Scotland. Geographically the north of Ireland is separated from Scotland (Kintyre) by a narrow strait, 20 miles wide. Hence it is not surprising that Ulster should have been closely linked with Scotland, more so than southern Ireland, whose links were more with Wales. Colonization from northern Ireland (Dál Riata) began in the 3rd century ad. It was followed in due course by evangelization. Like other conquerors, the Irish advanced with the Bible in one hand and the sword in the other. Conquests were made at the expense of their fellow Celts, the British of Strathclyde and the Picts of eastern Scotland, and by c.1000 Scots‐Gaelic was prevalent over much of Scotland, although it did not reach Orkney and Shetland. Irish missionaries led by Colum Cille brought Christianity to much of Scotland and also played a key role in the Christianization of Northumbria, an area which was long regarded as being culturally and politically tied to ‘the kingdom of the Scots’. Thus Ireland left a lasting mark on the history of early Christian Scotland. Fergus Mór (c. ad 500), ruler of Dál Riata, was seen as the founder figure of Scottish dynasties. The very name ‘Scotland’ means ‘the Land of the Irish’. Many Scottish place names (e.g. those incorporating sliabh=hill, cill=church, baile=village, and achadh=field) have Irish origins. Early folk history, adumbrated for example in the story of Deirdre and the sons of Uisneach, implied the existence of close links between Ulster and Alba (the Gaelic name for what came to be called Scotland).

The Viking raids (c.800) transformed but did not destroy the links between Ireland and Scotland. The Gaelic ‘kingdom of Scots’, under the McAlpine dynasty, shifted its centre of gravity from west to east under the impact of the Vikings. In the 12th century, however, a revival of Gaelic influence began under the leadership of Somerled, founder of ‘the kingship of the Isles’ (d. 1164). One of Somerled's sons, Donald, gave his name to the MacDonald dynasty, ‘lords of the Isles’ who exercised power on both sides of the sea dividing Ulster and the west of Scotland. The MacDonnells of Antrim were key supporters of the royalist cause in the civil wars of the mid‐17th century and backed Alasdair MacDonald (‘Colkitto’) in Montrose's campaigns in 1644–5, when Irish and Highland forces fought on behalf of Charles I.

The link between Ireland and Scotland was not confined to the lordship of the Isles. In 1315 Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce (de Brus, of Norman background), newly established ‘king of Scots’, came to mobilize Gaelic Ireland against English power there. After his death, however, Bruce was condemned by some as ‘the common ruin of the Galls and the Gaels of Ireland’. One Irish writer, a chronicler of the O'Briens, compared the Scots to a ‘black cloud with vaporous‐creeping offshoots and dark mists … [which] covered our Ireland's surface’. The result was nevertheless to undermine English influence in the north for two centuries. Ulster became a frontier region between Scotland and the English lordships in the south, where chiefs such as O'Neill and O'Donnell enjoyed an autonomy comparable to that of the marcher lords on the Welsh borders and the Percy family on the Anglo‐Scottish borders. In maintaining their local position, Ulster chiefs routinely hired mercenaries from Scotland, the so‐called gallowglasses. It is not too much to say that during this period (1300–1500) Ireland north of the Boyne looked more to Scotland than to England.

The Ulster plantation established links of a different kind between Ireland and Scotland. The accession of James VI of Scotland as James I of England in 1603 brought Ireland into a ‘three‐kingdom’ political structure. The new king used his power to support colonization from the Scottish lowlands into the territories of the Gaelic chiefs O'Neill and O'Donnell. He also encouraged settlement by the Campbells in Kintyre at the expense of the MacDonalds. In the newly planted counties of Cavan, Donegal, Armagh, Coleraine (later replaced by Londonderry), Fermanagh, and Tyrone the balance on the whole favoured English settlers. In Antrim and Down, however, colonized after the purchase of the estates of Conn O'Neill, the vast majority of the new arrivals were Scottish, Lowland born and Presbyterian in religion. They brought to Ulster a distinctive convenanting style of Puritanism in which the papacy appeared as Antichrist. There was an inevitable and bitter clash over land and religion between the colonists and the existing Gaelic‐speaking inhabitants, whose earlier cultural links were with the Highlands and the Isles, not the Lowlands. In 1641 the Ulster Catholics, led by Phelim O'Neill, rose against a plantation in which they had lost much of their lands. A massacre of Protestants occurred which came to have the same historical resonance in Ireland as the later Scottish massacre of Glencoe in 1692 (where Catholic MacDonalds were the victims). During the civil wars of the 1640s, in both Ulster and Scotland, clashes between Catholics and Presbyterians took on a bitterness rivalling that of the Wars of Religion in Europe.

During the 18th century, Ulster Presbyterians experienced political and religious discrimination, most notably the sacramental test. It was such grievances which led to the disenchantment of some Presbyterians with the British government and to their involvement in a radical alliance with the Catholics—the United Irishmen. The influence of the Scottish Enlightenment had also encouraged the growth of a more liberal and tolerant ‘New Light’ (see old light and new light) movement in Presbyterian circles. It was thus not surprising that groups of Presbyterians and Catholics should have made common cause in the insurrection of 1798 in Antrim and Down. Among the Presbyterian body as a whole, however, there was probably little sympathy with the United Irishmen and during the 19th century it was political and religious orthodoxy that was to prevail.

After the passing of the Act of Union relations between evangelical Anglicans and Presbyterian covenanters drew closer in the face of the threat of a resurgent Catholicism, led by O'Connell. Economic competition for jobs in newly industrialized Belfast added to the tensions. Belfast, once a liberal city, became a byword for sectarian violence. The liberal traditions of the Scottish Enlightenment did not disappear entirely, but they were gravely weakened.

The relationship between Ireland and Scotland underwent further changes during the Great Famine and its aftermath. Irish refugees poured into Glasgow and its surrounding areas, where they took low‐paying jobs in mining and in the cotton industry. The Irish newcomers were resented as a source of ‘cheap labour’, and sectarian antagonism in the Scottish Lowlands reached levels comparable to those in Belfast.

As in Northern Ireland, sectarian hostility persisted to the end of the 20th century. In Scotland, however, there has been some decline in the level of inter‐ethnic bitterness and, unlike Northern Ireland, Pope John Paul II was able to pay a visit there in 1982. In recent years the problems of Northern Ireland have not seriously affected Scotland, and sectarian rivalries have largely been restricted to football grounds.

Bibliography

Connolly, S. J., Houston, R. A., and Morris, R. J. (eds.), Conflict, Identity and Economic Development: Ireland and Scotland 1600–1939 (1995)
Ellis, S. G., and Barber, S. (eds.), Conquest and Union: Fashioning a British State 1485–1725 (1995)
Kearney, H. F. , The British Isles: A History of Four Nations (1989)

Hugh Kearney

Robert I

Robert I (1274-1329), or Robert Bruce, was king of Scotland from 1306 to 1329. Leader of the successful resistance to the threat of English domination of his country, Bruce is regarded as one of the great patriots of Scottish history.

Robert Bruce was the eighth male to bear that name in a direct line going back to the first Robert, who probably took part in the Norman conquest of England and died about 1094. The family subsequently gained considerable lands and prominence in Scotland. The fifth Robert Bruce (died 1245) married the niece of King William, "the Lion," thus establishing a possible claim, albeit a distant one, to the Scottish throne. This claim was advanced by the sixth Robert on the highly complicated succession quarrel that arose in Scotland in 1290. William the Lion's grandson, Alexander III, had died in 1286, leaving as direct heir only a 3-year old granddaughter, Margaret, the "Maid of Norway" (her father was king of Norway). The problems of how to manage the minority reign of a small girl were grave enough, but when she died suddenly in 1290, some 13 competitors claimed to be her rightful successor as monarch of Scotland.

In this situation the commanding nature of England's king, Edward I, was the decisive factor. Any choice opposed by Edward would most likely be untenable, and the question was submitted to him for arbitration. The claims of two competitors clearly stood out: John Balliol, great-grandson of a brother of William the Lion by an eldest daughter; and Robert Bruce (VI), grandson by a younger daughter. Edward decided for Balliol; but before issuing his decision, he took oaths of allegiance from all the claimants, including Robert Bruce (VI) as well as his son Robert (VII).

This seventh Robert was the father of the patriotic leader and future king of Scotland; but, as has been seen, the position of the Bruces was originally that of appellants to, and sworn men of, the English King. Edward's decision had by no means settled the situation in Scotland. Balliol, suspected by the Scots of being an English puppet and by Edward of forswearing his oath, could not rule effectively, and the situation was complicated by the alliance of Scotland with France, an enemy of England. From 1296 Balliol was no longer a factor, and the only choices were direct English domination or Scottish independence, which meant war with England. William Wallace emerged as the leader of the Scottish resistance, winning a great victory at Stirling Bridge in 1297; but he was in turn defeated by Edward at Falkirk the following year, and though he kept up sporadic guerrilla warfare until his capture and execution in 1305, he was no longer a serious threat to the English. Besides, Wallace's movement was, nominally, to restore Balliol, a cause uncongenial to many of the leading Scots.

His Accession

Robert Bruce the eighth (hereafter called just Bruce) first emerged importantly as one of the "guardians" of the kingdom in December 1298, ostensibly on behalf of Edward I. The other principal guardian was John Comyn, nicknamed "The Red," whose affinity with the house of Balliol led to a lasting quarrel with Bruce from at least 1299. Bruce resigned as guardian in 1300, and though on the surface he was at peace with Edward, it is likely that he was thinking of the crown, especially after the death of his father (who had earlier transferred the Bruce claim to him) in 1304. He had apparently entered into a secret alliance with the patriotic Bishop Lamberton of St. Andrews, and perhaps through fear that his plans would be disclosed, he killed Comyn the Red in a church in Dumfries in February 1306. This violent and probably unpremeditated deed at once pushed Bruce to the head of the Scottish resistance. Within 6 weeks he was crowned as Robert I, King of Scotland.

In England, Edward I reacted strongly to the news and at the famous "Feast of Swans" swore to avenge Comyn's death and destroy Bruce (who had also been excommunicated by the Pope for profaning the church at Dumfries). Bruce was immediately in trouble from the well-led English forces, as well as from the adherents of Comyn, and soon found himself a king apparently without a following, hiding in the western highlands, or even in Ireland. But the long final illness and death of Edward I in 1307 marked a turning point. The new English king, Edward II, was from the first unpopular with his nobility and, as a military leader, was beneath comparison with his father. From spring 1307 Bruce's fortunes began to revive. Edward II was vacillating and indecisive in his actions, and Bruce was able to make headway against both the English and his remaining Scottish enemies. In March 1309 a truce was made with England, whose holdings in Scotland were reduced to only a few castles.

In the next few years expeditions were made into the northern parts of England, and the last possession of the English in Scotland, Stirling Castle, was heavily besieged. In a concerted effort to remedy the situation, Edward II in 1314 led a large army to the relief of Stirling, but it was defeated by Bruce and his outnumbered Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn. The English fled in confusion, and Bruce was undisputed master of his country. Though tensions with England continued, there was no further major threat from the English in Bruce's lifetime; nor was there further serious dissension in Scotland.

From 1309 Bruce was holding parliaments and could attend in a systematic way to the government of the country. Parliament addressed itself to the succession problem in 1315, 1318 (when Bruce's brother and heir presumptive, Edward, was killed in Ireland), and 1326 (after the birth 2 years earlier of Bruce's first son and eventual successor, David). Bruce's relations with the papacy remained strained, until the papal refusal to recognize Bruce as king was reversed by John XXII in 1328. The Scottish hierarchy had consistently supported the King. In his later years Bruce suffered from what was called, and may have been, leprosy. He died at his country estate at Cardross in June 1329, just before the marriage of his son David to the sister of the new English king, Edward III, as the final provision of a peace treaty between the two countries.

Further Reading

John Barbour's long poem, The Bruce (ca. 1375; modern translation by Archibald A. H. Douglas, 1964), is the principal narrative source. The major modern work on Robert I is G. W. S. Barrow, Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland (1965). Older studies are Sir Herbert Maxwell, Robert the Bruce and the Struggle for Scottish Independence (1898), and Agnes Mure Mackenzie, Robert Bruce: King of Scots (1934). For historical background see William Croft Dickinson, A New History of Scotland, vol. 1 (1961; 2d ed. 1965).

Additional Sources

Barbour, John, Barbour's Bruce: a fredome is a noble thing!, Edinburgh: Scottish Text Society, 1980-1985.

Barrow, G. W. S., Robert Bruce and the community of the realm of Scotland, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1976.

Mackay, James A. (James Alexander), Robert Bruce: King of Scots, London: Hale, 1974.

Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, New York: P. Bedrick Books, 1989, 1982; Carroll & Graf, 1996.

Tranter, Nigel G., A traveller's guide to the Scotland of Robert the Bruce, Harrisburg, PA, USA: Historical Times, 1985. □

Robert I ( Robert Bruce) (1274–1329), earl of Carrick (1292–1306), king of Scots as Robert I (1306–29). Grandson of Robert Bruce, the competitor for the Scottish throne in 1291, Bruce never lost sight of his claim to the throne, but after John Balliol's enthronement in 1292 had little prospect of attaining it. After John's resignation in 1296, Edward I starkly refused any consideration of the Bruce claim. Despite the Scots' continued loyalty to their deposed king Bruce was deeply involved in the rising of 1297, and continued in resistance even after the defeat at Falkirk (22 July 1298). He served as joint guardian from 1298 probably to early 1300, and remained on the Scottish side till 1302.

Then however he made his peace with Edward. He still nursed hopes of the crown; but he had little chance in Scotland while Balliol was still being treated as the legitimate sovereign. He was also regularly at odds with the Comyn family who were Balliol's leading supporters. Bruce's desertion certainly reduced the chances of Balliol's restoration; and resistance to Edward collapsed in 1304.

Bruce's next move, the coup of 1306, remains hard to explain. We know that in 1304 he made a secret pact with Bishop Lamberton of St Andrews, a future ally. We know also that he tried to negotiate with John Comyn of Badenoch just before he revolted openly early in 1306, and that the result was a quarrel in which Comyn was murdered. But Bruce's decision to seize the throne was clearly already taken, since his actions after Comyn's death were carefully planned and rapidly executed. Barrow has suggested that Bruce had been biding his time till Edward was close to death, and that in 1306 he judged the time ripe. Events proved him right, though only just.

Bruce was crowned as Robert I on 25 March 1306; but though Edward was sick he was not to be trifled with. Robert himself was defeated at Methven (19 June 1306) by Edward's newly appointed lieutenant Aymer de Valence; and, probably in July, at Dalry in Perthshire, by a Scot, John Macdougall of Argyll. Kildrummy castle was captured by Valence in September. Robert's supporters and relatives were hunted down and executed; he himself had to go into hiding.

He reappeared in Ayrshire in the spring of 1307, and Edward I died in July. Edward II had little energy to spare for Scotland for some years, and this enabled Robert to overcome his internal enemies. The power of the Comyns was destroyed at the battle of Inverurie. Others, such as the earl of Ross, were won over. The king's brother Edward Bruce gradually reduced English authority in the south-west, while Robert himself concentrated on the western Highlands and Islands. By 1314, effective English power was limited to Lothian.

The years from 1308 also saw King Robert's grip over government tightened. In a parliament at St Andrews in 1309, declarations were issued in the name of the nobles and the clergy, asserting Robert's right to the throne as the lawful successor of Alexander III, and denouncing the aggression of Edward I in terms which set the pattern of Scottish national propaganda for centuries to come. Robert I was now widely accepted in Scotland as the rightful king. His authority was confirmed by the decisive victory of Bannockburn (24 June 1314), following on the recapture of Edinburgh and Roxburgh castles earlier in the year. Only Berwick and a few other border strongholds remained in English hands; and the rest of the war was fought by raids into the north of England. Berwick itself was recaptured in 1318.

In the rest of his reign, Robert I showed himself a masterful king. He was willing to be reconciled with his former enemies, and readily accepted the loyal service of those who were willing to submit; those who would not were exiled. His two chief problems were to secure the succession (his lack of a direct male heir until the birth of his son David in 1324 required three successive ‘tailzies’ (entails) of the crown in the parliaments of 1315, 1318, and 1326); and to secure his recognition by other rulers. He fell foul of the papacy by his refusal to comply with a papal truce in 1317, as a result of which he was eventually excommunicated in 1320. An earlier excommunication for the sacrilegious murder of John Comyn may have been lifted in 1308. That of 1320 was respited as a result of the appeal usually known as the ‘declaration of Arbroath’; from then on, the pope was prepared at least to give King Robert his proper title. English recognition was more difficult. Edward II would not concede it; and it came only after his deposition. At last in 1328, by the treaty of Edinburgh/Northampton, the English government admitted that Robert was king, and agreed to a marriage between his heir and a sister of the young Edward III as an earnest of a settled peace between what it recognized were two separate and independent nations.

Robert died, perhaps of leprosy, on 7 June 1329, having secured both his own position and the independence of his country. It was hardly his fault that Edward III overturned the settlement of 1328 only five years later. Robert I did not create the sense of an independent identity for Scotland: that had roots that went back long before the death of Alexander III and the conflicts that followed; but ever since his death, he has been the great hero of the Wars of Independence, the man who foiled Edward I's attempt to assert his authority over Scotland, and who defeated all efforts by Edward II to recover the position which Edward I had lost in 1306.

Bruce Webster

Bibliography

Barrow, G. W. S. , Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland (3rd edn. Edinburgh, 1988);
Duncan, A. A. M. , ‘The War of the Scots, 1306–1323’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th ser. (1992), 125–51;
Nicholson, R. , Scotland: The Later Middle Ages (Edinburgh, 1974).

Robert I ( Robert Bruce) (1274–1329), earl of Carrick (1292–1306), king of Scots as Robert I (1306–29). Grandson of Robert Bruce, the competitor for the Scottish throne in 1291, Bruce never lost sight of his claim to the throne. After John Balliol's resignation in 1296, Edward I starkly refused any consideration of the Bruce claim. Despite the Scots' continued loyalty to their deposed king Bruce was deeply involved in the rising of 1297, and continued in resistance even after the defeat at Falkirk (22 July 1298). He served as joint guardian from 1298 probably to early 1300, and remained on the Scottish side till 1302. Then however he made his peace with Edward. Bruce's desertion certainly reduced the chances of Balliol's restoration; and resistance to Edward collapsed in 1304. Bruce's next move, the coup of 1306, remains very hard to explain. We know that he tried to negotiate with John Comyn of Badenoch just before he revolted openly early in 1306, and that the result was a quarrel in which Comyn was murdered. Barrow has suggested that Bruce had been biding his time till Edward was close to death, and that in 1306 he judged the time ripe.

Bruce was crowned as Robert I on 25 March 1306; but though Edward was sick he was not to be trifled with. Robert himself was defeated at Methven (19 June 1306) by Edward's newly appointed lieutenant Aymer de Valence. Robert's supporters and relatives were hunted down and executed; he himself had to go into hiding. He reappeared in Ayrshire in the spring of 1307, and Edward I died in July. Edward II had little energy to spare for Scotland for some years, and this enabled Robert to overcome his internal enemies. The power of the Comyns was destroyed at the battle of Inverurie. Others, such as the earl of Ross, were won over. By 1314, effective English power was limited to Lothian.

The years from 1308 also saw King Robert's grip over government tightened. In a parliament at St Andrews in 1309, declarations were issued asserting Robert's right to the throne as the lawful successor of Alexander III, and denouncing the aggression of Edward I. Robert I was now widely accepted in Scotland as the rightful king. His authority was confirmed by the decisive victory of Bannockburn (24 June 1314), following on the recapture of Edinburgh and Roxburgh castles earlier in the year.

In the rest of his reign, Robert I showed himself a masterful king. He was willing to be reconciled with his former enemies, and readily accepted the loyal service of those who were willing to submit. His two chief problems were to secure the succession and to obtain recognition by other rulers. He fell foul of the papacy by his refusal to comply with a papal truce in 1317, as a result of which he was eventually excommunicated in 1320. That excommunication was respited as a result of the appeal usually known as the ‘declaration of Arbroath’; from then on, the pope was prepared at least to give King Robert his proper title. English recognition was more difficult. Edward II would not concede it; and it came only after his deposition. At last in 1328, by the treaty of Edinburgh/Northampton, the English government admitted that Robert was king, and agreed to a marriage between his heir and a sister of the young Edward III as an earnest of a settled peace.

Robert died, perhaps of leprosy, on 7 June 1329, having secured both his own position and the independence of his country. Ever since his death, he has been the great hero of the Wars of Independence, the man who foiled Edward I's attempt to assert his authority over Scotland, and who defeated all efforts by Edward II to recover the position which Edward I had lost in 1306.

Robert I or Robert the Bruce, 1274–1329, king of Scotland (1306–29). He belonged to the illustrious Bruce family and was the grandson of that Robert the Bruce who in 1290 was an unsuccessful claimant to the Scottish throne. He became (1292) earl of Carrick and on his father's death (1304) assumed the lordship of Annandale and of the Bruce lands in England. In 1296, Robert swore fealty to Edward I of England, but the following year he joined the struggle for national independence. He appears to have taken part only intermittently until an obscure contest between him and John Comyn (d. 1306) for the adherence of the Scottish nationalists resulted in Comyn's murder (probably unpremeditated) by Bruce or his followers. In defiance of Edward I, Robert was then crowned king at Scone in Mar., 1306. Defeated by the English at Methven (1306), he fled to the west and apparently took refuge on the island of Rathlin, off the coast of Ireland. The Bruce estates were confiscated by Edward, and punishment was meted out to Robert's followers. From this time of discouragement stems the legend that Robert learned courage and hope from watching a spider persevere in spinning its web.

Returning in 1307, Robert won a victory at Loudon Hill, which brought him new adherents. Edward I attempted to lead a new expedition against the rebellious Scots but died on the way and was succeeded by his son, Edward II, who failed to pursue his father's vigorous course. Robert was able to consolidate his hold on Scotland and to recapture lands and castles from the English. Stirling was besieged by the Scots and so hard pressed that the English governor finally agreed to its surrender if relief from England did not arrive before June 24, 1314. On June 23 and 24, at nearby Bannockburn , Robert overwhelmingly defeated the large English relief force led by Edward II. The war went on, and in 1318 the Scots recaptured Berwick. A truce, made in 1323, lasted only until 1327, when the bellicose young Edward III led an unsuccessful expedition to the north. Finally, by the Treaty of Northampton (1328), the English recognized the independence of Scotland and the validity of Robert's title to the throne.

Robert spent the short remainder of his life in his castle at Cardross and died there, perhaps of leprosy. As he requested, his embalmed heart was given to Sir James de Douglas, lord of Douglas, to be carried to Jerusalem for burial. Douglas was killed in Spain, but (according to tradition) Robert's heart was recovered, brought back to Scotland, and buried in Melrose Abbey. By his courage and skill Robert had freed Scotland from English rule. He was succeeded by his son, David II .

Bibliography: See biographies by A. M. Mackenzie (1934, repr. 1957), G. W. S. Barrow (1965, rev. ed. 1988), and R. M. Scott (1989, repr. 1996); C. McNamee, The Wars of the Bruces (1997).

Robert II (1316–90), steward of Scotland (1326–71), earl of Strathearn (1357–69 and 1370–1), the first Stewart king of Scots (1371–90). Grandson of Robert I of Scotland and heir presumptive to the throne by the ‘tailzie’ (entail) of 1318. The birth of a son to Robert I in 1324 left Robert only as heir presumptive failing a direct heir to David II. He was several times king's lieutenant during David's minority and captivity, but showed himself inactive against the English and ineffective in government.

Robert was 55 when he eventually succeeded the childless David. For a time he proved more capable than his earlier career would have suggested. Too old to take the field himself, he made good use of the younger nobles to exploit the weakness of English authority during the senility of Edward III and the minority of Richard II. Payment of David's ransom was stopped in 1377; and by the early 1380s most of the lands in English occupation had been recovered. By that time, however, Richard II was emerging as a determined ruler, while Robert II's age was telling. In 1384, as more open war was breaking out, a general council, apparently with his consent, deprived Robert of control of justice, which was given to his son John, earl of Carrick, the future Robert III. He was in turn succeeded in 1388 by the king's second son Robert, earl of Fife, and future duke of Albany. Robert II died in April 1390, at the age of 74.

The 15th-cent. chronicler Walter Bower stressed the prosperity of Scotland at the time, the maintenance of peace and order, and the fact that Robert left Scotland almost entirely free of English control. Later writers have been less flattering, though it seems that at least till 1384 he was an effective and successful ruler. Unfortunately he left a large number of descendants from his two marriages, and rivalries between the various lines repeatedly disturbed the peace of Scotland, at least until the death of James I.

Bruce Webster

Robert I ( the Bruce) (1274–1329) King of Scotland (1306–29). He descended from a prominent Anglo-Norman family with a strong claim to the throne. He swore fealty to Edward I of England (1296), but joined a Scottish revolt against the English in 1297. Robert later renewed his allegiance to Edward, but his divided loyalties made him suspect. After killing a powerful rival, John Comyn, he had himself crowned King of Scotland (1306) but, defeated at Methven (1306) by the English, he fled the kingdom. Returning on Edward's death (1307), the Bruce renewed the struggle with increasing support. In 1314, he won a famous victory over the English at Bannockburn. The battle secured Scottish independence, which was finally recognized in the Treaty of Northampton (1328).

Robert I (the Bruce) (1274–1329) King of Scotland (1306–29). Robert I had a successful reign, inheriting a contested throne in a country partly occupied by the English, and leaving a securely governed kingdom to his son, DAVID II. He was fortunate in that he was matched by an ineffectual English king, EDWARD II, over whom he won an important victory at BANNOCKBURN in 1314. In 1322 Edward attempted a fresh invasion of Scotland, but Bruce outmanoeuvred him and then invaded England as far south as Yorkshire, nearly capturing Edward himself. In the Treaty of Edinburgh (1328), EDWARD III recognized Bruce's title and Scotland's independence from England, although this was only a temporary lull in Anglo-Scottish hostilities.

Robert I (Robert the Magnificent), d. 1035, duke of Normandy (1027–35); father of William the Conqueror. He is often identified with the legendary Robert the Devil . He aided King Henry I of France against Henry's rebellious brother and mother, intervened in the affairs of Flanders, and supported Edward the Confessor, then in exile at Robert's court. He also sponsored monastic reform in Normandy. After making his illegitimate son William his heir, he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and died at Nicaea.

Robert I c.865–923, French king (922–23), son of Count Robert the Strong and younger brother of King Eudes . He inherited from Eudes the territory between the Seine and the Loire rivers. In 922, Robert led a rebellion against King Charles III (Charles the Simple) and was crowned king by a party of nobles and clergy, but he was soon killed in battle. His son-in-law, Raoul of Burgundy, succeeded him. His son was Hugh the Great .