

Dinosaurs

The history of the Dinosauria begins with one of the dinosaur's small extinct ancestors called Petrolacosaurus. Around 270 million years ago, this animal was a member of the group of early land vertebrates called the diapsids that had skulls with two openings behind the eye socket (other evolutionary groups, like fish and amphibians, had one opening or none at all). The diapsids are believed to be the ancestors of the lepidosaurs (modern lizards and snakes) as well as of the archosaurs, the group that led to the dinosaurs. The lepidosaurs achieved great evolutionary success. The extra openings in their skulls led to the interesting structures found in modern snakes, including a light and flexible skull that allows them to catch and eat prey larger than their mouths.

Ancestry: Euparkeria

The first known archosaurs appeared in the Permian Period (319 to 286 million years ago) and they were well on their way to becoming large-sized animals by the early Triassic (about 245 million years ago). When discussing dinosaur ancestry, paleontologists prefer to examine an interesting little archosaur known as Euparkeria. Euparkeria had anatomical characteristics of most archosaurs (and eventually the dinosaurs), including deeply rooted, sharp, serrated teeth; two holes behind the eyes; and a broad space in front of the eye sockets. Their jaws had a distinctive opening that was different in shape and position from other tetrapods, and their spine had small bony plates suggestive of the beginning of armor plating. Perhaps the most important feature of Euparkeria is the arrangement of their hipbones.

As the archosaurs evolved, many species developed hipbones that allowed the angle of their hind limbs to change from a sprawling posture, such as a lizard or crocodile has, to an erect one, like a bird. The limbs came under the body instead of being spread out to the side. This leg position provided a firmer basis of support for a larger and heavier body. Dinosaurs became the largest land animals, and part of their ability to become so large was a direct result of this change in posture. When the legs are spread out to the side they can only support so much weight before the joints that attach them to the body give out. With the legs underneath the body, they form a kind of column that can support a great deal more weight. This means a larger animal can move around without being slow and sluggish or breaking its bones. This change in body posture is one of the main reasons dinosaurs were able to become so large.

One important group of archosaurs was the thecodonts, which included Euparkeria. During the Triassic period, thecodonts continued to evolve and undergo changes in body shape. By the end of the Triassic 213 million years ago), there were two groups of thecodonts, the saurischians and the ornithischians. The saurischians ate both plants and meat. Their pelvis was distinctive in that the three bones that made up the hip—the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis—were joined so that they angled away from each other in a triangular shape. There were two distinct groups of saurischians, the theropods ("beast feet") and the sauropods.

The theropods were carnivorous dinosaurs that walked upright on two feet. Some of the most famous dinosaurs we know today are theropods, including Tyrannosaurus rex, Velociraptor, and other swift and dangerous predators. The other group of saurischians, the sauropods, were herbivores and moved about on four legs. Some sauropods, including Brachiosaurus, Camarasaurus, and Ultrasaurus, were the largest animals that ever lived on Earth. The other evolutionary offshoot of the ancestral thecodonts was the ornithischians. The hip structure of the ornithischians differed from that of the saurischians in that their forward-extending pubis bone was turned toward the back. Because this bone structure also occurs in modern birds, the ornithischians are called bird-hipped dinosaurs. (The ornithischians are not ancestors of birds, they just have a similar hip structure.) The legs, feet, and anklebones of ornithischians were similar to those of the saurischians.

A peculiar adaptation of ornithischians was the beaklike covering of the front of the mouth, which is characteristic of the ceratopsians and duck-billed dinosaurs. Ornithischians also had a complex network of bony rods along their spine which supported the spine. All ornithischians were herbivores. The group contains some of the more distinctive-looking dinosaurs, including Stegosaurus, which had a series of large, triangular, horn-covered bony plates along its back and tail; the heavily armored Ankylosaurus; and the ceratopsians, including Triceratops, with its huge bony hood and horns.

The First True Dinosaurs

The first groups of true dinosaurs, the coelurosaurs, appeared about 210 million years ago in the late Triassic period. These dinosaurs were carnivorous theropods. They were agile and lightly built; most species were smaller than an adult human. Some of the best fossil specimens of the coelurosaur known as Coelophysis were discovered in the United States in New Mexico. Other coelurosaurs were the smaller Ornitholestes, a heavily jawed predator with nostrils that faced upward on its skull, and Coelosaurus perhaps the best-known coelorosaur. All coelorosaur feet had three toes pointing forward and a fourth facing back. The fifth toe was greatly reduced. This pattern persisted throughout the history of all the dinosaurs and is one way to document change within the group.

From the remains of dinosaurs that appear in the fossil record, paleontologists can infer what those animals looked like, how they moved, and what and how they ate. But paleontologists today are also asking: What dinosaur behavior can we infer from fossils? The Maiasaura ("Good Mother" dinosaur) eggs and young found in Montana in 1978 are an excellent example of one way paleontologists can hypothesize dinosaur behavior. In this case, the young dinosaurs at the site were too big to fit in the fossil eggs in nests that were found nearby. Paleontologists think that the parent dinosaurs brought food to the baby dinosaurs and protected them from predators. Also, since many nests were discovered together in a small area, the scientists think that these dinosaurs many have lived together in some sort of herd.

The thinking is that if the baby dinosaurs were too big to fit in the eggs, but were still in the nest they probably remained in nest for some time after hatching. They would have to had food brought to them by the parents until they were large enough to forage for food on their own. Many birds care for their young this way by bringing them food until the fledglings are old enough to feed and fly on their own. This is another piece of evidence that links birds and dinosaurs.

At the end of the Cretaceous era (around 64 million years ago), something happened that caused the remaining dinosaurs to die out. No one knows for sure what the event was. Many scientists believe an asteroid hit Earth, causing harsh atmospheric conditions that led to the dinosaurs' extinction. However, very few species of dinosaurs remained by the end of the Cretaceous. Scientists will probably never know what actually happened to the dinosaurs. Most think they are still here as birds. This is not difficult to imagine when you look closely at the characteristics of birds. It is comforting to imagine that these fantastic and lively creatures are still among us, only much smaller.

Recent discoveries of many species of feathered dinosaurs in China have really supported this idea. Most scientists know agree that birds are very closely related to dinosaurs, if not actually dinosaurs themselves. The so-called "missing links" between dinosaurs and birds have been found.

Leslie Hutchinson

Bibliography

Carroll, R. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1988.

Czerkas, S., and E. Olsen. Dinosaurs: Past and Present, vols. I and II. Los Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 1987.

Farlow, J. O., and M. K. Brett-Surman, eds. The Complete Dinosaur. Indiana University Press, 1997.

Horner, John R. Digging Dinosaurs. New York: Workman Publishing, 1988.

Norman, D. Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. New York: Crescent Books, 1985.

Sloan, Christopher. Feathered Dinosaurs. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2000.