prophets ‘Prophets’ in English Bibles usually renders Hebrew ‘nebi'i m’, though other terms are used. Thus there were ‘seers’ (Hebrew, ro'e h, a seer, 1 Sam. 9: 9), who passed on messages from God received in dreams or divination. There were also sorcerers and soothsayers who engaged in necromancy and whose activities are condemned as pagan practices (Deut. 18: 10–11). They also claimed to predict future events, and in this they were indistinguishable from traditional characteristics of the prophets of the Lord as recorded in the stories of the books of Samuel and Kings. But in the Deuteronomic tradition in the mid-6th cent. BCE it is Moses who is regarded as the prophet (nabi) par excellence. He is the man of authority who conversed with God ‘face to face’ and who wrought signs and wonders (Deut. 34: 9–12), and looked to the future (Deut. 18: 18). Miracles continued to be one of the authenticating marks of prophets such as Elijah and Elisha in the 9th cent. BCE (though before then Nathan was recognized as a prophet in the court of King David (2 Sam. 7) about 1000 BCE). But also the commonly held view that prophets were above all inspired to foretell future events is based on the Deut. text. A true prophet was recognizable if his predictions were fulfilled (Deut. 18: 22), which could be a long time ahead. Prophecy of divine punishment, for example, is seen by the Deuteronomist as fulfilled by the destruction of Jerusalem (586 BCE), which was not an incomprehensible disaster, because it happened in accordance with prophecy. Prophets also played a regular and respected role in Israel's religious and social life. Although they were sometimes threatened (Amos 7: 10–13; Jer. 26: 8) or ignored (Isa. 6: 9 ff.), they were on the whole accorded remarkable toleration even when their utterances were feared and resented. Several enjoyed royal protection (Isaiah, Huldah, Jeremiah); some, under the early monarchy, had support by membership of a prophetic guild (2 Kgs. 4: 38). Some may have been held in awe on account of the ecstatic and paranormal phenomena and frenzy (1 Sam. 10: 6) which were characteristic and, in some cases, even suspected of being an indication of possession by an evil spirit (1 Kgs. 18: 26–9; Jer. 29: 24–8). At any rate there were times when prophets were struck with aphasia (Ezek. 3: 26) and hallucinations (Jer. 4: 19), and some were conspicuous for wearing distinctive dress (2 Kgs. 1: 8). There is no evidence that prophets had disciples who were responsible for collecting their masters' utterances (the only possible reference to such a custom, Isa. 8: 16, is difficult to interpet) but Jeremiah had a secretary (Jer. 36: 4), and someone at any rate collected the teachings of Isaiah for preservation and for reinterpretation and additions during the Exile.

Although prophets engaged in normal community life (Amos 1: 1) and constantly expressed praise for Jerusalem (Isa. 2: 3) or were even employed in the Temple services (Ezek. 1: 3), they uttered their prophetic oracles, sometimes reluctantly, when the word of the Lord compelled them (Jer. 1: 6). They were often fiercely critical of the sacrificial system (e.g. Isa. 1: 10 ff.; Amos 5: 24–5) when it was divorced from moral responsibility. They were not, however, opposed to such worship in itself, as is evident from the wealth of liturgical material in the prophetic literature (e.g. Isa. 38 and Habakkuk 3). Isaiah had his great vision in the Temple and there discovered that holiness rebuked the sinfulness of himself and society (Isa. 6: 5).

Prophets were often critical of royal courts and institutions and policies, and were then felt to be very threatening by the Establishment. At the same time it was part of the prophetic convention to utter strong denunciations when appropriate against the nation's enemies, even if the crimes had been committed some time ago (Amos 1: 3–2: 6) and the enemies would never hear them. But the people of Israel would hear them, which then rendered the denunciation of Israel itself all the more telling. Prophets were upholders of social justice; they condemned owners of property (Mic. 2: 2), men who were persistently drunk (Joel 1: 5), and women who adorned themselves excessively with fine clothes and jewellery (Isa. 3: 6–23). They warned that punishments were in store for the nation's iniquities, though in the end, since God would never be unfaithful to his covenant promises—there remained the consolation of a strong hope. When the prophets condemned religious abuses (Isa. 1: 9–17) and social vice (e.g. Isa. 5: 8), and gave political advice (Isa. 7: 4; Jer. 32), there were differences of emphasis between prophets in what they proclaimed. But all accepted the basic doctrine that Israel was chosen by God as his special people, and that this had moral consequences. The prophets were one of the influences on the ideology of the covenant eventually formalized by the Deuteronomist school. This conviction enabled the people's faith to survive the hardships of the Exile and the hazards of the Return in the 6th cent. BCE. After the prophets of that era (Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi) prophecy disappeared, under a cloud of suspicion and antipathy (Zech. 13: 2–6). Thereafter characteristic communication between God and the people was in the form of apocalyptic, though there is no clear line of demarcation between that and prophecy. The prophets' hope of ultimate salvation combined with their threats of judgement, which is apparent in a late oracle such as Isa. 58: 1–12, became part of the content of apocalyptic expectations for the day of the Lord.

When John the Baptist the Baptist began to preach and baptize by the River Jordan, this was hailed as a revival of long defunct prophecy (Matt. 3: 4).

Prophecy was not a uniquely Israelite phenomenon. Discoveries at Mari have uncovered letters (18th cent. BCE) which describe activities of religious men similar to that of the OT prophets. Within Israel there could be ‘false prophets’, as when Hananiah was challenged by Jeremiah (Jer. 28); the truth could only be discovered by the people who heard their dispute by waiting to see what happened (Deut. 18: 21–2). Nevertheless unfulfilled prophecies are faithfully recorded: Micah predicted in the 8th cent. BCE that Jerusalem would fall (Mic. 3: 12), whereas his contemporary Isaiah predicted that the city would be saved. It would seem that over the years these prophets acquired a kind of unique authority. The non-fulfilment of a single utterance was less important than the whole context of the nation under hostile oppression. Seen like that, prophecies were validated.

There are prophets in the NT who had a kind of specialized office (Eph. 2: 20) and they can be traced up to the second half of the 2nd cent. Then they disappeared, possibly because a rash of false and spontaneous prophecies made them suspect to leaders of the Church. Paul is certainly not very enthusiastic about this ministry: utterances were to be tested (Rom. 12: 6; 1 Cor. 12: 3). But it was more acceptable than unintelligible speech, and is mentioned in every list of spiritual gifts. It was regarded as helpful in building up a community of faith (1 Cor. 14: 1–5), but, unlike OT prophecy, it seems that only exceptionally (Acts 11: 28) was NT prophecy associated with foretelling the future.

Seers

People who claimed special knowledge of the divine or supernatural realms have appeared in many myths, legends, folktales, and religious traditions. Those known as seers could see things hidden from others. They had the ability to predict the future or speak for the gods. Others with similar magical gifts have been called diviners, oracles, prophets, and shamans. They are said to have received special wisdom, power, or understanding from deities or spirits, and they have generally had a significant role in religion.

Seers have used various techniques of divination. In the ancient world, Babylonian*, Egyptian, and Greek seers often relied on the interpretation of dreams to predict the future, believing dreams to be messages or warnings from the gods. Seers and diviners also explained the significance of events thought to be omens. Oracles, such as the famous oracle of Apollo* at Delphi in ancient Greece, were often associated with a particular temple or shrine. They asked questions of the gods on behalf of worshipers or pilgrims and then gave the gods' answers.

Some seers, claiming to be divinely inspired, spoke on a wide range of issues. In the ancient Near East, prophets and diviners frequently became involved in politics. Hebrew prophets such as Samuel, Elijah, and Amos did not merely foretell the future. They also gave their views on religious practices and social conditions that they believed were wrong.

Several seers mentioned in Greek myths were associated with Apollo. Mopsus, a seer who took part in the quest for the Golden Fleece*, was sometimes said to be a son of Apollo. The seer Laocoon was a priest of Apollo until he broke his vow by fathering children. The best-known seer of Greek mythology was Tiresias, who had been blinded by the gods. According to some stories, Zeus* gave him the power of prophecy to make up for his loss of sight.

The Druids, priests of an ancient Celtic* religion, were said to be seers and magicians. Like the prophets of the ancient Near East, they sometimes held political power as advisers to rulers. The Druid Cathbadh, who advised King Conchobhar of Ulster in Ireland, foresaw the destruction of the kingdom. Druidic ceremonies of divination included human and animal sacrifice.

In Norse* mythology, the seer Mimir guarded a sacred spring at a root of the World Tree, Yggdrasill. Odin* gained magical knowledge by drinking from the spring, but he had to pay for it by giving one of his eyes to Mimir. The Norse goddess Freyja was also a seer. She introduced the gods to the type of divination called seid, which involved going into a trance and answering questions about the future.

supernatural related to forces beyond the normal world; magical or miraculous

oracle priest or priestess or other creature through whom a god is believed to speak; also the location (such as a shrine) where such words are spoken

prophet one who claims to have received divine messages or insights

shaman person thought to possess spiritual and healing powers

deity god or goddess

divination act or practice of foretelling the future

omen sign of future events

prophecy foretelling of what is to come; also something that is predicted

ritual ceremony that follows a set pattern

The ceremonies described in Norse myths are similar to some of the rituals performed by traditional Siberian and Native American shamans. Shamans were believed to have the power to communicate with or travel to the spirit world. Generally, they did so for the purpose of healing rather than for predicting the future. Sometimes spirits spoke through shamans. According to the Haida of the Pacific Northwest of North America, the spirit Lagua used a shaman to teach them how to use iron.

* See Names and Places at the end of this volume for further information.

demigod one who is part human and part god

Hindu mythology includes many wise and holy men called seers or sages. They possess great spiritual power as a result of living pure and simple lives. A few seers are considered demigods, born from the thoughts of the god Brahma*. Often, Hindu wise men are the teachers of kings or heroes. Although generally virtuous, some display pride or anger. One myth tells of Visvamitra, a proud seer whose standards were so high and whose demands so great that he destroyed his king.

See also Cassandra; Delphi; Druids; Freyja; LaocoÖn; Mimir; Sages; Tiresias.

prophets (early Christian). While prophecy as a phenomenon is well attested in the early Church (1 Cor. 12–14), the position of the prophets mentioned in the NT is unclear. Sometimes they appear as a distinct order of ministers (1 Cor. 12: 28); other references suggest something less definite (e.g. Acts 11: 27), while women as well as men could prophesy (Acts 21: 9). Several early Christian writers assume the authority of prophets, but prophecy seems to have died out. ‘Prophets’ were prominent in Montanism.

prophets (Old Testament). See PROPHECY.