PROPHECY

PROPHECY. Early modern Europeans inherited from their ancient and medieval forebears a vast and complex range of ideas and practices to which the term "prophecy" was, and still is, loosely applied. While prophecy often denotes simply the prediction of future events, the Greek prophetes referred more broadly to one who delivered divine messages. The Old Testament prophets warned and consoled through visions that encompassed past, present, and future. Christian prophecy had inherent (if often latent) apocalyptic tendencies, which surfaced when perceptions of crisis evoked urgent efforts to glimpse God's universal blueprint. Medieval and early modern prophecy also incorporated various forms of natural divination and the mantic, or prophetic arts. This entry highlights biblical and spiritual strains and the varied functions of prophecy.

Comprising both divine messages and their interpretation, prophecy was both an inspiration and an art. Prophetic forecasts did not need to be fulfilled in order to be regarded as true, nor did the failure of a particular prophecy make it false, for the prophetic spirit, by foreseeing events, also worked to influence and change them. As Jonah told the Ninevites, true repentance could sway God's will and hence turn away disaster (Jonah 3: 7–9). Here the outward failure of a prophetic expectation was proof of its deeper truth. The most significant and influential messages were at least implicitly connected with divine judgment and the "last things"; such associations allowed prophecy to function as both a weapon of dissent and a shield for the powerful throughout the early modern era.

SOURCES OF PROPHETIC AUTHORITY

The issue of prophetic authority was central to the establishment and maintenance of power well into the early modern period. The central fount of authority lay in Scripture, the interpretation of which could be seen as a prophetic act. In the late Middle Ages the main prophetic texts of the Bible became crucial battlegrounds on which established powers, both sacred and secular, were contested and defended. But the same was true of venerable ancient sources such as the sibylline oracles, numerous pseudonymous texts, and legends such as the predictions of Merlin. Nature presented another key source of prophecy. The reading of wonders, both celestial and terrestrial, became a major obsession by the sixteenth century; almost anything unusual could be taken to herald war, rebellion, natural disaster, the death of a great prince, or even the Last Judgment. Attention to wonders overlapped closely the various arts of divination, the most pervasive of which was astrology. Moreover, the spirit could communicate to individuals through direct revelation, angels, dreams, or visions.

PROPHETIC HISTORY

The prophetic understanding of history was manifest in several competing schemes, such as the Augustinian six ages corresponding to the ages of man, and the Four Empires of the Book of Daniel. The triadic "Prophecy of Elias," derived from the Talmud, posited three 2000-year periods before, under, and after the Law. More radical was the Trinitarian vision of Joachim of Fiore (c. 1130–c. 1202), in which the world-historical stages of the Father and Son would be followed by that of the Holy Spirit, a time of spiritual fulfillment before the Judgment. Through at least the seventeenth century, thinkers debated these schemes and their application with great intensity. Not only the outlines but also the details of prophetic world-chronology took on immense importance in efforts to legitimize governments, religious movements, and programs of reform.

REFORMATION PROPHECY

The late fifteenth century saw a surging confluence of older currents, evident for instance in the 1488 Pronosticatio of Johann Lichtenberger, a grab bag of biblical, astrological, Joachimist, and other ideas. Hopes and fears regarding the fate of the church, the empire, or Christendom fed on one another. Governments worked hard to control the spread of popular prophecies, volatile and dangerous as they often were. Nonetheless, growing lay involvement in all realms of culture brought a proliferation of competing claims to prophetic insight.

The religious explosion of the Reformation saw a dramatic escalation in this contest; the evangelical movement itself was interpreted by Martin Luther as a fulfillment of scriptural as well as extrascriptural prophecies. The reformers placed new emphasis on the prophetic dimensions of preaching and faith. At Zurich, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) introduced a form of public biblical teaching, based on learned discussion, known as "the prophecy." But did the Spirit speak only through Scripture? The prophet Joel spoke of a general spiritual outpouring in the last days, and many souls felt the flow of a mystical spiritualism that challenged all limits on prophetic inspiration.

The emergence of confessional orthodoxies was partly a reaction to the threatening anarchy of prophetic voices; confessional identities reflected shared prophetic understandings. Protestants almost universally assumed that the Antichrist had been revealed in the Roman papacy. Among Lutherans, apocalyptic expectancy became virtually a mark of true gospel teaching; Luther himself, who denounced many of his enemies as false prophets, became widely viewed as a "last Elijah." Calvinists, though often dispersed and embattled, took a more confident and aggressive stance, buoyed by a sense of God's plan for the elect. Catholic orders such as the Franciscans found missionary inspiration in powerful traditions such as Joachimism.

Early modern concepts of rulership and nationhood had major prophetic dimensions. Well known is the image of Queen Elizabeth as Deborah, prophetess and savior of her people. Conflicts such as the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War evoked countless prophecies, both political and religious; in fact, the early and mid-seventeenth century appears to mark a peak of stridency in efforts to sanction political goals through Biblical prophecy. Calvinist millenarianism was among the most fertile breeding grounds for a variety of radical political programs.

THE SLOW RETREAT

During this same period, however, a reaction against prophecy set in, moderating this surfeit of the spirit. The slow demise of prophetic history had already begun in the 1560s when Jean Bodin (1530–1596) attacked the traditional scheme of world empires; the dismantling of this framework accelerated in the following century. By 1700 the traditional prophetic worldview was in rapid retreat, at least among intellectuals, along with belief in miracles and most aspects of medieval cosmology. Yet the break between that worldview and a more enlightened outlook was by no means complete. Millenarian hopes, for example, have been convincingly linked to modern conceptions of historical progress as well as to positive attitudes toward the investigation of nature. Similarly, the transition from such prophetic notions as the Quaker "inner light" to the idea of natural reason was subtle, especially in an age when the distinction between nature and spirit was a matter of intense speculation.

While biblical prophecy was broadly attacked and ridiculed in the Enlightenment era, its retreat was both slow and stubborn. Isaac Newton was among the learned figures who worked to pare away the non-biblical accretions to prophecy in order to establish a purer science while preserving true prophecy. Major religious movements of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, including Pietism and Methodism, seethed with prophetic conviction. Eighteenth-century rulers and churchmen still had to reckon with perceptions based on long-standing prophetic traditions. The new age of reason was frequently understood in terms of prophetic fulfillment, even if the framework was often no longer biblical. The French Revolution was accompanied by a groundswell of prophetic interpretation and debate, much of which drew directly on the traditional biblical imagery. Certain prophecies had the potential to be self-fulfilling by creating a shared psychological readiness for the predicted outcomes.

Among European elites, however, spiritual prophecy was increasingly relegated to the subjective sphere, in which its public, political role was radically limited. In the eighteenth century spiritual inspiration was already frequently conceived in terms of artistic and literary genius. As biblical and supernatural imagery lost potency, Europeans encountered a world in which the realms of personal and political experience had lost their common prophetic ground.

See also Apocalypticism ; Astrology ; Leyden, Jan van ; Lutheranism ; Magic ; Miracles ; Reformation, Protestant ; Zwingli, Huldrych .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barnes, Robin Bruce. Prophecy and Gnosis: Apocalypticism in the Wake of the Lutheran Reformation. Stanford, 1988.

Froom, Le Roy Edwin. The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers. 4 vols. Washington, D.C., 1946–1954. An older but still useful survey by a Seventh Day Adventist. Volume two addresses the early modern era.

Lerner, Robert. The Powers of Prophecy: The Cedar of Lebanon Vision from the Mongol Onslaught to the Dawn of the Enlightenment. Berkeley, 1983. Fine survey of a single prophetic tradition.

Niccoli, Ottavia. Prophecy and People in Renaissance Italy. Princeton, 1990.

Petersen, Rodney L. Preaching in the Last Days: The Theme of "Two Witnesses" in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. New York, 1993.

Reeves, Marjorie. The Influence of Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages: A Study in Joachimism. Oxford, 1969.

——. Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future. New York, 1977. Studies aspects of Joachimism in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Schwartz, Hillel. The French Prophets: The History of a Millenarian Group in Eighteenth-Century England. Berkeley, 1980.

Taithe, Bertrand, and Tim Thornton, eds. Prophecy: The Power of Inspired Language in History, 1300–2000. Gloucestershire, U.K., 1997. Includes several helpful articles on the early modern scene.

Wilks, Michael, ed. Prophecy and Eschatology. Oxford, 1994.

Robin B. Barnes

527. Prophecy (See also Omen.)

1. Ancaeus prophecy that he would not live to taste the wine from his vineyards is fulfilled. [Gk. Myth.: Brewer Dictionary, 32]
2. augurs Roman officials who interpreted omens. [Rom. Hist.: Parrinder, 34]
3. Balaam vaticinally speaks with Jehovah’s voice. [O.T.: Numbers 23:8–10; 24:18–24]
4. banshee Irish spirit who foretells death. [Irish Folklore: Briggs, 14–16]
5. Belshazzar’s Feast disembodied hand foretells Belshazzar’s death. [O.T.: Daniel 5]
6. Brave New World picture of world’s condition 600 years from now. [Br. Lit.: Brave New World ]
7. Calamity Jane (Martha Jane Canary or Martha Burke, 1852–1903) mannish prophetess of doom. [Am. Hist.: Flexner, 71]
8. Calchas declares that Iphigenia must be sacrificed to appease Artemis and ensure the Greeks’ safe passage to Troy. [Gk. Myth.: Hamilton, 261]
9. Calpurnia sees bloody statue of Julius in dream. [Br. Lit.: Julius Caesar ]
10. Carmen the cards repeatedly spell her death. [Fr. Opera: Bizet, Carmen, Westerman, 189–190]
11. Cassandra always accurate but fated to be disbelieved, predicts doom of Troy to brother, Hector. [Br. Lit.: Troilus and Cressida ; Gk. Myth.: Parrinder, 57]
12. Cumaean sibyl to discover future, leads Aeneas to Hades. [Gk. Lit.: Aeneid ]
13. Delphi ancient oracular center near Mt. Parnassus. [Gk. Myth.: Parrinder, 74; Jobes, 428]
14. Dodona oldest oracle of Zeus in Greece. [Gk. Myth.: Kravitz, 83]
15. Ezekiel priest and prophet to the Jews during Babylonian captivity. [O.T.: Ezekiel]
16. Golden Cockerel its crowing predicts either peace or disaster. [Russ. Opera: Rimsky-Korsakov, Coq d’Or, Westerman, 392]
17. Guardian Black Dog sinister omen of death. [Br. Folklore: Briggs, 207–208]
18. haruspices ancient Etruscan seers who divined the future from the entrails of animals. [Rom. Hist.: EB, IV: 933]
19. Huldah tells of impending disaster for the idolatrous. [O.T.: II Kings 22:14–19]
20. I Ching a book of divination and speculations. [Chinese Lit.: I Ching ]
21. Isaiah foretells fall of Jerusalem; prophet of doom. [O.T.: Isaiah]
22. Jeremiah the Lord’s herald. [O.T.: Jeremiah]
23. John the Baptist foretells the coming of Jesus. [N.T.: Luke 3:16]
24. Joseph predicted famine from Pharaoh’s dreams. [O.T.: Genesis 41:25–36]
25. Mopsus seer who interpreted the words of the Argo’s talking prow. [Gk. Myth.: Benét, 684]
26. Muhammad (570–632) the prophet of Islam. [Islam. Hist.: NCE, 1854]
27. Nostradamus (1503–1566) startlingly accurate French astrologer and physician. [Fr. Hist.: NCE, 1969]
28. pythoness priestess of Apollo, the Delphic Oracle, endowed with prophetic powers. [Gk. Hist.: Collier’s, VII, 682]
29. Rocking-Horse Winner, The a small boy predicts winners in horse races through the medium of a demonic rocking horse. [Br. Lit.: D. H. Lawrence The Rocking-Horse Winner in Benét, 866]
30. Sibyllae women endowed with prophetic powers who interceded with gods for men. [Gk. Myth.: Zimmerman, 239]
31. Sibylline Books nine tomes foretelling Rome’s future. [Rom. Leg.: Brewer Dictionary ]
32. Smith, Joseph Mormon prophet; professed visions of new faith. [Am. Hist.: Jameson, 467]
33. Smith, Valentine Michael messianic Martian shows earthlings the way. [Am. Lit.: Stranger in a Strange Land ]
34. sortes (Homericae, Virgilianae, Biblicae ) fortune-telling by taking random passages from a book (as Iliad, Aeneid, or the Bible). [Eur. Culture: Collier’s, VII, 683]
35. Sosostris, Madame “the wisest woman in Europe,” cleverly interprets the Tarot cards. [Br. Poetry: T. S. Eliot “The Waste Land”]
36. Tarot cards used to tell fortunes. [Magic: Brewer Dictionary, 1063]
37. Tiresias blind and greatest of all mythological prophets. [Gk. Myth.: Zimmerman, 255; Gk. Lit.: Antigone; Odyssey; Oedipus Tyrannus ]
38. Ulrica foretells Gustavus’ murder by his friend Anckarstrom. [Ital. Opera: Verdi, Masked Ball, Westerman, 313–315]
39. voice … crying in the wilderness John the Baptist, in reference to his prophecy of the coming of Christ. [N.T.: Matthew 3:3]
40. Weird Sisters three witches who set Macbeth agog with prophecies of kingship. [Br. Lit.: Macbeth ]

Prosperity (See SUCCESS .)

prophecies were, during the medieval and early modern periods, a source of interest and concern throughout the political and social hierarchies. They could involve exact predictions, but were also frequently ambiguous statements, often taking the form of an ‘ancient’ piece of verse or quasi-proverbial wisdom, usually attributed to a past person, either real or mythical (prophecies attributed to Merlin surfaced regularly). The genre was wide ranging, and acquired added credibility from its association with biblical prophecy. Prophecies were numerous, and (like proverbs) could be reworded or reinterpreted to suit changing circumstances or local conditions.

Prophecies assumed a serious political dimension under the Tudors, when they were frequently interpreted by central government as bearing on political or dynastic changes. Henry VIII, Mary Tudor, and Elizabeth I all included prophecies as a species of seditious words in their treason legislation, while the closing months of Edward VI's reign saw intense anxiety over prophecies as the regime crumbled.

The political instability of the 1640s and 1650s gave new life to political prophecies, but, as with so many aspects of the ‘magical’ world, interest in prophecies among the educated had dwindled by 1700, although prophecy still retained its hold among the less educated.

J. A. Sharpe

prophecies, oral or written texts foretelling future events, were a prominent part of popular culture in many early modern societies, giving apparent shape and purpose to human events and in some cases, like millenarianism, lending the credibility of supernatural authority to fantasies of radical social change. A papal nuncio in 1640 noted the tendency of the Irish to trust in political prophecies, and their continued power was evident in the career of Baldearg O'Donnell. Prior to the insurrection of 1798 prophecies of a coming cataclysm, attributed in one case to St Colum Cille and in the other to the 13th‐century Scottish poet Thomas the Rhymer and the 17th‐century Covenanter Alexander Peden, circulated among both Catholics and Presbyterians, with the encouragement of the United Irishmen. The most influential political prophecies in 19th‐century Ireland were those extracted from Pastorini's General History. However texts attributed to St Colum Cille were reported as in circulation among Ribbonmen in the 1820s, and continued to be printed up to at least 1866, when they were denounced in a pamphlet by R. R. Madden.

prophet Individual who is thought to be a divinely inspired messenger from a god, or is believed to possess the power to foretell future events. The classic examples of prophets were the holy men and seers who preached by the authority of Yahweh to the Jews of the Old Testament kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Part of the Old Testament consists of books devoted to their preachings and predictions. The term ‘prophet’ also applied to Abraham, Moses, and Samuel. John the Baptist fulfilled the role of a New Testament prophet, predicting the coming of the Messiah. In ancient Greece and Rome, divinely inspired prophetesses made oracular pronouncements to those who consulted them. Among Muslims, Muhammad is held to be a prophet, the last of a long line of God's messengers, who included Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ. In both Buddhist and Hindu literature predictions occur, and many prophetic reformers appear in Hinduism.

prophecy action or function of a prophet, utterance of a prophet, prediction of events. XIII. — OF. profecie (mod. prophétie) — Late L. prophētīa — Gr. prophētíā, f. prophḗtēs prophet; see -CY.
So prophesy speak as a prophet. XIV. — OF. prophecier, f. prophecie. prophet inspired revealer of God's will XII; one who predicts XIII. — (O)F. prophète — L. prophēta, -tēs — Gr. prōphḗtēs interpreter, spokesman, esp. of the will of a deity, as in LXX and N.T., f. PRO-2 + -phētēs speaker, f. phé-, phánai speak. prophetess (-ESS1) XIII. — OF. prophetesse — late L. prophētissa. prophetic XVI, prophetical XV. — F. or late L.

proph·e·sy / ˈpräfəˌsī/ • v. (-sies, -sied) [tr.] say that (a specified thing) will happen in the future: Jacques was prophesying a bumper harvest | the papers prophesied that he would resign after the weekend. ∎  [intr.] speak or write by divine inspiration; act as a prophet: when a man prophesies, it is because the Spirit of the Lord comes upon him. DERIVATIVES: proph·e·si·er / -ˌsīər/ n.

proph·e·cy / ˈpräfəsē/ • n. (pl. -cies) a prediction: a bleak prophecy of war and ruin. ∎  the faculty, function, or practice of prophesying: the gift of prophecy.

prophecy •Chrissie, Cissy, kissy, missy, prissy, sissy •dixie, pixie, tricksy, Trixie •chintzy, De Quincey, wincey •efficiency, proficiency, sufficiency •Gypsy, tipsy •ditzy, glitzy, itsy-bitsy, Mitzi, ritzy, Uffizi •Eurydice •odyssey, theodicy •sub judice • prophecy • anglice •chaplaincy • policy • baronetcy •governessy • Pharisee • actressy •clerisy, heresy •secrecy • statice • captaincy •courtesy •dicey, icy, pricey, spicy, vice •stridency • sightsee •bossy, Flossie, flossy, glossy, mossy, posse •boxy, doxy, epoxy, foxy, moxie, poxy, proxy •bonxie •poncey, sonsy •dropsy, popsy •biopsy • heterodoxy • orthodoxy •autopsy

prophesy •Masai • narcissi • prophesy • nisi •colossi • flocci • bonsai • loci • fuci •thyrsi

prophet •adit •bandit, pandit •accredit, credit, edit, subedit •Chindit • conduit •audit, plaudit •pundit • refit • misfit • benefit •profit, prophet, soffit •forfeit • outfit • Tophet • photofit •buffet, tuffet •comfit • counterfeit • surfeit • agate •margate, target •frigate • Tlingit • hogget •drugget, nugget •Brigitte • gadget • eejit •Bridget, digit, fidget, midget, widget •budget •Blackett, bracket, jacket, packet, placket, racket •blanket • gasket • bedjacket •straitjacket • lifejacket • leatherjacket •downmarket, market, upmarket •basket, casket •breadbasket • Euromarket •Newmarket • hypermarket •Becket, Beckett •cricket, midwicket, picket, picquet, piquet, pricket, snicket, thicket, ticket, wicket •trinket •biscuit, brisket, frisket •identikit •brocket, crocket, Crockett, docket, locket, pocket, rocket, socket, sprocket •airpocket • pickpocket • skyrocket •toolkit •bucket, Nantucket, tucket •Blunkett, junket •musket • rust bucket •circuit, short-circuit